CHAPTER 3

Power Transmission Equipment, Prime Movers, Machines and

 Section 1.0 Scope

Chapter 4 covers machine guarding and safety provisions at points of operation, not an alternative to other chapters.

 Section 2.0 (Definitions)

Accidental contact: physical contact with equipment or parts resulting from unplanned actions or movements

Belt shifter: device for shifting belts between tight and loose pulleys

Danger zone: area around points of operation, prime mover, and transmission system where contact with moving/stationary
parts could occur

Electric motors: prime movers utilizing magnetic energy from electric currents

Enclosed enclosure: guarding method preventing physical contact, but allowing for inspection/lubrication

Flywheel: mechanical energy storage device storing momentum in a rotating mass

Guarded: protected from accidental contact by enclosures, covers, railings, isolation, or remoteness

Guarded by location: protection from accidental contact by location with reference to working level

Internal combustion engine: prime mover utilizing energy from expanding combustion gases

Machine: driven unit consisting of fixed and movable parts

Machine parts are defined as all moving parts of the machine except those forming part of the point of operation

Nip-point belt and pulley guard is a device that encloses the pulley and is provided with rounded or rolled edge slots
through which the belt passes

Pneumatic motor is a type of prime mover utilizing potential energy

Point of operation is the part of the machine that performs an operation on the stock or materials and/or the point of location
where stock or material is fed to the machine

Power transmission equipment refers to all mechanical means of transmitting power from a prime mover to a machine

Prime mover is an engine or motor that drives or operates other mechanical equipment, operated by steam, gas, air,
electricity, liquid or gaseous fuel, liquids in motion, or other forms of energy

Process machine is a machine designed and operated for a specific purpose, including machine tools and processing devices
subject to regular attention

Tail rod is the extension of a piston rod passing through a stuffing box in the outside head of an engine cylinder, compressor
cylinder, or pump cylinder

Transmission machinery refers to a closed system of machine parts through which mechanical energy from a prime mover
or energy source is transferred, relayed, converted, regulated, controlled and delivered to another machine system or
appliance

Turbine is a prime mover consisting of fixed and moving blades or vanes that harness energy from flowing fluids and
convert it to mechanical energy

 Section 3.0 (Guards)

General Requirements.
 Section 3.1: Type of Guarding Required Guards design and construction. Guards must shield, fence, rail, enclose, guard,
or otherwise protect employees against accidental contact. Guards may have hinges or removable mechanisms.

 Section 3.2: Specific Requirements

Disk guards Must consist of sheet metal disk or equivalent materia. lSmooth surface and free from projection

Shield guard. Must consist of rigid frame filled or sheathed with wire mesh, expanded-, perforated-, or solid-sheeting
material

Wire mesh or expanded metal may be fastened to a frame of metal construction or equivalent strength. Area exceeding 0.55
m² must be reinforced.

Trough or "U" guards. Must be constructed of specified material. Edges must be smooth and reinforced if required

Enclosure guard. Must be constructed of specified material. Must completely guard power transmission equipment or
moving parts to prevent physical contact

Railing guards and toeboards. Must comply with the provisions of Section 2.3.7

 Section 3.3: Clearances. Maximum opening size for guards located within 100 mm from moving parts. Maximum opening
size for guards located more than 100 mm and less than 380 mm from moving parts. Standard railing guards must be placed
no less than 380 mm and no more than 500 mm from any moving parts

 Section 3.4: Opening for Lubrication. Openings with hinged or sliding covers must be provided. Lubricating devices must
be at least 300 mm from dangerous moving parts, unless guarded and piped outside the guard. Machines in inaccessible
locations must have extension lubricant fittings or other accessible methods.

 Section 3.5: Guarding of Flywheels

a. Prime Mover Flywheels: guard exposed parts 2 100 mm or less above working level

b. Flywheels within 300 mm of floor or in a pit require standard railing guard and toe board

c. Removable guards or momentary openings for starting, with slot opening for jackbar allowed

d. Jackbars must have hand stop to prevent worker's hand from being pinched

e. Machine Flywheels: spokes or projections 2 100 mm or less above floor or working level must be guarded

 Section 3.6: Flywheel Ball Governors

Fly Bail Governors located 2 135 mm or less above floor or working level with hazardous parts or recesses must be guarded

