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0020 7403 (73) 90068 4
0020 7403 (73) 90068 4
0020 7403 (73) 90068 4
P r i n t e d in G r e a t B r i t a i n
I N F L U E N C E OF THE PLASTIC P R O P E R T I E S OF A
MATERIAL ON THE FORMING LIMIT DIAGRAM
FOR SHEET METAL IN TENSION
(Received 21 M a r c h 1973)
NOTATION
a strain ratio e~/61 outside the region of the groove
b, c coefficients of planar ani~otropy depending on r 1 and rs, according to definition [19]
el, e~ lengths of the major and minor axis of the ellipse or the sides of the rectangle, for
a n elliptic and rectangular punch, respectively
f coefficient of homogeneity of sheet metal
m exponent of strain-rate sensitivity
n exponent of strain hardening
r 1, r 2 coefficients of anisotropy as determined from uniaxial tension tests in directions
1 a n d 2, respectively
r0, rgo coefficients of anisotropy as determined from uniaxial tension tests parallel and
normal to the direction of rolling, respectively
to initial thickness of sheet metal
t thickness of sheet metal
w width of a test piece subject to uniaxial tension
6 + initial strain of the material
8 representative strain
61 strain in the plane of the sheet, normal to the groove
82 strain in the plane of the sheet, parallel to the groove
8a strain normal to the surface of the sheet
60 strain in rolling direction
690 strain normal to the direction of rolling
6at fracture strain [this being a material property, it is assumed that ea~> 0, there-
fore 6al = In (to/tr) ]
(6~)o fracture strain for fracture parallel to the direction of rolling
(6~,)oo fracture strain for fracture normal to the direction of rolling
(ef)o strain in the rolling direction at the fracture
(61)oo strain in the transverse direction at the fracture
789
790 ZDZIS]SAW M A R C I N I A K , KAZIMIERZ KUCZYNSKI and TADEUSZ POKORA
INTRODUCTION
THIS IS a d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e t h e o r y of t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a groove, which a p p e a r s
before f r a c t u r e in sheet m e t a l s u b j e c t to tension. This t h e o r y was s u b m i t t e d
in refs. (1-3), a n d is b a s e d on t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f initial n o n - h o m o g e n e i t y of t h e
m a t e r i a l . I t enables us t o d e t e r m i n e t h e limit s t r a i n o f sheet m e t a l s u b j e c t to
b i a x i a l tension, d e p e n d i n g o n c e r t a i n p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e m a t e r i a l . These p r o p e r t i e s
were considered in refs. (1-3) a n d are: initial n o n - h o m o g e n e i t y o f t h e m a t e r i a l ,
s t r a i n h a r d e n i n g , n o r m a l a n i s o t r o p y a n d f r a c t u r e strain. I n t h e p r e s e n t paper,
also a d d i t i o n a l l y considered are t h e s t r a i n - r a t e sensitivity, p l a n e a n i s o t r o p y
a n d t h e difference in t h e values o f t h e f r a c t u r e strain, d e p e n d i n g o n t h e
direction of t h e f r a c t u r e w i t h reference to t h a t of rolling. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e
influence o f t h e a b o v e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e m a t e r i a l on t h e limit s t r a i n c u r v e is
a n a l y s e d o v e r t h e entire r a n g e o f biaxial tension.
T h e o r e t i c a l curves o f limit s t r a i n will be c o m p a r e d below w i t h e x p e r i m e n t a l
results for t h e biaxial tension of sheet m e t a l u n d e r conditions which eliminate
t h e influence o f friction a n d ensure u n i f o r m s t r a i n d i s t r i b u t i o n o v e r t h e entire
surface o f t h e t e s t piece, e x c e p t in places o f s t r a i n concentration. T h e
discrepancies b e t w e e n e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d t h e o r e t i c a l limit s t r a i n curves are also
a n a l y s e d below.
