Diana O.
Magadia momentum stored in a rotating mass that is dynamically
BSME II- GN
Chapter 3
POWER TRANSMISSION EQUIPT., PRIME MOVERS,
MACHINES AND MACHINE PARTS
SECTION 1.0 SCOPE
For users and designers of power transmission equipment,
prime movers, machines, and machine parts, this chapter
discusses measures for safe machine design, guarding, and
similar considerations. It comprises regulations for safe usage,
design, and guarding of danger zones, except for those
located inside the operating points of machinery used in
different sectors. In Chapter 4, factors for machine guarding
and safety measures at the site of operation are discussed.
The provisions of this chapter are not to be construed as a
replacement for those found in other chapters of this Code.
SCOPE 2.0 DEFINITIONS
• Accidental Contact- shall refer to unintentional physical
contact that might occur because of slipping, falling,
sliding, tripping, or any other unplanned action or
movement between personnel or other materials and
power transmission equipment, prime movers, machines,
or machine-parts.
• Belt Shifter- a machine that mechanically shifts the
position of belts on step-cone pulleys, from tight to lose
pulleys, or vice versa.
• Danger Zone- a region surrounding the points of the
transmission, the primary mover, and the operation.
system, when individuals or resources other than those
the equipment may come into contact with during
operation or be captured by, between, or between
moving and/or stationary machine elements. This
includes the places where supplies or materials are fed
into the machine, processed, and/or released.
• Electric Motor-typically a prime mover that converts
magnetic energy from electric currents in motion into
mechanical energy, typically in the form of shaft or
rational energy.
• Enclosed, Enclosure -a technique for protecting moving
parts that prevents physical contact from occurring
between bodily parts. This does not exclude the use of
doors or parts that are hinged, sliding, or otherwise
detachable to allow for inspection or lubrication.
• Flywheel- a large wheel that helps maintain consistent
motion of machinery by preventing unexpected
variations in speed. A mechanical energy storage system
that engages clutches, cams, gears, or some other
intermittent arrangement to engage resisting loads
against the momentum of the wheel to release
balanced.
• Guarded- in accordance with these provisions, shielded,
fenced, enclosed, or otherwise protected using
appropriate enclosures, covers, casing troughs, "Un
guards, shield guards, standard railings, or by using
isolation or remoteness of location, where permitted by
these provisions, to reduce or eliminate the possibility of
accidental contact.
• Guarded by Location-that the moving elements are
sufficiently shielded from inadvertent touch or harmful
approach by people to the object due to their distance
from the floor, platform, walkway, or other working level.
• Internal Combustion Engine- - a kind of prime mover
that uses the mechanical energy generated by expanding
combustion gases. Depending on the fuel used (such as
gasoline, diesel, propane, etc.), internal combustion
engines can be categorized.
• Machine-the driving unit, appliance, or piece of
machinery as opposed to the prime mover, transmission
equipment, or driving unit. The machine must have both
stationary and mobile components that are specific to
the process or kind of operation it is meant to carry out.
• Machine Parts-unless they are a component of the point
of operation, the term "moving parts" as used in this
code refers to all moving parts of the machine.
• Nip-Point Belt and Pulley Guard- a piece of equipment
that houses the pulley and has slots with rounded or
rolling edges through which the belt travels.
• Pneumatic Motor- a type of prime mover utilizing the
potential energy.
• Point of Operation- the machine's component which
carries out a task on the supplies or goods and/or the
place where cattle or materials are fed to the apparatus.
There could be more than one machine. place of
business.
• Power Transmission Equipment- all mechanical ,means
of transmitting power from a prime mover to a machine.
• Prime Mover- an electric motor or engine air, electricity,
liquid or gaseous fuel, steam, moving liquids or other
sources of energy whose primary duty is to operate,
whether directly or indirectly, additional
mechanical devices.
• Process Machine- a device that is both developed and
run for a particular function and includes tools for
machines and processing units that receive routine
attention.
• Tail Rod -The piston rod's extension that passes through
a stuffing box in an engine's external head cylinder, a
pump cylinder, or a compressor cylinder.
• Transmission Machinery-shall mean a sealed set of
machine components that mechanical Prime mover or
energy source energy is transfer, relay, conversion,
regulation, and control and transmitted to a different
machine system or appliance.
• Turbine- a primary mover that uses both stationary and
movable blades or vanes to control and harness the
energy of moving fluids and transform it into mechanical
energy. Among the operating fluids or mediums with
flow energy are: expanding steam
for gas turbines, expanding combustion gases, flowing
water (as it descends from a higher elevation to a lower
elevation), and steam turbines.
SCOPE 3.0 GUARDS
3.1 General Requirements
a) Type of Guarding Required. When guards are
necessary, they must be of proper design, made of
the materials listed in Table 3.1, sufficiently rigid,
and fastened in place. They must also shield, fence,
rail, enclose, guard, or otherwise protect the
employee from coming into contact accidentally
with the dangerous moving parts of prime movers,
power transmission equipment, machines, and
machine parts.
b) Guards may be provided with hinges or removable
mechanisms whenever it may be
necessary to change belts, make
adjustments or apply lubrication to the
guarded parts.
3.2 Specific Requirements
• Disk guards Must consist of sheet metal disk or
equivalent materia. lSmooth surface and free from
projection
• Shield guard. Must consist of rigid frame filled or
sheathed with wire mesh, expanded-, perforated-,
or solid-sheeting material.
• Wire mesh or expanded metal may be fastened to a
frame of metal construction or equivalent strength.
Area exceeding 0.55 m² must be reinforced.
• Trough or "U" guards. Must be constructed of
specified material. Edges must be smooth and
reinforced if required.
• Enclosure guard. Must be constructed of specified
material. Must completely guard power
transmission equipment or moving parts to prevent
physical contact.
• Railing guards and toe boards. Must comply with
the provisions of Section 2.3.7
Section 3.4: Opening for Lubrication.
- Openings with hinged or sliding covers must be
provided. Lubricating devices must be at least 300
mm from dangerous moving parts, unless guarded
and piped outside the guard. Machines in
inaccessible locations must have extension lubricant
fittings or other accessible methods.
Section 3.5: Guarding of Flywheels
a. Prime Mover Flywheels: guard exposed parts 2
100 mm or less above working level
b. Flywheels within 300 mm of floor or in a pit
require standard railing guard and toe board.
c. Removable guards or momentary
openings for starting, with slot opening for jackbar
allowed.
d. Jackbars must have hand stop to prevent
worker's hand from being pinched.
e. Machine Flywheels: spokes or projections 2
100 mm or less above floor or working level
must be guarded.
Section 3.6: Flywheel Ball Governors
- Fly Bail Governors located 2 135 mm or less above
floor or working level with hazardous parts or
recesses must be guarded.
Section 3.7: Conveyors
a. Screw conveyors 2 100 mm or less above
floor must be covered, but those 600 mm or less
from top to floor level can have railing guards or
covers
b. Belt conveyor pulleys must be fully guarded
to prevent access to nip point.
c. Portable inclined conveyors must have guard
power transmission equipment.
d. Crossovers over exposed conveyors require
catwalks or bridges with standard railings and
safe access.
e. Conveyors over areas occupied by
employees must be guarded to prevent material
from falling.
f. Troughs or other means must be provided
under return strands of chain conveyors to support
broken chain.
Section 3.8: Process Machine Power Control
 a. Process machines with individual prime movers
must have emergency stopping device
b. Machines without individual drives must
have stopping device that can be actuated from
operator's position
c. Machines attended by multiple employees
must have machine power control for each
employee
d. Machine power controls must be
maintained and designed to prevent accidental
operation
Section 3.9: Machine Power Control.
- Machines must have means for emergency power
disconnection.
Section 3.10: Revolving and Reciprocating Parts.
- Hazardous parts not guarded by machine frame or
location must be guarded. Keys, set screws, etc. on
unguarded parts must be removed, made flush, or
guarded.
Section 3.11: Collars and Couplings.
- Cylindrical collars and couplings required; no
projecting screws or bolts.
Section 3.12: Clutches and Cut-Off Couplings –
- Devices with projecting parts located 2,100 mm or
less above floor must be guarded.
Section 3.13: Guarding of Belt and Pulley Drives.
- Different requirements for guarding depending on
type of belt and pulley drive.
Section 3.14: Counter-Balanced Belt Tensioner.
Tensioner and parts must be substantial; area beneath
tensioner must be guarded if belt breaks.
Section 3.15: Belt-Type Variable Speed Drive s
- Drives located 2,100 mm or less from floor must
have all moving parts guarded.
Section 3.16: Gears and Sprockets.
- All gears and sprockets must be adequately guarded.
Section 3.17: Friction Drives.
- Drives located 2,100 mm or less from floor must be
guarded.
Section 3.18: Chains and Chain Drives.
- Chains and chain drives located 2,100 mm or less
from floor must be guarded.
Section 3.19: Protection for Workmen Passing Under
Chain Drives.
- Trough or other means required to support weight
of broken chain if workmen pass underneath.
Section 3.20: Manually Operated Power Disconnecting
Devices. Devices must remain in neutral position until
intentionally actuated.
Section 3.21: Machine Guarding Other Than Point-of-
Operation. Moving machine parts (other than at point-
of-operation) must be guarded to prevent injury.
SECTION 4.0 PRINCIPLE OF SAFE MACHINE DESIGN:
Section 4.:1
- Dangerous moving parts should be enclosed.
Section 4.2:
- Parts subject to wear, adjustment, and hand
lubrication should be conveniently accessible.
Section 4.3:
- Lubrication should wherever possible be automatic
and continuous when the machine is in operation.
Section 4.4:
- Hazards due to driving mechanism may be
minimized.
Section 4.5:
- Sharp lighting, contrasts between light and shadow
and glare in the vicinity of the point of operation
should be avoided.
Section 4.6:
- Materials should be mechanically conveyed to, and
products from machines wherever possible.
Section 4.7:
- Provision should be made for automatically
conveying dusts and gases away from a machine.
Section 4.8:
- Noise should be eliminated or reduced to no more
than the maximum allowable according to the table
of threshold limit values for noise exposure.
Section 4.9:
- Vibration should be eliminated or reduced to the
maximum permissible extent.