 Section 3.7: Conveyors

Screw conveyors 2 100 mm or less above floor must be covered, but those 600 mm or less from top to floor level can have
railing guards or coversb. Belt conveyor pulleys must be fully guarded to prevent access to nip point

c. Portable inclined conveyors must have guarded power transmission equipment

d. Crossovers over exposed conveyors require catwalks or bridges with standard railings and safe access

e. Conveyors over areas occupied by employees must be guarded to prevent material from falling

f. Troughs or other means must be provided under return strands of chain conveyors to support broken chain

 Section 3.8: Process Machine Power Control

a. Process machines with individual prime movers must have emergency stopping device

b. Machines without individual drives must have stopping device that can be actuated from operator's position

c. Machines attended by multiple employees must have machine power control for each employee

d. Machine power controls must be maintained and designed to prevent accidental operation
 Section 3.9: Machine Power Control. Machines must have means for emergency power disconnection.

 Section 3.10: Revolving and Reciprocating Parts. Hazardous parts not guarded by machine frame or location must be
guarded. Keys, set screws, etc. on unguarded parts must be removed, made flush, or guarded.

 Section 3.11: Collars and Couplings. Cylindrical collars and couplings required; no projecting screws or bolts.

 Section 3.12: Clutches and Cut-Off Couplings Devices with projecting parts located 2,100 mm or less above floor must be
guarded.

 Section 3.13: Guarding of Belt and Pulley Drives. Different requirements for guarding depending on type of belt and
pulley drive.

 Section 3.14: Counter-Balanced Belt Tensioner. Tensioner and parts must be substantial; area beneath tensioner must be
guarded if belt breaks.

 Section 3.15: Belt-Type Variable Speed Drive sDrives located 2,100 mm or less from floor must have all moving parts
guarded.

 Section 3.16: Gears and Sprockets. All gears and sprockets must be adequately guarded.

 Section 3.17: Friction Drives. Drives located 2,100 mm or less from floor must be guarded.

 Section 3.18: Chains and Chain Drives. Chains and chain drives located 2,100 mm or less from floor must be guarded.

 Section 3.19: Protection for Workmen Passing Under Chain Drives. Trough or other means required to support weight of
broken chain if workmen pass underneath.

 Section 3.20: Manually Operated Power Disconnecting Devices. Devices must remain in neutral position until
intentionally actuated.

 Section 3.21: Machine Guarding Other Than Point-of-Operation. Moving machine parts (other than at point-of-
operation) must be guarded to prevent injury.

 Section 4.0 Principle of Safe Machine Design:

 Section 4.:1 Dangerous moving parts should be enclosed.

 Section 4.2: Parts subject to wear, adjustment, and hand lubrication should be conveniently accessible.

 Section 4.3: Lubrication should wherever possible be automatic and continuous when the machine is in operation.

 Section 4.4: Hazards due to driving mechanism may be minimized.

 Section 4.5: Sharp lighting, contrasts between light and shadow and glare in the vicinity of the point of operation should be
avoided.

 Section 4.6: Materials should be mechanically conveyed to, and products from machines wherever possible.

 Section 4.7: Provision should be made for automatically conveying dusts and gases away from a machine.

 Section 4.8: Noise should be eliminated or reduced to no more than the maximum allowable according to the table of
threshold limit values for noise exposure.

 Section 4.9: Vibration should be eliminated or reduced to the maximum permissible extent.

 Section 4.10: Machine motions tiring to the eyes should be avoided.

 Secrion 4.11: Exterior shapes or any part of the machines that require frequent contacting or handling should be so designed
as to facilitate convenience in handling.

 Section 4.12: Weight of parts to be handled should be kept within the limits at convenience and safety.
Section 4.13: Throughout the design of the machine and its parts, consideration should be given to convenience in attaching
accessories.

 Section 4.14: Consideration in design should be given to the external shape of the machine so that danger of accident from
tripping, falling, and collision will be minimized.

 Section 4.15: Liberal factors of safety should be used in determining the strength of parts.

 Section 4.16: Wherever manufacturing circumstances permit, point-of-operation guards should be installed by the builder of
the machines.