I N F L U E N C E OF T H E S T R A I N - R A T E S E N S I T I V I T Y OF
M A T E R I A L , A N D OF T H E F R A C T U R E S T R A I N , ON T H E
F O R M OF T H E L I M I T C U R V E
An additional factor influencing the process of local stability loss is the sensitivity of
the material to the strain rate. This influence was analysed in ref. (4) in two particular
cases: the case of plane strain and that of balanced biaxial tension. To analyse the
influence of this property of the material on the forming limit curve, we shall consider a
more general case, in which the ratio of principal strains e~/el at a point outside the
region of the groove is constant and equal to any value a = 6~/el satisfying the condition
0~a~<l.
For simplicity, let us assume for the time being that the material is isotropic and its
plastic properties are described by the following relations:
(a) The yield condition for plane stress is, 0"a = 0, so that
0"~ = 0"21-- 0"1 05 ~- 0"~. (1)
(b) The law of plastic flow is
de1 dez des de
2°"1 -- 0"~ 20"2 -- 0"1 -- 0"1 -- 0"2 20"~ (2)
The forming limit diagram for sheet metal in tension 791
where de is the increment of representative strain
de = 4(}) 4(de~+ de**+ de3*). (3)
(c) The constitutive equation is
a , = k(e" + e)" ~'~. (4)
Let us assume a n orthogonal set of co-ordinates x, y, see Fig. 1, the directions of whose
axes coincide with those of the principal strains and stresses 1 and 2, respectively. Let
us assume also that the sheet metal is not perfectly homogeneous, b u t its initial thickness
fO "/t" t A A_
%..
J
a¢
u.
! X
y a2A B
O"1
4- ~___.
9
FIG. 1.
to a n d the constant k in equation (4) vary. The values of to and k are assumed to be
functions of the co-ordinate x, i.e. to(x ) a n d k(x), a n d to be independent of the co-ordinate
y. The product t o k will, therefore, also be a function of the co-orclinate x. Let us denote
b y the index B t h a t section normal to the x-axis in which the product to(x ) k(x) reaches its
m i n i m u m value t0s ks, and b y the index ,4, the section in which the local strain has a
value equal to the mean value of the limit strain outside the region of the groove. I n
what follows all the values concerning section A will be written without the index A,
that is, the symbol to~ will be replaced by to a n d / % b y k.
The ratio of the values of the product t o k at points B and A is
t0s k8
to k = ]' (5)
and will be termed the coefficient of homogeneity of the material.
Let us analyse the process of the plastic strain of a rectangular strip along the x-axis,
acted on b y tensile stresses al and a2. As a result of the initial non-homogeneity, neither
the strain distribution nor the strain-rate distribution along the x-axis is homogeneous.
I f the representative strain in section A is e, the strain in the direction of thickness, i.e.
the thickness strain, is es and the strain rate is ~; then, at the same instant of time they
assume in section B, the corresponding values es, ess and ~s. We have e s > e and ~s>~.
The thickness of the sheet is, therefore,
t = t0exp(eS), at p o i n t A }
ts = t0s exp (e38), at point B, (6)
and the yield stress is
a~, = k(e" + e)'* ~"*, at point A ]
and (7)
a~,s = k s ( # + es)" ~'$, at point B. J
792 ZDZ~SLAWMARCINIAK, KAZIMIERZ KUCZYI~SKI and TADEUSZ POKORA
t ~ , ~,,, = t,
al a+2
a--~ = 4(3) 4(1 +a+a2)" (10)
de2 = a de 1
or
des = 4(3)
2 ~/(1 + aa+ a ~ ) de" (12)
and t (17)
=
e3s J0 ( ,~/L \des/ j + D des,
where
A = 4(3)
2 '
3a ~
B=
4(l+a+a~) '
C = 4(3) 1-Fa (18)
2 ~/(1+ a + a ~ ) '
and
D = 4(3) a
4 4(1 -t-a+aZ)"
On eliminating e3s, the set of equations (17) reduces to a single integro-difforential
equation involving e and e~ only. A numerical solution of this equation, b y means of a
computer a n d making use of the R u n g e - K u t t a method, enables us to determine the
function e/e.. I t describes the process of formation of a groove on the surfaco of tho sheet
metal, the properties of which axe described b y the constants m, n, e' and f and the
m a n n e r of loading determines the strain ratio e~/ex = a.