Section 4.10:
- Machine motions tiring to the eyes should be
avoided.

Secrion 4.11:
- Exterior shapes or any part of the machines that
require frequent contacting or handling should be so
designed as to facilitate convenience in handling.

Section 4.12:
- Weight of parts to be handled should be kept within
the limits at convenience and safety.

Section 4.13:
- Throughout the design of the machine and its parts,
consideration should be given to convenience in
attaching accessories.

Section 4.14:
- Consideration in design should be given to the
external shape of the machine so that danger of
accident from tripping, falling, and collision will be
minimized.
Section 5.2 V-Belts and Sheaves
Section 4.15:
- Liberal factors of safety should be used in a. V-Belt Drives. Types of V-belts and their uses
determining the strength of parts.
b. Standard Multiple V-Belt. Designated sizes
Section 4.16: and dimensions. Pitch lengths and tolerances
- Wherever manufacturing circumstances permit,
point-of-operation guards should be installed by the c. Measuring a Multiple V-Belt. Fixture and process
builder of the machines. to measure pitch length.Tolerances for measuring
sheaves
Section 4.17:
- Consideration should be given to the safe location or d. Belt Length and Center Distance. Formula
isolation of machines that cannot be made safe for relation between center distance and belt
otherwise. pitch length

Section 3.5 V-Belt Drives

SECTION 5.0 POWER TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
d. Installations and Take-up Allowance.
Section 5.1 Shafting Allowance for moving centers together. Table
a. Torsional Strength of Shafting. Formulas to
determine torque, minimum shaft diameter, and 3.5.4 shows minus and plus values for center
power. Allowable stresses for different types of distance adjustment
shafts

b. Polar Moments of Inertia and Section Moduli.
Polar moment of inertia and polar section modulus
for circular sections. Polar section modulus for other
cross-sections
e. Selection of Multiple V-Belts. Charts on Figure
3.5.1 for selecting appropriate V-belt.
Selection procedure: obtain equivalent design
horsepower, enter chart, and determine
appropriate belt size

f. Power Rating for Multiple V-Belts. Formulas

and table of constants to determine horsepower
rating of a single V-belt. Total transmitted power
through multiple V-belts should not exceed sum
of individual rated capacities

