Ques 1 b.

What are the applications of Oil circuit breaker and explain it working with help of
its diagram.

Solution. Oil circuit breakers are high-voltage electrical devices that are used to interrupt the flow of
electrical current in the event of a fault or overload in an electrical circuit. They are commonly used
in power distribution systems, especially in areas where high voltage levels are required.

The main applications of oil circuit breakers include:

Power generation and transmission: Oil circuit breakers are used to protect large power transformers
and other high voltage equipment in power generation and transmission systems.

Industrial applications: They are used to protect electrical equipment and machinery in industries
that require high voltage levels.

Railway electrification: Oil circuit breakers are used in railway electrification systems to protect the
overhead lines and other equipment from overloading and short circuits.

Marine applications: They are used in marine electrical systems to protect the equipment from
damage caused by overloading or short circuits.

Working of Oil Circuit Breaker:

The oil circuit breaker consists of a tank filled with oil that acts as an insulating and cooling medium.
The tank contains fixed and moving contacts, and an arc chute. The fixed contacts are connected to
the incoming and outgoing electrical circuits, while the moving contacts are connected to the
operating mechanism. The arc chute is designed to extinguish the arc that is generated when the
contacts are opened.

When the circuit breaker is closed, the fixed and moving contacts are in contact with each other,
allowing the electrical current to flow through the circuit. When a fault or overload occurs in the
circuit, the operating mechanism is triggered, and the moving contacts start to move away from the
fixed contacts.

As the contacts start to move away, an arc is generated between them, which ionizes the oil in the
tank. The ionized oil conducts the current and creates a path for the arc to travel through the arc
chute. The arc chute is designed to cool and deionize the arc, extinguishing it within a few
milliseconds.

Once the arc is extinguished, the circuit is broken, and the electrical current is interrupted. The oil
circuit breaker can be reset manually or automatically, depending on the design of the circuit
breaker.

Here is a diagram of an oil circuit breaker:

Ques 2b Develop mathematical expression of jacobian matrix for load flow analysis using newton
raphson method.

Sol. The Jacobian matrix is a key component in the Newton-Raphson method for load flow analysis.
The Jacobian matrix relates the partial derivatives of the system equations to the unknown variables,
allowing the Newton-Raphson method to solve the system of nonlinear equations iteratively.

Let's assume we have n buses in the power system, and each bus has the following unknown
variables: voltage magnitude (|V|) and voltage angle (θ). Then the total number of unknown
variables in the system is 2n.

The power flow equations for each bus can be expressed as follows:

P_i = ∑_(j=1)^n |V_i| |V_j| (G_ij cos(θ_i - θ_j) + B_ij sin(θ_i - θ_j))

Q_i = ∑_(j=1)^n |V_i| |V_j| (G_ij sin(θ_i - θ_j) - B_ij cos(θ_i - θ_j))

where P_i and Q_i are the real and reactive power injections at bus i, |V_i| and θ_i are the voltage
magnitude and angle at bus i, G_ij and B_ij are the conductance and susceptance of the transmission
line connecting buses i and j.

To derive the Jacobian matrix, we need to take the partial derivatives of the power flow equations
with respect to the unknown variables. The resulting Jacobian matrix is an (2n x 2n) matrix, where
the (i,j)th element of the Jacobian matrix is given by:
J_(i,j) = ∂f_i/∂x_j

where f_i is the ith power flow equation and x_j is the jth unknown variable.

The Jacobian matrix is typically partitioned into four sub-matrices:

J = [H N; M L]

where H is the (n x n) matrix of partial derivatives of the active power injections with respect to
voltage angles, N is the (n x n) matrix of partial derivatives of the active power injections with respect
to voltage magnitudes, M is the (n x n) matrix of partial derivatives of the reactive power injections
with respect to voltage angles, and L is the (n x n) matrix of partial derivatives of the reactive power
injections with respect to voltage magnitudes.

The elements of the sub-matrices are given by:

H_(i,j) = ∂P_i/∂θ_j

N_(i,j) = ∂P_i/∂|V_j|

M_(i,j) = ∂Q_i/∂θ_j

L_(i,j) = ∂Q_i/∂|V_j|

The elements of the Jacobian matrix can be calculated using numerical differentiation or by using the
chain rule of differentiation.

Once the Jacobian matrix is calculated, the Newton-Raphson method iteratively solves the system of
nonlinear equations by updating the values of the unknown variables based on the Newton-Raphson
equation:

Δx = -J^(-1)F(x)

where Δx is the vector of updates to the unknown variables, J^(-1) is the inverse of the Jacobian
matrix, and F(x) is the vector of power flow mismatches between the calculated and specified power
flow values. The Newton-Raphson method continues to iterate until the power flow mismatches are
below a specified tolerance level.

Que 6a. Explain the difference between electromechanical and differential relays.

Sol . Electromechanical relays and differential relays are two types of protective relays
that are commonly used in power system protection.