Fig. 2 represents a n u m b e r of curves which have been computed for various values of
the exponent m representing the strain-rate sensitivity of the material. From this graph,
it follows that with increasing values of the exponent m, the process of local strain con-
centration becomes slower in the weakest section B. This effect is observed even for very
small values of the exponent m, e.g. ra = 0.0120. With higher values of the exponent m
(e.g. m = 0"3), the process of local stability loss is so slow that a very large limit strain
is possible, which is observed in reality for superplastic materials.
For strain-rate-insensitive materials, therefore, if the exponent m in equation (4) is
zero, the stress concentration process is ended at point B, see Fig. 2, beyond which region
A is no longer strained, so that de/des = 0. The ordinate of point B m a y be considered to
represent the limit strain e*, with reference to the local stability loss.
F r o m the analysis of equation (17) and the curves represented in Fig. 2, it follows
immediately that for strain-rate-sensitive materials described b y equation (4), these
curves increase continually. I t follows that de/des is greater t h a n zero for a n y value of
es. As a result, the notion of limit strain, defined as the ordinate of the point at which
de~des = 0, loses its meaning.
Under such conditions, it is necessary to introduce a new definition of the limit strain
6*. There are two possible ways.
(1) To assume that the limit strain e~' is represented by the ordinate of point F, see
Fig. 3, corresponding to the fracture of the sheet metal in the weakest section B (when
68 = E~), o r
(2) To assume that the limit strain corresponds to point G, at which the difference in
thickness between sections A and B reaches a certain limit value which is determined b y
the strain difference, e s s - c a = Aes, see Fig. 3.
794 ZDZISLAWMARCINIAK, KAZIMIERZ KUCZYI~SKI a n d TADEUSZ I~OKORA
2.00 I I I I I i ',
1 75--
0
1"50
~ I "25
05C
rr 0-25
FzG. 2. T h e influence o f s t r a i n - r a t e s e n s i t i v i t y ( e x p o n e n t m) o n t h e
p r o c e s s o f f o r m a t i o n o f t h e groove, n = 0.22; e" = 0.01; r = 1.0;
F = 0.98 a n d a = 1.0.
(~3f
Ob
-I-
"0
0
._c
O3
L
~y
S~rain in the groove, c38
FIG. 3.
3'0
I I I I I ~//
~U- 2'5
?
>=,~~u- 2"0
v
4- 1"5
c I'O
~
0"5
.c_I 4c-
4-
i 2.5 [ /
I I I
~i~"20
o S -
=- I'~ ,.5-
-g
.E
~ C
"~ "~ 0.5
4- 4--
:3
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Limit strain parallel to the groove,_~_
Limit strain in plane strain (~z/~l=O) C~(o}
B = ( b c - 1) a ~
bib+ 2 a + ~ 2 ) '
J(~_~_~) l+a (20)
C = ~f(b+ 2a + ca s)
and
b-1 Ir bc-1
D = -.....-~-/II[c(b + 2a + ca2)J1 a.
The principal directions 1 and 2 considered in the present analysis are related to the
direction of the groove which is, in agreement with the assumption, normal to the
direction 1.
To take into account the differences in the plastic properties of the sheet metal in the
direction parallel and normal to t h a t of rolling, we must consider two eases of position
of the fracture.
(I) When the fracture preceded b y the formation of a groove is parallel to the direction
of rolling, we have r~ = rgo and r~ = r0.
(II) W h e n the fracture is normal to the direction of rolling, we have rl = r0 and
r 2 ~ ~'9o"
Each of these cases corresponds to different values of the coefficients b and c a n d there-
fore also of the coefficients A, B, C and D, which are obtained according to relations (20).