g. Arc of Contact. Importance of arc of contact
in computing power rating of V-belt
h. Speed of Operation Efficiency of V-belts at
speeds of about 23 meters per second. Sheave
should be balanced for speeds of 25 meters per
second or more. Belt manufacturer should be
consulted for speed design and materials.
Section 5.3 Transmission Roller Chain
a. Standard Roller Chain Nomenclature, Dimensions
and Loads.
Chain Pitch: Distance between centers of
adjacent joint members
Tolerance for Chain Length: New chains allowed
an over-length of 0.99 per meter, but not under-length
Measuring Load: Load under which a chain should
be measured for length
Minimum Ultimate Tensile Strength: Strength
in pounds of Standard Series chain
b. Standard Roller Chain Numbers. Right-hand figure in
chain number: 0 for usual proportions, 1 for lightweight,
5 for rollerless bushing. Numbers to the left of right-hand
figure denote number of 1/8 inch in the pitch. Letter H
following chain number denotes heavy series.
Hyphenated number suffixed to chain number denotes
number of strands.
1. Heavy Series. Made in 4-inch and larger pitches.
Thicker link plates than regular standard.
Accepts higher tensile or jerk loads at low speeds.
Rollers, bushing diameters, pin diameters, and
widths are the same as standard series
2. Light-Weight Machinery Chain. Designated
as No. 41. ½ inch pitch; 4 inch wide;
0.306-inch diameter rollers; 0.141-inch pin
diameter. Minimum ultimate tensile strength is
1,500 pounds
3. Multiple-Strand Chain. An assembly of two
or more single-strand chains placed side by side
with pins to maintain alignment. Can run at a
higher speed than required single-strand chain
of a higher pitch
c. Types of Sprockets
- Type A: plain plate sprocket
- Type B: single-hubbed sprocket
- Type C: double-hubbed sprocket
- Type D: detachable hub arrangement
- Shear pin and slip clutch-type sprockets also used
d. Selection of Chain and Sprockets. Smallest applicable
pitch of roller chain is desirable for quiet operation and
high speed. Horsepower capacity varies with chain pitch.
Short pitch with high working load can often be obtained
by the use of multiple-strand chain. Small sprocket
selected must be large enough to accommodate the
shaft. Table 3.5.10 gives maximum bore and hub
diameters for sprockets with up to 25 teeth. Number of
teeth in largest sprocket determined by desired ratio of
shaft speed. Satisfactory operation can be obtained with
minor change in speed of one or both shafts
e. Center Distance Between Sprockets. Should be 1.5
times larger sprocket diameter, not less than 30 times
pitch, not more than 50 times pitch. Long center
distances result in catenary tension in the chain. Chain
should extend around at least 120 degrees of the pinion
circumference. A fairly long chain is recommended in
preference to the shortest one allowed by the sprocket
diameters. Center distance should be adjustable to take
care of slack due to elongation from wear. Too much sag
or an excessive distance between the sprockets may
cause the chain to whip up and down
f. Center Distance for a Given Length. Use idler
sprockets for taking up slack on non-adjustable sprockets.
Sprocket will wear excessively if the number of teeth is
too small and the speed too high. Total length of a block
chain may be expressed in multiples of the pitch. Length
of roller chain should be in multiples of twice the pitch
g. Horsepower Ratings for Roller Chain Drives. Chain
drives should be protected against dirt and moisture and
the oil supply kept free from contamination. A good
grade of non-detergent petroleum-base oil is
recommended. Recommended lubricant viscosities. Data
for each size of chain are divided into four zones
- Type I manual lubrication
- Type II drip lubrication
- Type III bath or disc lubrication
- Type IV oil stream lubrication
Chapter 11
PIPING
SECTION 1.0 SCOPE
This chapter provides general and specific requirements not
only for plant or building piping but also for general piping
installations. It includes Power Piping System Design and pipe
color coding for safety and proper fluid identification in the
system.
SECTION 2.0 DEFINITIONS
• Pipe and Tube – the fundamental difference
between pipe and tube is the dimensional standard
to which each is manufactured. A pipe is a tube with
a round cross section conforming to the
international requirements for nominal pipe size as
tabulated in the table for pipe schedules. A tube is a
hollow product of round or any other cross section
having a continuous periphery. Round tube size
maybe specified with respect to any two, but not all
three of the following: outside diameter or bell at
one end into which the plain or spigot and of
another piece is inserted when laying. The joint is
then made tight by cement, oakum, lead, or rubber
caulked into the bell around the spigot.
• Black Pipe – steel pipe that has not been galvanized.
• Bell and Spigot Joint – the most commonly used
joint in cast-iron pipe. Each piece is made with an
enlarged diameter or bell at one end, into which the
plain or spigot end of another piece is inserted when
laying. The joint is then made tight by cement,
oakum, lead, or rubber caulked into the bell around
the spigot.
• Bull Head Tee – A tee the branch of which is larger
than the run.
• Butt Weld Joint – A welded pipe joint made with the
ends of the two pipes butting each other, the weld
being around the periphery.
• Carbon Steel Pipe – Steel pipe which owes these
properties chiefly on the carbon which it contains.
• Check Valve – A valve designed to allow a fluid to
pass through in one direction only. A common type
has a plate so suspended that the reverse flow aids
gravity in forcing the plate against a seat, shutting
off reverse flow.
• Compression joint – a multi-piece joint with cup
shape threaded nuts which, when tightened,
compress tapered sleeves so that they form a tight
joints on the periphery of the tubing they connect.
• Cross-Over – a small fitting with a double offset, or
shaped like the letter U with the ends turned out. It
is only made in small sizes and used to pass the flow
of one pipe past another when the pipes are in the
same plane.
• Expansion Loop – a large bend in pipe line to absorb
longitudinal expansion in the pipe line due to heat.
• Galvanized pipe – steel pipe coated with zinc to
resist corrosion.
• Gate Valve – A valve employing a gate, often wedge-
shaped, allowing fluid to flow when the gate is lifted
from the seat. Such valves have less resistance to
flow than globe valves.
• Globe valve – one with a somewhat globe shaped
body with a manually raised or lower disc which
when closed rests on a seat so as to prevent passage
of a fluid.
• Header - a large pipe or drum into which each of a
group of pipe is connected. Also used for a large
pipe from which a number of smaller ones are
connected in line and from the side of the large pipe.
• Malleable Iron – Cast iron head-treated to reduce
its brittleness. The process enables the materials to
stretch to some extent and to stand greater shock.
• Manifold – a fitting with a number of branches in
line connecting to smaller pipes. Used largely as an
interchangeable term with header.
• Medium pressure – when applied to valves and
fittings, implies they are suitable for the working
pressure of from 862 to 1207 kPa (125 to 175 psi).
• Mill Length – also known as random lengt. Run-of-
mill pipe is 4880 mm to 6000 mm in length. Some
pipes are made in double lengths 9150 to 10675 mm.
• Relief Valve – Designed to open automatically to
relieve excess pressure.
• Run - a length of pipe made of more than on piece
of pipe; a portion of a fitting having its end in line or
nearly so, in contradistinction to the branch or side
opening, as of a tee.
• Saddle Flange – A flange curved to fit a boiler or
tank and to be attached to a threaded pipe. The
flange is riveted or welded to the boiler or tank.
• Screwed Flange – a flange screwed on the pipe
which is connected to an adjoining pipe.
• Socket weld – A joint made by use of a socket weld
fitting which has a prepared female end or socket
for insertion of the pipe to which it is welded.
• Standard Pressure – Formerly used to designate
cast-iron flanges, fittings, valves, etc. , suitable for a
maximum working steam pressure of 862 kPa.

