Nama : 

Moch. Wildan Khoerul Rasyid

Nim   : 1225030121
Kelas : 2C

Chapter 6.1
The chapter discusses the similarities and differences between vowels and consonants
in terms of phonemic contrast, free variation, phonetic similarity, and neutralization. It
emphasizes that the same principles apply to both vowels and consonants, but the
physical description of vowel sounds requires different parameters than those used for
consonants. The chapter explains that the six articulatory parameters introduced in
Chapter 3, which allowed for the unambiguous description of consonants, are less
helpful in distinguishing between vowels. Overall, the chapter sets the stage for a
more detailed discussion of vowel phoneme systems in later chapters. Vowels and
consonants are both speech sounds and are necessary for language, but they require
different descriptive parameters for classification. Vowels are produced on a
pulmonic egressive airstream with central airflow and are all continuants. Unlike
consonants, there is no contrast between central and lateral vowels. Vowels have a
limited range of options for place of articulation, which makes it difficult to
ascertain the tongue's position. An adequate vowel classification requires new features
and descriptive parameters that are better designed to capture the ways in which
vowels vary. Similarly, plants and animals are both living things, but they require
different distinguishing features for classification. At a lower classificatory level, the
divergence of the two categories must be recognized by using different distinguishing
features.
 
Chapter 6.2
In order to classify vowels, we don't need to indicate the airstream mechanism, as it is
always pulmonic egressive and vowels are generally voiced and oral. The three
parameters that need to be considered are height, frontness, and rounding, which are
modifications of the place or manner of articulation continua for consonants.
Additionally, vowels can be long or short and monophthongs or diphthongs. Examples
will be given from Standard Southern British English and General American, which
are varieties of English without strong regional markings and commonly heard in
broadcasting. Other accents will be introduced in later chapters.
 
Chapter 6.2.1
Front vowels are produced with the front of the tongue raised towards the hard palate,
without obstructing airflow. They are different from palatal vowels, even though they
are sometimes described as such. Front vowels cover a larger area than palatal vowels
and contrast with central and back vowels, rather than other consonantal places of
articulation such as labial or velar.
 
Chapter 6.2.2
The high–low dimension High vowels have the tongue raised most towards the roof of
the mouth; if the raising was significantly greater, then friction would be produced,
making a fricative consonant, not a vowel.
 
Chapter 6.2.3
Where the high back vowel  in goose is rounded, while the high front vowel in fleece
is unrounded. The roundedness of vowels can be important for distinguishing between
sounds in different languages. For example, in French, the vowel [y] in "tu" is a high
front rounded vowel, which distinguishes it from the unrounded high front vowel [i] in
"ti". In English, roundedness is not used to distinguish between different vowels, but it
can be used to add emphasis or convey emotion in speech, as in the exaggerated
rounding of the lips in the word "oooooh".
 
Chapter 6.2.4
The vowel in fleece is long, while the vowel in kit is short; the vowel in goose is long,
while the vowel in foot is short. So we can refine our descriptions of these vowels as
follows: the vowel in fleece is a long, high, front, unrounded vowel; the vowel in
goose is a long, high, back, rounded vowel; the vowel in kit is a short, high, front,
unrounded vowel; and the vowel in foot is a short, high, back, rounded vowel. Vowel
length is an important phonemic feature in English, and it can distinguish words from
one another.

Chapter 6.2.5
The chapter discusses the difference between monophthongs, which have consistent
vowel quality throughout their production, and diphthongs, which change in quality
during production and are typically longer in duration. English has three falling
diphthongs, where the first element is longer and more prominent than the second.
 