A numerical solution of the set of equations (17) in these two cases enables us to determine
two branches of the forming limit curve corresponding to the two possible positions of
fracture with reference to the direction of rolling as represented in Fig. 6. The limit
strains used in t h a t figure are t a k e n with reference to the local stability loss. By contrast
with the case of a n isotropic material, the two branches of the limit curve obtained are
not symmetric about the straight line eg0 = e0 b u t intersect at a point M lying outside
the bisecting line 0 N . At the point M, the direction of fracture is turned through 90 °.
N
0.5 I [
%0 0 . 4 -
~ 0"2
.[,
4-
O'l
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
I n order to verify e x p e r i m e n t a l l y t h e t h e o r y j u s t presented, sheet m e t a l s of three
kinds, 1 m m thick, were tested. A n n e a l e d steel a n d a l u m l n i u m a n d copper of m o d e r a t e
hardness were selected for tests. T a b l e 1 shows t h e characteristics of these materials.
I t contains n u m e r i c a l values of those features of t h e m a t e r i a l which are necessary for t h e
theoretical d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e two branches of t h e c u r v e of limit strain discussed above.
T h e values of n, m, e', r0 a n d rs0 h a v e been d e t e r m i n e d f r o m u n i a x i a l tension tests. The
values of (831)0 a n d (e~)90 were found on t h e basis of t h e results of tests to be discussed
later.
Copper of
moderate
Steel hardness Aluminium
/,
, /
\\',~
\ \ \ \ ~
/
I
I
I
\ \\'4
\
\
' i
v,>~
b o t t o m of t h e a u x i l i a r y s t a m p i n g m o v e s a w a y s f r o m t h e axis is higher t h a n t h e v e l o c i t y
of t h e p o i n t of t h e pressing tested. The friction forces occurring a t t h e r o u n d e d edge
b e t w e e n t h e two sheets act in a direction which is opposite to t h a t of t h e friction forces
b e t w e e n t h e a u x i l i a r y pressing a n d t h e r o u n d e d edge of t h e punch. Thus, t h e friction
forces b e t w e e n t h e two sheets facilitate t h e stretching of t h e b o t t o m of t h e s t a m p i n g
t e s t e d (Fig. 7). I t follows t h a t d u r i n g t h e s t a m p i n g process high friction resistance b e t w e e n
t h e t w o sheets is of a d v a n t a g e , b u t care should be t a k e n t h a t t h e friction forces b e t w e e n
t h e a u x i l i a r y s t a m p i n g a n d t h e p u n c h are as small as possible. T h e k i n d of material, t h e
thickness a n d t h e d i a m e t e r of t h e hole in t h e a u x i l i a r y disk can always be selected to
produce a fracture of t h e b o t t o m of t h e s t a m p i n g tested. T h e m e t h o d for b a l a n c e d
biaxial s t r e t c h i n g of sheet m e t a l just described has been successfttUy applied for lead b y
t h e a u t h o r s in, a m o n g s t o t h e r works, those described in ref. (2). The applicability r a n g e of
t h e m e t h o d has n o w been widened, because it can also be used in t h e case of 0 < a ~< 1.
I n order to a p p l y a load p r o d u c i n g a state a p p r o a c h i n g a plane s t a t e of strain (a ~ 0),
a r e c t a n g u l a r p u n c h of a side ratio el/e ~ = 4.6 was used. F o r i n t e r m e d i a t e loads, b e t w e e n
t h e plane state of strain a n d t h a t of balanced biaxial tension, t w o punches w i t h fiat
b o t t o m a n d elliptical cross-sections were used, the ratio of t h e axes being el/e ~ = 1.7 a n d
1.35. The dimensions of t h e cross-sections of the punches were so selected t h a t t h e areas
of t h e plane parts of t h e test pieces were equal to t h e corresponding areas of t h e t e s t piece
f o r m e d b y a cylindrical p u n c h 75 n u n dia. Such a selection of t h e dimensions of t h e
punches ensured for all t h e tests an equal p r o b a b i l i t y of occurrence of definite non-
homogeneities in t h e sheet metal.