• Street elbow – an elbow with a male thread on one
end, and female thread on the other end.
• Stress-Relieving – uniform heating of a structure or
portion thereof to a sufficient temperature to
relieve the major portion of the residual stresses,
followed by uniform cooling.
• Wrought Iron – iron refined to a plastic state in a
pudding furnace. It is characterized by the presence
of about 3 percent slag irregularly mixed with pure
iron and about 0.5 percent carbon.
• Wrought Pipe – this term refers to the both wrought
steel and iron. Wrought in this sense means worked,
as in the process of forming furnace-welded pipe
from skelp, or seamless pipe from the plates or
billets. The expression wrought pipe is thus used as
a distinction from cast pipe. When wrought-iron
pipe is referred to, it should be designated by its
complete name.
SECTION 3.0 GENERAL REQUIREMENT
3.1. All piping should run parallel to building walls.
3.2. Grouped piping shall be supported on racks either on
horizontal or vertical planes.
3.3. All piping to headers shall come from below rack.
3.4. All piping from the header shall go up above the rack.
3.5. All piping below or above racks shall be supported on
separate racks.
3.6. All piping should run with slight inclination for drainage
of main header.
3.7. All piping on racks shall have a sufficient spacing for pipe
or chain wrenches so that any single line can be altered
without disturbing the rest of the piping rack.
3.8. All piping 63.5 mm and above shall be flanged while
smaller sizes can be screwed.
3.9. On long headers, a pair of flanges shall be provided for
every three lengths of 6000 mm of pipes smaller than 63.5
mm.
3.10. On long headers, a pair of unions shall be provided for
every three length of 6000 mm of pipes smaller than 63.5
mm.
3.11. All piping subject to varying temperatures shall be
provided with expansion joints or expansion loops to take
care of expansion.
3.12. No galvanized piping shall be used for steam.
3.13. No piping material shall be used that is easily corroded
by the material passing thru.
3.14. All piping shall be clamped by “U” bolts or clamps to
supporting racks except steam piping. All steam piping shall
be supported on rollers or sliding support for expansion.
3.15. Piping support shall be placed on a 3000 mm interval or
less.
3.16. All steam piping shall be supported on rollers or sliding
support for expansion.
3.17. All piping carrying pressure shall be of sufficient
bursting strength for the pressure applied. A minimum factor
of safety of 4 for working pressure applied shall be used.
3.18. A minimum factor of safety of 4 for working pressure
shall be used.
3.19. For conveying liquid subjects to water hammer,
additional safety factor of a minimum of 100% of working
pressure shall be used.
3.20. Piping support shall be placed on a 3000 mm interval or
less.
3.21. All piping carrying steam, hot water or hot liquids shall
be properly insulated to prevent accidental contact and loss
of heat.
3.22. Drains from the steam piping shall be provided with
steam straps.
3.23. On all screwed joints, the threaded portion shall enter
fittings with three threads by hand before a pipe wrench is
applied.
3.24. Pipe wrench shall be lubricated by white lead, red lead,
graphite and oil or other approved thread lubricants before
tightening.
3.25. No rubber or rubberized gasket shall be used for steam
or hot liquids.
3.26. A shut off valve shall be installed on every branch from
the header.
3.27. All piping shall be reasonably cleaned before
installation.
3.28. All piping shall be free from burrs or protruding metals
inside.
3.29. No piping carrying steam or hot liquids shall be
embedded on concrete walls or floors.
3.30. Where piping has to be located in trenches the pipe
shall be supported on steel branches on floor of trench.
3.31. Where piping has to be located in trenches a suitable
drainage or sump for removal of liquid accumulations shall be
provided for trench.
3.32. Where piping carrying steam or hot liquids have to pass
walls of concrete suitable sleeves made of pipes ones size
bigger shall be imbedded in concrete before piping is laid.
3.33. Piping to all equipment shall not be subjected to any
stress on equipment being connected.
3.34. Pipe carrying liquids with solid shall use long radius
elbows or tees with plugs in the direction of flow.
4.2. Color bands and pipes flow identifications shall be as
specific and installed as shown in page 192
SECTION 5.0 FLUID FLOW VELOCITIES
5.1. In practice, the average fluid flow velocities maybe
shown as follows:
A. Water ……. 1.5-3.0 meter/second
B. High pressure saturated steam ……. 25-50 meter/second
C. High pressure superheated steam ……. 50-77
meter/second
D. Atmospheric Exhaust steam ……. 40-60 meter/second
E. Low pressure exhausted steam ……. 100-120 meter/second
SECTION 6.0 POWER PIPING SYSTEM DESIGN
6.1. Scope. Power piping system include all steam, water and
oil piping and the component parts such as the pipe, flanges,
bolting, gaskets, valves and fittings for steam generating
plants, central heating plants and industrial plants.
6.2. Materials. Material used shall conform to table 11.6.2,
any material other than those specified should meet the
physical and chemical requirements and, test of the latest
revision of the respective specifications in the table 11.6.2.
6.3. Valves. It is mandatory that valves be (a) of the design or
equal to the design which the manufacturer thereof
recommends for the service, and (b) of materials allowed by
the code for the pressure and temperature.
6.4. Wall thickness. The following formula shall be used to
determine the pipe wall thickness:
Where:
tm=minimum pipe wall thickness in mm
P= maximum internal service pressure in kPa
t = nominal pipe wall thickness in mm
D = outside diameter of the pipe in mm
S= Allowable stress in materials in kPa
C= allowance for threading, mechanical strength and/or
corrosion in mm
Y= coefficient for values
6.5. Variation in pressure and temperature. Either pressure
or temperature, or both, may exceed the nominal design
values if the computed stress in the pipe wall calculated for
the pressure doesn’t exceed the allowable S value in table
11.6.5 and 11.6.5a for the expected temperature by more
than the following allowances for the period of duration
indicated.
A. Up to 15 percent increase above the S value during 10
percent of the operating period.
6.6. Pressure reducing and relief valves
A. Where pressure reducing valves are used, one or more
relief or safety valves shall be provided on the low pressure
side of the reducing valve in case the piping or equipment on
the low pressure side does not met the requirement for full
initial pressure. The relief of safety valve shall be located
adjoining or as close as possible to the reducing valve. Proper
protection shall be provided to prevent injury or damage
caused by escaping fluids from relief or safety valves in
vented to the atmosphere. The vents shall be of ample size
and as short and direct as possible. The combined discharge
capacity of the relief valves shall be such that the pressure
rating of the lower pressure piping and equipment will not be
exceed if the reducing valves sticks open.
B. It is mandatory that the pressure gauge be installed on the
low pressure side of the reducing valve.
6.7. Pipe
A. For pressure above 4137 kPa, the pipe shall be:
1. seamless steel meeting ASTM specifications A-106,
A-312, A-335 or A-378; or
2. forged or bored steel meeting A-380; or
3. Automatic welded steel meeting A-312.
4. electric-fusion welded steel pipe meeting with
ASTM specifications A-155…
B. For pressure above 1724 kPa, but not above 4137 kPa,
shall be:
1. Seamless steel in accordance with ASTM
specification A-106
2. Electric-fusion welded steel pipe in
accordance with ASTM specification A-155.
3. Electric resistance welded steel pipe of
ASTM specification of A-135 or
4. Seamless or electric resistance welded steel pipe
of ASTM specification of a-53
C. For service up to 400oC and pressure of not over 1724 kPa,
any of the following classes of pipe may be used:
1. Electric fusion welded steel of ASTM specification
A-134 or A-139
2. Electric resistance welded steel pipe of ASTM
specification A-135, or
3. Wrought iron pipe of ASTM specification A-72.
D. Grade A seamless steel pipe of ASTM specification A-106,
wrought iron pipe of ASTM specification A- 72, Grade A
seamless steel pipe of ASTM A-53, A-135 or A-139 shall be
used for close coiling, cold bending or other uses.
E. Pipe permissible for the service specified in Sec. 11.6.7.3
may be used for temperature higher than 400 C unless
otherwise prohibited, if the S value in accordance with Sec.
11.6.4 is used when calculating the pipe wall thickness.
F. Pipe meeting API Specification 5L may also be used.
6.8. Boltings
A. The following standards shall apply to bolting:
1. For steam service pressure in access of 1724 kPa
or for steam or water service temperature
exceeding 232 C, the bolting material shall conform
to ASTM specification A-193. For temperature
exceeding 400 C, only bolt studs are recommended.
When sast iron flanges are used, bolting material
shall be of carbon steel conforming to ASTM
specification A- 307, Grade B, or A-107, Grade 1120.
B. Flange bolts or bolt-studs shall be of the dimension and
material specified for the purpose in the corresponding
American flange standards. Bolts or bolt-studs shall extend
completely through the nuts and if desired, may have
reduced shanks of a diameter not less than the diameter at
root of threads.
C. Nuts shall conform to ASTM specification A-194.
6.9. Flanges
A. Flanges shall conform to the American standard B 16.5 for
respective pressures and temperature or to the specifications
set by the manufacturer.
B. 172 kPa and class 862 kPa cast iron integral or screwed
companion flanges maybe used with a full gasket or with a
ring gasket extending to the inner edge of the bolt holes.
When using a full face gasket, the bolting maybe of heat
treated carbon steel, or alloy steel. When using a ring gasket,
the bolting shall be of carbon steel equivalent to ASTM A-307,
Grade B, without heat treatment other than stress relief.
C. When bolting together two class 1724 kPa integral or
screwed companions cast iron flanges, having 1.6 mm raised
steel equivalent to ASTM A-307, Grade B. without heat
treatment other than the stress relief.
D. 1034 kPa steel flanges maybe bolted to cast iron valves,
fitting or other parts, having either integral class 862 kPa
companion flanges. When such construction is used, the 1.6
mm raised face on the steel flange shall be removed. When
bolting such flanges together using a ring gasket extending to
the inner edge of the bolt holes, the bolting shall be of
carbon steel equivalent to ASTM A-307 Grade B, without heat
treatment other that stress relief. When bolting such flanges
together using full face gasket, the bolting maybe heat
treated carbon steel or alloy steel.
E. 2069 kPa steel flanges maybe bolted to cast iron valves,
fittings, or other parts having either integral class 1724 kPa
cast iron flanges or screwed class 1724 kPa cast iron
companion flanges without any changes in the raised faces
on either flange. Where such construction is used, the bolting
shall be of carbon steel equivalent to ASTM A-307 Grade B,
without heat treatment other than stress relief.
6.10 Fittings
A. The minimum metal thickness of all flange or screwed
fittings and the strength of factory made welding fittings shall
not be less than that specified for the pressure and
temperatures in the respective American standard.
B. All fittings in nominal sizes above; 80 mm for pressure