Chapter 6.3
The previous section outlined a set of labels to describe vowels based on their
articulation, including frontness, height, rounding, and length. However, these labels
may not be sufficient to capture the subtle differences in vowel quality between
languages or accents. Additionally, unlike consonants, the specific articulatory
strategies used to produce a vowel are not as important as the resulting auditory
impression. This is because the auditory impression of a vowel is based on the overall
shape of the vocal tract, rather than specific articulators. The author suggests that an
acoustic approach to vowel classification may be a better alternative to an articulatory
approach. However, for comparative purposes, a relative approach is needed that
allows vowel qualities to be expressed in terms of their relative position in a diagram.
The Vowel Quadrilateral is a commonly used diagram for this purpose, which
represents the idealized vowel space between palatal and velar regions. The left and
right edges of the chart correspond to front and back vowels, respectively, and the
chart is divided into six sectors for plotting high, high-mid, low-mid, and low vowels,
as well as front, central, and back vowels. Since information on rounding cannot be
read directly from the vowel quadrilateral, IPA symbols are used to indicate rounded
or unrounded vowels. Diphthongs, which are trajectories of articulation starting at one
point and moving to another, are not well suited to description in terms of the labels
introduced for vowels. Using the vowel quadrilateral, diphthongs can be plotted to
show the changes in pronunciation involved in the production of a diphthong using
arrows. This notation clarifies how a particular diphthong is composed, what its
starting and stopping points are, and reminds us that a symbolic representation like
[ɔ] is actually shorthand for a gradual articulatory and auditory movement. The use of
Cardinal Vowels provides a fixed reference point for the description of vowel
qualities, which can be particularly helpful when describing non-native accents or
languages. The primary cardinals are eight idealised vowels that are organised around
the edges of the vowel quadrilateral, with Cardinal 1 being a very extreme form of
[i ] in fleece, and Cardinal 5 being a low, back vowel similar to [ɑ ] in palm. Cardinals
2 and 7 are similar to the monophthongal pronunciations of a Scottish English speaker
in words like day and go. The steps between Cardinals 1–4 and 5–8 should be
articulatorily and acoustically equidistant, with lip rounding increasing from Cardinals
6, through 7, to 8. By using these fixed reference points, phoneticians can more
accurately and consistently describe vowel qualities, particularly in cross-linguistic or
cross-accentual contexts. Exactly. The Cardinal Vowels provide a universal reference
point for phoneticians to describe and compare vowels across different languages and
accents. By using a fixed set of reference points, phoneticians can ensure that their
descriptions are consistent and accurate, regardless of their familiarity with the
language or accent being described. Learning the Cardinal Vowels can be a valuable
tool for anyone interested in the study of phonetics and phonology, as they provide a
foundation for understanding the articulatory and acoustic properties of vowels.

Exercise
1.(a) put,hook,grew,hoe,hold
   (b) see,seat,met,tap,tape
   (c) see,seat,list,through
   (d) about,luck,purse,father, (second syllable)
2.(a) they are allmid vowels
   (b) they are all high front vowels
   ( c ) they are all diphtongs
   (d) they are long,high vowels
3.The diagrams here will follow the pattern of (6.15). For / aI/, / au/, the arrow will
start at low central, and move up to either high front, or high back. For / eI/, /ou/, the
end points are the same, but the start points are high -mid front and high-mid back
respectively. Centring diphthongs will all end at schwa.

4.
•Father : long low back unrounded;shortmid central unrounded.
•Leaving : long high front unrounded;shorthigh front unrounded
•Bear  : centering diphthong;firs element is short high front                      
unrounded,second is short mid central unrounded.Speakers of rhotic varities will have
a long high front unrounded monophtong(plus [r]).
•Thoroughly : short low mid central unrounded;short mid central unrounded;shorthigh
front unrounded
•Fast : long low back unrounded;fornorthern speakers;front rather than back
•Baste : diphthong;with first element high-mid front unrounded,and second element
high front unrounded monophtong.
•Lookalike : short high back rounded;shortmid central unrounded;diphthong;with first
element central unrounded,and second element high front unrounded.
•Sausage : short – low mid back rounded;short mid central unrounded
•Ooze : long high back rounded.