The blanks for a u x i l i a r y s t a m p i n g s h a d holes of t h e s a m e shape as t h e stamp. T h e
dimensions of t h e holes were established e x p e r i m e n t a l l y .
F o r s t a m p i n g w i t h t h e r e c t a n g u l a r punch, r e c t a n g u l a r blanks of sheet m e t a l
102 x 216 r a m were prepared. F o r t h e r e m a i n i n g biaxial tension tests, blanks o f 155 m m
dia. were used. The surfaces of all t h e test pieces were covered b y m e a n s of a photo-
graphic m e t h o d b y a 2-5 x 2.5 m m ~ m e s h w o r k e x t e n d i n g o v e r t h e central oblong region
of t h e t e s t piece, which constituted, after t h e s t a m p i n g process, t h e b o t t o m of t h e stamping.
P h o t o g r a p h s of broken test pieces of all t h e t y p e s are shown in Fig. 8.
800 ZDZISLAW MARCINIAK, KAZIMIERZ KUCZY~SKI a n d TADEUSZ POKORA
TO d e t e r m i n e t h e l i m i t s t r a i n s in t h e case of a g r o o v e p a r a l l e l a n d n o r m a l to t h e
d i r e c t i o n of rolling, t w o sets of t e s t pieces were p r e p a r e d . T h e r e c t a n g u l a r b l a n k s differed
a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s b y t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e edges w i t h r e f e r e n c e to t h e d i r e c t i o n of rolling.
T h e d i s k s for s t a m p i n g w i t h elliptic p u n c h e s were m a d e for d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n s of t h e
o b l o n g r e g i o n c o v e r e d b y t h e m e s h w o r k , t h e m a j o r axis of t h i s r e g i o n b e i n g p a r a l l e l or
n o r m a l t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of rolling. F o r t e s t s of b a l a n c e d b i a x i a l t e n s i o n , a single set of
discs was sufficient, b e c a u s e in a g r e e m e n t w i t h ref. 9 t h e f r a c t u r e of s h e e t m e t a l w i t h
m a r k e d p l a n e a n i s o t r o p y occurs in s u c h a t e s t i n t h e d i r e c t i o n i n w h i c h t h e coefficient of
a n i s o t r o p y h a s a s m a l l e r value. I n t h e l a t t e r case, t h e lines of t h e m e s h w o r k were also
p a r a l l e l a n d n o r m a l t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of roiling.
All t h e b i a x i a l t e n s i o n t e s t s w e r e c a r r i e d o u t u s i n g a tensile t e s t i n g m a c h i n e . T h e
p u n c h m o v e d a t a r a t e of 0.012 m / r a i n , w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o a m e a n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s t r a i n
r a t e s o m e w h a t b e l o w 10 -~ p e r sec. I n t h e course of t h e s t a m p i n g process, t h e surface of
t h e t e s t piece w a s c h e c k e d . A f t e r f r a c t u r e , t h e m a c h i n e w a s i m m e d i a t e l y s t o p p e d . T w e n t y
successful t e s t s were c a r r i e d o u t for e a c h elliptic or r e c t a n g u l a r s t a m p , 10 t e s t s for a
f r a c t u r e p a r a l l e l t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of rolling a n d 10 for a f r a c t u r e n o r m a l t o t h a t direction.
T e n s t a m p i n g s were m a d e w i t h e a c h c y l i n d r i c a l s t a m p .
T h e v a l u e s of t h e l i m i t s t r a i n e~ (parallel) a n d e*0 ( n o r m a l t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of rolling)
were d e t e r m i n e d for e a c h t e s t piece. E a c h of t h e s e v a l u e s w a s f o u n d as a m e a n of t h e
s t r a i n s for four t o e i g h t m e s h e s e v e n l y s p a c e d o v e r t h e p l a n e b o t t o m o f t h e s t a m p i n g .