above 1724 kPa but not above 2758 kPa; 50mm for pressure
above 2758 kPa but not above 4137 kPa, and 40 mm for
pressure above 4137 kPa but not above 17238 kPa shall have
flanged ends or welding ends.6.11
Gaskets
A. Gaskets where required, shall be of a material that resist
attack by the fluid carried in the pipe line, shall be strong
enough to hold the pressure, and perform the purpose
intended throughout the temperature range encountered.
Gaskets shall be as thin as the finish of surface will permit to
reduce possibility of blowing out.
B. Paper, vegetable fiber, rubber or rubber inserted gaskets
shall not be used for temperatures in excess of 121 C.
C. Asbestos compositions gaskets maybe used as permitted in
the American standard for steel pipe flanges and flange
fittings. This type of gaskets shall not be used on lines
carrying oil or other liquids above their spontaneous ignition
temperatures.
D. The use of metal or metal asbestos gaskets is not limited
as to pressure provided that the gasket material is suitable
for the service temperature. These types of gaskets are
recommended for use with small male and female or the
small tongue and groove facings. They may also be used with
steel flanges having large, male-and-female, large tongue and
groove, or raised face.
6.12 Hangers, Supports, Anchors
A. Piping and equipment shall be supported in a thoroughly
substantial and workman like manner, rigid enough to
prevent excessive vibration and anchored sufficiently to
prevent undue strains on boilers and the equipment served.
Hangers, supports, and anchors shall be made of durable
materials. In tunnels and buildings of permanent fire proof
construction, piping may be supported on or hung from
wood structures if all piping used for conveying fluids at
temperatures above 121 C is spaced or insulated from such
wooden members to prevent dangerous heating.
B. Hangers and supports shall permit free expansion and
contraction of the piping between anchors. All piping shall be
carried in adjustable hanger properly leveled supports, and
suitable springs, sway bracing, vibration dampener, etc. shall
be provided where necessary.
6.13 Pipe sleeves
A. Where steam pipe pass through wall, partitions, floors,
beams, etc. , constructed of combustible material, protecting
metal sleeves or thimbles shall be provided to give a
clearance of not less than 6.35 mm under hot and cold
conditions all around the pipe, or pipe and covering. When
steam pipes pass through metal partitions, etc. a clearance of
at least 6.35 mm under hot and cold condition shall be left all
around the pipe, or pipe covering. In any cases, if the fluid
temperature exceeds 121 C, the pipe shall be insulated inside
the sleeve with a covering of at least standard thickness.
C. Walls, floors, partitions, beams, etc., shall not be cast
solidly to or built up around and in contact with a steam, hot
water, or hot oil pipe. Where such pipe must be installed in a
concrete floor or other building member., it shall be
protected for the entire buried length with a suitable
protecting pipes sleeve of steel, cast iron wrought iron or tile;
exception maybe taken to the proceeding rules where pipes
pass through walls; floors, partitions, etc., that must be kept
water light.
6.14 Drains, Drips, and Steam Traps
A. Suitable drains or drips shall be provided whatever
necessary to drain the condensate from all sections of the
piping and equipment whenever it may collect. Suitable
drains shall also be provide to empty water lines, water
storage tanks, equipment containing water, etc., when such
piping and equipment is out of service. At least one valve
shall be place in each drip or drain line.
B. Drip lines from the steam headers, mains, separators, and
other equipment shall be properly drained by traps installed
in accessible locations and below the level of the apparatus
drained. Drip pumps, drip maybe used in lieu of traps, if they
are safely installed, protected and operated under a regular
supervision. All drain lines shall have drip valves for free blow
to the atmosphere.
C. Drip lines from the steam headers, mains, separators, and
other equipment operating at different pressure shall not be
connected to discharge through the same trap. Where
several traps discharge into one header which is or maybe
under pressure, a stop valve and a check valve shall be placed
in the discharge line from each trap.
D. Trap discharge piping shall have the same thickness as the
inlet piping unless it is vented to atmosphere or operated
under low pressure and has no stop valves. The trap
discharge piping shall have at least the pressure to which it
may be subjected against freezing when necessary. Drainage
from the straps, if open to atmosphere, shall be safeguarded
to prevent accidents from hot discharge.
6.15 Hydrostatic tests
A. Before Erection. All valves, fittings, etc. shall be capable of
withstanding a hydrostatic shell test made before erection
equal to twice the primary steam service pressure, except
that steel fittings and valves shall be capable of withstanding
the test pressure as given in the American standard for steel
pipe flanges fittings for the specific material, pressure
standard and facing involved.
Pipe shall be capable of meeting the hydrostatic test
requirements contained in the respective specifications in
table 11.6.2, under which it is purchased. If a hydrostatic mill
test pressure for pipe is not stated in any of the specifications
enumerated in table
11.6.2, the pipe shall be capable of meeting a minimum
internal hydrostatic test pressure determined from the
formula;
Where:
P= test pressure in kPa
t = nominal pipe wall thickness in mm
D= pipe outside diameter in mm
S= allowable stress in material in kPa and which shall be
taken as not less than 50 percent of the specified yield point
of the material except that hydrostatic test shall not exceed
17238 kPa for sizes 80mm and below, or 19306 kPa for sizes
over 80 percent of the specified yield point.
B. After erection. All piping systems shall be capable of
withstanding a hydrostatic test pressure of one and
one-half times the design pressure, except that the test
pressure shall in no case exceed the adjusted
pressure temperature rating for 38 C as given in the
American standard for steel pipe flanges and flange fittings
for the material and pressure standard involved. For systems
joined wholly with welded joints the adjusted pressure rating
shall be that for ring joint facing, for system joined wholly or
partly ith flanged joints the adjusted pressure rating shall be
that for the type of facing used.
6.16 Expansion and Flexibility
a. Piping systems are subject to a diversity of loadings
creating stresses of different types and patterns, of
which only the following more significant ones need
generally be considered in piping stress analysis:
1. Pressure, internal or external
2. Weight of pipe, fittings and valves, containing
fluid and insulation, and other external loadings
such as wind.
3. Thermal expansion of the line.
b. Materials. The thermal expansion range shall be
determined as the difference between the unit
expansion shown for the maximum normal
operating metal temperature and that for the
minimum normal-operating metal temperature for
materials not included in this table, reference shall
be made to authority source data, such as
publication of the National Bureau of Standards. The
cold and hot moduli of elasticity, Ec and Eh, and the
moduli of torsional rigidity, Gc and Gh, respectively,
may be taken as the values shown for the minimum
and maximum normal operating metal temperatures
for ferrous and for non-ferrous materials.
 c. For flexibility calculations, Poisson's ratio may be
taken as 0.3 at all temperatures for all ferrous
materials.
d. The S values, Sc and Sh at the minimum and
maximum operating metal temperatures,
respectively, to be used for determining the
allowable expansion stress range SA shall be taken
for the type of piping -system involved from the
applicable tables in the respective sections of the
code. In the case of welded pipe, the longitudinal-
joint efficiency maybe disregarded in calculating
expansion stresses.
6.17 General
a. Piping systems shall be designed to have
sufficient flexibility to prevent thermal
expansion from causing:
1. Failure from over-stress of the piping
material or anchors.
2. Leakage at joints
3. Detrimental distortion of connected
equipment resulting from excessive thrusts
and moments.
b. Flexibility shall be provided by changes of
direction in the piping through the use of bends,
loops, and off-sets; or provision shall be made
to absorb thermal strains by expansion joints of
the slip joints or bellows type. If desirable,
flexibility may be provided by increasing or
corrugating portions or all of the pipe. In this
case, anchors or ties of sufficient strength and
rigidity shall be installed to provide for end
forces due to fluid pressure and other causes.
c. Basic Assumptions and Requirements
1. Formal calculations or model tests shall be
required when reasonable doubt exists as
to the adequate flexibility of a system. Each
problem shall be analyzed by a method
appropriate to the conditions
No hard and fast rule can be given as to
when as analysis should be made. However,
in the absence of better information the
need for a formal stress analysis for a two-
anchor system of uniform pipe size is
indicated when the following approximate
criterion is not satisfied:
𝐷𝑌
≤ 0.03
(𝐿 − 𝑈)2
Where:
D = nominal pipe size, 1mm
Y = resultant of movements to be absorbed
by pipe line, mm
U = anchor distance (length of straight-line
joining anchors), meter.
L = developed length of line axis, meter.
1. In calculating the flexibility of a piping
system between anchor points, the
system shall be treated as a whole. The
significance of all parts of the line and
of all restraints such as solid hangers or
guides, including intermediate
restraints introduced for the purpose
of reducing moments and forces on
equipment or small branch lines shall
be recognized.
2. Calculations shall take into account
stress-intensification factors found to
exist in components other than plain
straight pipe. Credit may be taken for
the extra flexibility of such components.
3. Dimensional properties of pipe and
fittings as used in flexibility calculations,
shall be based on nominal dimensions.
The pressure stresses for services
subject to severe corrosion shall be
based on the reduced thickness of the
pipe.
4. The total expansion ranges from the
minimum of the maximum normal-
operating temperature shall be used in
all calculations, whether piping is cold
sprung or not. Not only the expansion
of the line itself, but also linear and
angular movements of the equipment
to which it is attached, shall be
considered.
5. Calculations for the expansion’s
stresses SE shall be based on the
modulus of elasticity Ec at room
temperature.
6.18 Stress and Reactions
e. Piping systems are subject to a diversity of loadings
creating stresses of different types and patterns, of
which only the following more significant ones need
generally be considered in piping stress analysis:
The expansion stresses shall be combined in
accordance with the following formula.
𝑆𝐸 = √𝑆𝑏2 + 4𝑆𝑡2
Where:
Sb = iMb / Z = resultant bending stress kPa
St = Mt /2Z = torsional stress
Mb = resultant bending moment, newton-metre.
Mt = torsional moment, newton-metre
Z = section modulus of pipe (m3)
i = stress intensification factor
b. The maximum computed expansion stress, SE based on 100 Whichever is greater, and with the further condition
per cent of the expansion and Ec for the cold condition shall that:
not exceed the allowable stress range, SA: Where:

𝑆𝐴 = 𝑓 (1.25 𝑆𝐶 + 0.25 𝑆ℎ ) C = cold spring factor varying from zero for no cold
spring to one for 100 per cent cold spring
In the above formula. SE = maximum computed expansion stress
EC = modulus of elasticity in the cold condition
SC = allowable stress (S value) in the hot condition Eh = modulus of elasticity in hot condition
Sh = allowable stress (s value) in the hot condition R = range of reactions corresponding to the full
expansion range based on EC.
SC and SH are to be taken from the table in the applicable
sections of the code. c. The design and spacing of support shall be checked to
assure that the sum of the longitudinal stress due to the
f = stress-range reduction factor for cyclic conditions. in the weight, pressure, and other sustained external loading does
absence of more applicable date, the values of f shall be not exceed Sh.
taken from the table.
SECTION 7.0 INDUSTRIAL GAS AND AIR PIPING SYSTEMS
By expected life is meant total number of years during which
system is expected to be in active operation. 7.1 This industrial air and gas in mines, power plants,
industrial and gas manufacturing plants.
The sum of the longitudinal stresses due to pressure, weight
and other sustained external loadings shall not exceed Sh. a. Piping with metal
temperature above 232
Where the sum of these stresses is less than Sh the difference degree or below - 2.9 OC.
between Sh and this sum may be added to the term 0.25 Sh in b. Air piping systems operating
the above formula. the longitudinal at pressures of 207 kPa or less.
pressure stress Sep shall be determined by dividing the end c. c. Piping lines with firebrick or
force due to internal pressure: other refractory material used
𝑝𝜋𝑑 2 for conveying hot gases.
𝐹=
4