Electromechanical relays (EMRs) are traditional relays that use mechanical components to detect
faults and initiate protective actions. EMRs typically use a combination of mechanical and electrical
elements to measure current and voltage in the power system and to activate protective devices
such as circuit breakers. EMRs are characterized by their mechanical nature, which makes them less
reliable and less sensitive to small changes in system conditions than more modern relay
technologies.

Differential relays, on the other hand, are electronic relays that use digital signal processing
techniques to detect faults and initiate protective actions. Differential relays are designed to detect
the difference in current flow between two parts of the power system, typically between the input
and output of a transformer or between two parallel lines. If the differential current exceeds a preset
threshold, the differential relay will activate protective devices to isolate the fault and prevent
damage to the system. Differential relays are characterized by their high sensitivity and fast response
time, which makes them ideal for protecting critical equipment such as generators, transformers, and
high-voltage transmission lines.

The key difference between electromechanical and differential relays is their operating principle.
EMRs rely on mechanical elements to detect faults, while differential relays rely on electronic signal
processing to detect faults. This fundamental difference in operating principle results in several key
differences in the characteristics and performance of these two types of relays. Some of the main
differences between EMRs and differential relays are:

Reliability: Differential relays are generally more reliable than EMRs, as they have no moving parts
that can wear out or malfunction over time.

Sensitivity: Differential relays are more sensitive than EMRs, as they can detect small changes in
current flow that may be missed by an EMR.

Response time: Differential relays have a faster response time than EMRs, as they can detect and
respond to faults in a matter of milliseconds.

Cost: Differential relays are typically more expensive than EMRs, as they require more sophisticated
electronic components and signal processing algorithms.

Overall, while both electromechanical and differential relays are used for power system protection,
differential relays are generally preferred for critical equipment and high-voltage transmission lines
due to their high sensitivity and fast response time, while electromechanical relays are more
commonly used for less critical equipment and lower voltage applications where cost and reliability
are the primary considerations.

Ques 6b . What are advantages and disadvantages of SF6.

Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) is a widely used gas in power systems due to its excellent insulation
properties and arc quenching capabilities. However, it also has some disadvantages. Here are some
of the advantages and disadvantages of using SF6 in power systems:

Advantages:

1. High dielectric strength: SF6 gas has high dielectric strength, which means it
can withstand high voltage without breaking down.
2. Excellent arc quenching properties: When an electrical arc occurs, SF6 gas is
able to quickly extinguish it, preventing damage to the equipment and
minimizing the risk of fire.
3. Non-toxic and non-flammable: SF6 gas is non-toxic and non-flammable,
making it safe for humans and the environment.
4. Low maintenance: SF6 gas is stable and does not decompose over time, which
means it requires very little maintenance.
Disadvantages:

1. Global warming potential: SF6 gas has a very high global warming potential
(GWP), which means it contributes significantly to climate change when
released into the atmosphere.
2. Expensive: SF6 gas is more expensive than other types of insulating gases,
which can increase the cost of power systems.
3. Difficult to handle: SF6 gas is heavier than air and can displace oxygen, which
can be dangerous in enclosed spaces. It also requires special equipment and
procedures for handling and disposal.
4. Limited availability: SF6 gas is a finite resource, and there are concerns about
its long-term availability and sustainability.

Overall, while SF6 gas has some advantages for use in power systems, its high GWP
and other disadvantages have led to efforts to find alternative insulating gases that
are more environmentally friendly and sustainable.

Ques 3 . Three identical resistors are star connected and rated 2500 volts,
500 kVAkVA as a three phase unit. The resistors are connected to the
low-tension side of a Δ/�Δ/Y transformer. The voltage at the resistor load
are

∣���∣=2000 volts, ∣���∣=2800 volts ∣Vab∣=2000 volts, ∣Vbc∣=2800 volts

and ∣�c�∣=2500∣Vca∣=2500 volts. Select base as 2500 volts

500kVA500kVA, find the line voltages and currents in per unit on the
delta side of the transformer. Assume that the neutral of the load is not
connected to the neutral of the transformer secondary.

Sol . Three identical resistors are star connected and rated 2500 volts, 500 kVA as a three phase
unit. The resistors are connected to the low-tension side of a Δ/Y transformer. The voltage at the
resistor load are | Vab | = 2000 volts, | Vbc | = 2800 volts and | Vca | = 2500 volts. Select base as
2500 v | Holooly.com

Ques 4 a . A generator having solidly grounded neutral and rated 50-MVA, 30kV has positive,
negative and zero-sequence reactances of 25, 15 and 5 percent, respectively. What reactance must
be placed in the generator neutral to limit the fault current for a bolted line-to-ground fault to that
for a bolted three phase fault
QUES 5B . A 25 MVA, 13.2 kV alternator with solidly grounded neutral has a subtransient reactance
of 0.25 p.u. respectively. A single line to ground fault occurs at the terminal of an unloaded
alternator; determine and line to line voltages. Neglect resistance

Ans https://exedustack.nl/the-pilot-shortage-may-be-easing-slightly-but-aviation-now-needs-
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