A f t e r d e f o r m a t i o n of a t e s t piece, m e a s u r e m e n t s were t a k e n b y m e a n s of a microscope
f r o m m e s h e s sufficiently r e m o t e f r o m t h e f r a c t u r e a n d d i s t i n c t grooves. T h e v a l u e of t h e
f r a c t u r e s t r a i n , ca1 = In (to/t1), was d e t e r m i n e d for e a c h t e s t piece s u b j e c t t o b i a x i a l t e n s i o n .
T o f a c i l i t a t e m e a s u r e m e n t of t h i c k n e s s tI, pieces o f s h e e t m e t a l a d j a c e n t t o t h e f r a c t u r e
were c u t out, t h e places selected for t h i s b e i n g t h o s e a t w h i c h r u p t u r e o c c u r r e d first.
T h e s e pieces c a n b e seen o n t h e p h o t o g r a p h s of s o m e t e s t pieces s h o w n in Fig. 8. T h e
m e a s u r e m e n t s of t h e t h i c k n e s s a t t h e r u p t u r e were c a r r i e d o u t b y m e a n s of a t o o l m a k e r ' s
microscope. T h e v a l u e of t1 was d e t e r m i n e d as a m e a n o f t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s a t five p o i n t s
of t h e f r a c t u r e .
T h e f r a c t u r e s t r a i n ear w a s d e t e r m i n e d a d d i t i o n a l l y for n a r r o w a n d wide t e s t pieces
s u b j e c t t o u n i a x i a l t e n s i o n . T h e w i d t h - t o - t h i c k n e s s r a t i o w a s w i t o -- 3 for n a r r o w a n d
w i t o --- 30 for wide t e s t pieces. I n b o t h cases, t h e t e s t pieces were c u t o u t p a r a l l e l a n d
n o r m a l t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of rolling. T w o p a r a l l e l lines were r u l e d o n t h e surface of wide
t e s t pieces o n b o t h sides o f t h e axis, 3 m m a p a r t . T h e t o t a l n u m b e r of t e s t pieces b r o k e n
w a s 20; 10 w i t h p a r a l l e l a n d 10 w i t h n o r m a l a x e s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of roiling.
T h e t h i c k n e s s tt a t t h e f r a c t u r e w a s m e a s u r e d , a n d t h e v a l u e o f ~ar was c o m p u t e d for e a c h
t e s t piece. T h e s t r a i n (el)0 or (el)00 i n t h e t r a n s v e r s e d i r e c t i o n w a s also d e t e r m i n e d o n t h e
b a s i s of m e a s u r e m e n t of t h e w i d t h o f t h e t e s t piece before d e f o r m a t i o n a t t h i s f r a c t u r e .
F o r t h i s p u r p o s e , a n a l o g o u s m e a s u r e m e n t s of t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e lines p a r a l l e l t o
t h e axis o f t h e t e s t piece were c a r r i e d o u t for wide t e s t pieces.
T h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d g r a p h i c a l l y in Figs. 9-11 b y p o i n t s i n a p l a n e
s y s t e m of t h r e e a x e s o f c o - o r d i n a t e s ~90, ca, ~0, a t angles of 120 °. F o r r u p t u r e i n t h e
d i r e c t i o n o f rolling, t h e s e p o i n t s were d e t e r m i n e d as follows.
(a) F o r t e s t pieces s u b j e c t t o u n i a x i a l t e n s i o n , t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l v a l u e s of t h e s t r a i n s
(ca1)0 a n d (el)0 were m e a s u r e d a l o n g t h e a x e s ea a n d ~0, a n d f r o m t h e p o i n t s t h u s o b t a i n e d
n o r m a l s t o t h e s e a x e s were d r a w n . T h e p o i n t of i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e n o r m a l s d e t e r m i n e s all
the principal strains at the fracture.