By the cross-sectional area of the pipe wall

7.2 Wall thickness of Pipe
𝜋 2 2 The minimum thickness of pipe wall required shall be
𝐴= (𝐷 − 𝑑 )
4 determined by the following formula for the designated
pressure and for temperature not exceeding 232-degree
or Celsius.
𝐹 𝑝𝑑2
𝑆𝑒𝑝 = = 𝑃𝐷
𝐴 𝐷2 −𝑑 2 𝑡𝑚 = =𝐶
2𝑆 + 0.8𝑃
In which
where: P = maximum allowable, operating pressure in kPa.
Sep = longitudinal pressure stress, kPa The value obtained maybe rounded to the
P = internal pressure, kPa next higher unit of 10. The maximum
d = nominal outside diameter of the pipe minus two allowable operating pressure computed
times the normal wall thickness in mm. with S values permitted under this
D = nominal outside diameter of pipe, mm paragraph, shall not exceed two-thirds of
the mill test pressure for a service
1. The reactions (forces and moments) Rh and Rc in the temperature of 38'~ or less and five-ninths
hot and cold conditions, respectively, shall be of the mill test pressure for a service
obtained as follows from the reactions R derived temperature of 232-degree Celsius.
from the flexibility calculations based on the
modulus of elasticity at room temperature Ec S = maximum allowable hoop stress in kPa