(b) F o r t e s t pieces s u b j e c t t o b i a x i a l t e n s i o n , a n a l o g o u s n o r m a l s were d r a w n b y
m e a s u r i n g t h e v a l u e of (ear)0 a l o n g t h e ea axis a n d t h e v a l u e o f t h e l i m i t s t r a i n ~* d e t e r -
m i n e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y for t h e t e s t piece c o n s i d e r e d a l o n g t h e e0 axis.
T h e a s s u m p t i o n of e q u a l f r a c t u r e s t r a i n a n d l i m i t s t r a i n in t h e d i r e c t i o n of f r a c t u r e
(~I)0 = ~0* is i n a g r e e m e n t w i t h r e l a t i o n (11).
F o r f r a c t u r e n o r m a l t o t h e d i r e c t i o n o f rolling, t h e a b o v e p o i n t s were d e t e r m i n e d i n
a n a n a l o g o u s m a n n e r m a k i n g use of t h e v a l u e s of t h e s t r a i n s (ca1)00, (et)oo a n d eg*0.
Figs. 9-11 s h o w also b o t h b r a n c h e s of f o r m i n g l i m i t curves. O n e of t h e m c o r r e s p o n d s
t o p a r a l l e l f r a c t u r e , t h e o t h e r t o f r a c t u r e n o r m a l t o t h e d i r e c t i o n o f roiling. T h e y were
d r a w n b y c o n n e c t i n g p o i n t s o b t a i n e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y for all t h e k i n d s of t e s t pieces. T h e
OOt~ "tl'J
•qso,~ uo!suo~ i~!x~!q oq:~ aoj sooo!d ~soq 30 q d ~ a ~ o ~ o q d V "8 ' ~ I A
The forming limit diagram for sheet metal in tension 801
Specimens:
0 • Circular I
A • Elliptical ~,1.35l
/ o .,,,oc,o~,o,.~...
~I
"~ - ^~v-Froctunl stm in
0 Wide ~ = 30 I Unioxiol
V • Narrow-~= • 3 j tension
A
V Specimens:
°~
~,~#~'tum in - - ~
~t~nsvenle . ~
[ u v
°.:: ":} w
~
=
Uen~:~°nl
~ xv
No. n
~
I i ~ . u-- t I I I I I,,11 I l I I I _
-0"4-0"3-0"2 -0,I ~ ' ~ 0"I O,l'O'l 0"4 0"8 0"6 a.7,..,a,i 0,9 l,O I-I l.l 1,3 1,4
Specimens :
0 • Circular I
.[ ~ • Elliptical--~ez=l'351
~'~ e | Biaxial
~_.~"~.... El • Elliptical -~=17 ~ tension
\?,
o lUre
I I I I I I [ ~ I [ [ I I _-
"0~0 ~ ~v~D ~ 0'"50 2 o.Te
5 pea 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2. 5 3<)0 3.2e 3.Bo 3 ~ 4,00
" ~~' / ~e~'~~ / / e Natura! strain in transverse direction
o.so i I I i I I I I I /
/
0 - 4 5 -- / --
0"40 -- ~..~I / _
o.3o~-~" / ,o~" ~/ \ -
"- I ~ ~7--~Theore'Hca I ~ \
IAr-/ /
o'251--~ / ,w\\ \; _-
c 0"20
-~ •
0 - 1 5 -- / ,~/e • Circular _ - -
'7 el
/ / I eRectongulor
e--~-ez~=4.6
o o..- / /..,k. s,eo,
/ I I I i( -]" I I I I I
o 0.05 o.to oq5 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50
Limit strain in transverse direction, e~o
0,55
I I I I I i I J ]
0'50
045
0'40
0"55
,I-
o
03( - I I :
"0
0"2!
o
e- 0"2C
e-
0.1~ - - / / /~ • Circular
0-,0 / / ~ " Ellipticai~Jez'l'55"
E
.J
/ //'7 i • ~,,,~,,ca, ~.,.,
/ I I I'*~**P I I I I .,
o (~o~ o-lo o.1~ 0.20 0.25 0.~0 0.35 0.40 045 0~0
L i m i t s t r a i n in t r a n s v e r s e direction, ( 9*0
FIG. 13. Forming limit curve for copper.
0"45 1- - J ~ t n I i i EA,,/
%*
o.oV/
0.351"-
._o ~ , ,- c/__~./
s_ 0,20
._=
Specimens:
".~ 0.15 •Clrcular
• • • & E l l i p t i c a l - - ~ =I,351
°°: • ..°,o~.~'.m
l 1
:e iAluminium I i
0.05 o.lo 0 . 1 5 0~0 0.25 o-~o 0.~5 0.4o o48
Limit e t r a i n in t r a n s v e r s e direction, e~o
CONCLUSIONS
(1) The strain-rate sensitivity of the material essentially increases the v a l u e
of the limit strain, even for v e r y low vMues of the exponent m, a n d influences
the shape of the forming limit curve.
(2) The form of the curve of limit strains m a y v a r y within v e r y wide
limits, a n d is a function of the vMues of t h e material constants m, n, f a n d es/.
Depending on the properties of the materiM, this curve m a y fall or rise at the
passage from plane strain to balanced biaxial tension.
(3) As a result of planar anisotropy, a n d the difference between the values
of the fracture strain in the direction of rolling a n d normal to it, the curve of
limit strains for real sheet metM is composed of two branches, a~ymmetric
about the ~* -- ~* line, and intersecting at a point M, where the direction of
the fracture is r o t a t e d t h r o u g h 90 ° . For complete representation of the ability
of sheet metal to be deformed pla~ticMly, it is, therefore, necessary to draw
b o t h branches of the strain curve in the co-ordinates e0*,~90,* which represent
the strain in the direction of rolling a n d normal to it, respectively.
(4) I f the real properties of the material axe considered, above all, its strain-
rate sensitivity m, plane anisotropy r 0 a n d rg0 a n d fracture strain es/, the
theoretical curves of limit strains for steel a n d copper approach t h e experi-
m e n t a l ones. F o r Muminium, the difference of form is v e r y large.
(5) Confrontation of the curves of limit strain obtained theoretically a n d
experimentally shows a certain regularity. F o r balanced biaxiM tension, the
real limit strain is always below its theoretical value. I t is supposed t h a t one
of the causes of this discrepancy is the assumption of isotropie strain hardening,
i.e. the rejection of the generMized Bauschinger effect. This effect occurs in the
case of balanced biaxial tension as a result of variations of the stress ratio in
the groove and results in the limit strain being lower t h a n t h a t following from
the assumption of isotropic strain hardening.
REFERENCES
I. Z. M.a~CXNIAK, Archiwum Mechaniki Stosowanej 4, 17 (1965).
2. Z. M ~ c ~ I ~ : and K. K v c z ~ s ~ , Int. J. mech. Sci. 9, 609 (1967).
3. Z. M~cIN~ax, La MetaUurgia 8, 701 (1968).
4. Z. MARcI~x, Rozprawy In~ynicrskie 1, 18 (1970).
5. M. J. PAINTERand R. I ~ c E , Seventh Congress of JDDRG, Amsterdam (1972).
6. R. HIT.T., The Mathematical Theory of Plasticity, Oxford University Press, London (1950).
7. M. I. YOUSIT, J. L. D~r~CANand W. JOHNSON, Int. J. mech. Sci. 12, 959 (1969).
8. R. YE~rER, W. JOHNSONand M. C. DE l~AT,n~ja~., Int. J. mech. Se/. 18, 299 (1971).
9. K. KUCZYI~SKI,Reports Ann. Meeting of the Committee for Meta~rgy, Polish Academy
of Sciences (1971).