2 𝐸ℎ For steel or wrought-iron pipe the value of S shall be 0.6

𝑅ℎ = (1 − 𝐶) 𝑅𝑐 K for a service temperature of 38'~ or less or 0.52K for a
3 𝐸𝑐
or service temperature of 232'~ where K is the stipulated
minimum effective yield strength calculated in the manner
𝑆ℎ 𝐸𝑐 described in Section 1 1.7.3.
𝑅𝑐 = (1 − ∙ )𝑅
𝑆𝑒 𝐸ℎ
tm = minimum pipe wall thickness in mm, i.e., nominal wall
thickness less the manufacturing tolerance for the thickness.
Where available from on hand or in stock, the actual
measured wall thickness maybe used to calculate the
maximum allowable operating pressure.
C = corrosion in millimeter obtained from the following:
Type of Pipe (mm) Value of C in inches
Threaded steel, wrought-iron Depth of thread or 1.7
mm whichever is larger
Grooved steel, wrought-iron Depth of groove
Plain end steel or wrought-iron 0.05 (1.7mm)
D = outside diameter of pipe in inches (mm)
7.3 Effective Yield Strength (K)
The effective yield strength K of steel or wrought-iron pipe
maybe determined by taking the product of Y, the stipulated
minimum yield strength, and E, efficiency of the longitudinal
joint.
Alternatively, the effective yield strength maybe determined
by internal hydrostatic pressure tests on finished lengths of
pipe or on cylindrical samples cut from the results of such
test in accordance with the ff. formula:
𝑃𝑦𝐷
𝐾=
2𝑡
Where: K = effective yield strength in kPa
Py = pressure at the yield strength of the pipe in
kPa
This maybe taken as the pressure required to cause a
volumetric offset of 0.2 per cent of as the pressure required
to cause a permanent increase in circumference of 0.1 per
cent at any point, but other suitable methods of determining
that the stress in the steel has reached the yield strength
maybe used, provided such methods conform in all respects
to recognized engineering practices. t = stipulated nominal
pipe wall thickness in mm D = stipulated outside diameter of
pipe in mm.
SECTION 8.0 REFRIGERATOR PIPING SYSTEM
8.1 Refrigeration piping shall be understood to comprise
all refrigerant and brine piping, whenever used and whether
erected on the premise or factory assembled.
8.2 Minimum Design Pressures for Refrigerant Piping
a. Piping Systems for refrigerants shall be designed for
not less than the pressures.
b. For refrigerants the design pressure for the high-
pressure side shall be not less than the saturated
vapour pressure of the refrigerant at 54 C. The
design pressure for the low-pressure side shall be
not less than the saturated vapour pressure of the
refrigerant at 32 C. For refrigerant not listed in Table
11.8.2.1 & having a critical temperature below 54 C,
the design pressure for the high-pressure side shall
be not less than 1.5 times the critical pressure and
the design pressure for the low-pressure side shall
be not less than the critical pressure. In no case shall
be design pressure be less than 270 kPa.
c. Piping systems for brine shall be designed for the
maximum pressure which can be imposed on the
system in normal operation, but not less than 689.5
kPa including for cast-iron pipe, the water hammer
allowance.
d. For working temperatures below 18 C, an allowance
for brittleness of castings, forgings, bolting, and pipe
shall be made as follows:
CAST IRON, WROUGHT-IRON, and CARBON STEEL
ferrous materials shall have the design pressure
including allowance for water hammer increased 2
percent for each degree below 18 C and shall not be
used below – 73 C.
COPPER, BRASS, BRONZE. No adjustment.
8.3 Thickness of Pipe
The minimum thickness of pipe wall required shall be
determined by the ff. formula:
𝑃𝐷
𝑡𝑚 = =𝐶
2𝑆 + 0.8𝑃
Where:
tm = minimum pipe wall thickness in mm
P = maximum internal service pressure in kPa. The value of P
shall not be taken at less than 689.5 kPa for any condition of
service or material.
D = outside diameter of pipe in mm
S = allowable stress in material due to internal pressure, kilo
Pascal
C = Allowance for threading, mechanical strength, and/or
corrosion, in mm obtained from the following list.
8.4 Piping of Pressure Relieving Devices
The most important design factor about pressure relieving
devices is the underlying principle of intrinsic safety. They
must “fail safe” or not at all. Therefore, the solution to
problems in pressure relief piping must be based on sound
design practices. Because failure is intolerable, simplicity and
directness of design should be encouraged as a mass to
reliability.
There are at least four good reasons why the installation of
pressure safety valves and disc should be engineered with
care:
a. The inlet and outlet piping can reduce the capacity
of the device below a safe value.
b. The operation of the device maybe adversely
affected to the point where the opening or closing
pressure is altered. In the case of safety valves*,
 premature leaking or "simmering" may occur at
pressures less than the set pressure or chattering
may occur after the valve opens.
c. The reaction thrust at the same time the device
starts to discharge can cause mechanical failure of
the piping.
d. Good design saves maintenance pesos.
8.5 Safety Valve Inlet Piping
In order to operate satisfactorily, a safety valve must be
mounted vertically. It should be directly on the vessel nozzle
or on a short connection fitting that provides direct and
unobstructed flow between the vessel and the valve. Safety
valves protecting piping systems should of course be
mounted in a similar manner. The device may never be
installed on a fitting having a smaller inside diameter than
the safety valve inlet connection.
8.6 Pressure Drop
The pressure drop between the vessel and safety
valve inlet flange should not be so large that the
valve is "starved" or chattering will result. The
following limitations are suggested:
a. The pressure drop due to friction should not
exceed 1 percent of the accumulated relieving
pressure.
b. The pressure drop due to velocity head loss
should not exceed 2 percent of the accumulate
relieving pressure.
Some safety valve manufacturers suggested a
maximum total pressure drop of 2 percent of
set pressure. In the absence of test data, it is
recommended that this more conservative limit
be used.
8.7 Piping Supports
Safety valves are instruments that must measure within three
percent and perform a specific control function, but
excessive strain can negatively affect their ability to measure
and control.
Supports for discharge piping should be designed to keep the
load on the valve to a minimum. In high temperature service,
high loads can cause permanent distortion of the valve, even
at low temperature. The discharge piping should be
supported free of the valve and carefully aligned so that the
forces acting on the valve will be at minimum. Expansion
joints or long radius bends of proper design and cold spring
should be provided to prevent excessive strain.
The discharge pipe is subjected to thermal expansion and
discharge reaction forces, resulting in an impact load and
bourdon effect at each charge of direction. The piping must
be adequately anchored to prevent sway or vibration while
the valve is discharging.
NOTES: A. The maximum weight per span is based on bigger
steel pipe size weight full of water fittings and insulated.
1. The copper tubing and fittings (for instrument air
lines) shall be supported not more than 5 feet on
centers or as shown on the drawings.
2. Vertical risers shall be supported from the building
construction by means of approved pipe clamps of
U-bolts at every floor. Provide slide guides for pipes
subject to thermal expansion. Supports shall be of
adequate. Size structural steel shapes or sections
where pipe clamps are too short to connect to the
building.
B. Pipe Anchors and Restraints:
1. Provide suitable pipe anchors to limit thermal
expansion and over stressing of piping and adjacent
connecting structures when piping is subject to
thermal expansion.
a. Rigid pipe anchors shall either be welded type
construction or clamp bolted type whichever is
suitable to the requirement.
b. Directional type pipe anchors where pipe
movement is allowed in any one plate shall be
designed to prevent excessive stresses to the
pipe and interference with adjacent pipes or
structure.
2. Piping restraints should be provided to prevent
unnecessary pipe movements due to vibration and
seismic forces and damage to pipe joints.
8.8 Reaction Forces
The total stress imposed on a safety valve or its piping is
caused by the sum of these forces:
a. Internal Pressure
b. Dead Weight of piping
c. Thermal expansion or contraction of either the
discharge line of the equipment upon which the
valve is mounted and
d. The bending moment cause by the reaction thrust of
the discharge.
For safety valve:
𝐹1 = (𝐾 + 0.2)𝐴𝑃1
For safety disc:
𝐹1 = 0.63(𝐾 + 0.2)𝐴𝑃1
Where:
 F1 = Reaction force, Kg

A = Area of valve orifice or disc., sq. mm.

P1 = inlet pressure at time of opening, kPa (set

pressure plus 14.7)

K = ratio of specific heats, Cp/Cv.

Note: Psi x 6.895 = kPa.

If it is possible for air to be relieved from the system under

special conditions, use a minimum valve of K = 1.4 for design.

Calculation of the reaction force for liquid service

demonstrates that this force is negligible. However, since it is
usually possible to trap air or gas in any pressure system, it is
recommended that K = 104 be
used in the above formulas as a basis design for liquid service.

8.9 Compressor Piping

Piping in a compressor circuit should connect directly point to

point, bends instead of elbows, angular branch connections
eliminate hard tees, double offsets should be avoided,
intercoolers should be integrated with the machine,
pulsation dampeners should be located on the cylinders
without interconnecting pipe, knockout drums should be
adjacent to the machine, several aftercoolers or exchangers
should be stacked as much as possible, and equipment
should be in process flow sequence.

Pipe supports are essential for reciprocating compressors due

to vibration problems. Independent of any other foundation
or structure, pipe systems should be "nailed down" close to
grade. Poorly designed compressor piping can be expensive
to correct after start-up.