 Section 4.17: Consideration should be given to the safe location or isolation of machines that cannot be made safe otherwise.
 Section 5.0 Power Transmission Systems

 Section 5.1 Shafting

a. Torsional Strength of Shafting. Formulas to determine torque, minimum shaft diameter, and power. Allowable stresses
for different types of shafts

b. Polar Moments of Inertia and Section Moduli. Polar moment of inertia and polar section modulus for circular sections.
Polar section modulus for other cross-sections

 Section 5.2 V-Belts and Sheaves

a. V-Belt Drives. Types of V-belts and their uses

b. Standard Multiple V-Belt. Designated sizes and

dimensions. Pitch lengths and tolerances

c. Measuring a Multiple V-Belt. Fixture and process to measure pitch length.Tolerances for measuring sheaves

d. Belt Length and Center Distance. Formula for relation between center distance and belt pitch length

Section 3.5 V-Belt Drives

d. Installations and Take-up Allowance. Allowance for moving centers together. Table 3.5.4 shows minus and plus values
for center distance adjustment

e. Selection of Multiple V-Belts. Charts on Figure 3.5.1 for selecting appropriate V-belt. Selection procedure: obtain
equivalent design horsepower, enter chart, and determine appropriate belt size

f. Power Rating for Multiple V-Belts. Formulas and table of constants to determine horsepower rating of a single V-belt.
Total transmitted power through multiple V-belts should not exceed sum of individual rated capacities

g. Arc of Contact. Importance of arc of contact in computing power rating of V-belt

h. Speed of Operation Efficiency of V-belts at speeds of about 23 meters per second. Sheave should be balanced for speeds
of 25 meters per second or more. Belt manufacturer should be consulted for speed design and materials.
 Section 5.3 Transmission Roller Chain
a. Standard Roller Chain Nomenclature, Dimensions and Loads.

Chain Pitch: Distance between centers of adjacent joint members

Tolerance for Chain Length: New chains allowed an over-length of

0.99 per meter, but not under-length

Measuring Load: Load under which a chain should be measured for

length

Minimum Ultimate Tensile Strength: Strength in pounds of Standard

Series chain

b. Standard Roller Chain Numbers. Right-hand figure in chain number:

0 for usual proportions, 1 for lightweight, 5 for rollerless bushing.
Numbers to the left of right-hand figure denote number of 1/8 inch in the
pitch. Letter H following chain number denotes heavy series. Hyphenated
number suffixed to chain number denotes number of strands.
c.
1. Heavy Series. Made in 4-inch and larger pitches. Thicker link plates
than regular standard. Accepts higher tensile or jerk loads at low speeds.
Rollers, bushing diameters, pin diameters, and widths are the same as
standard series

2. Light-Weight Machinery Chain. Designated as No. 41. ½ inch pitch;

4 inch wide; 0.306-inch diameter rollers; 0.141-inch pin diameter.
Minimum ultimate tensile strength is 1,500 pounds

3. Multiple-Strand Chain. An assembly of two or more single-strand

chains placed side by side with pins to maintain alignment. Can run at a
higher speed than required single-strand chain of a higher pitch

c. Types of Sprockets
- Type A: plain plate sprocket
- Type B: single-hubbed sprocket
- Type C: double-hubbed sprocket
- Type D: detachable hub arrangement
- Shear pin and slip clutch-type sprockets also used

d. Selection of Chain and Sprockets. Smallest applicable pitch of roller chain is desirable for quiet operation and high speed.
Horsepower capacity varies with chain pitch. Short pitch with high working load can often be obtained by the use of multiple-
strand chain. Small sprocket selected must be large enough to accommodate the shaft. Table 3.5.10 gives maximum bore and
hub diameters for sprockets with up to 25 teeth. Number of teeth in largest sprocket determined by desired ratio of shaft speed.
Satisfactory operation can be obtained with minor change in speed of one or both shafts

e. Center Distance Between Sprockets. Should be 1.5 times larger sprocket diameter, not less than 30 times pitch, not more
than 50 times pitch. Long center distances result in catenary tension in the chain. Chain should extend around at least 120
degrees of the pinion circumference. A fairly long chain is recommended in preference to the shortest one allowed by the
sprocket diameters. Center distance should be adjustable to take care of slack due to elongation from wear. Too much sag or
an excessive distance between the sprockets may cause the chain to whip up and down

f. Center Distance for a Given Length. Use idler sprockets for taking up slack on non-adjustable sprockets. Sprocket will
wear excessively if the number of teeth is too small and the speed too high. Total length of a block chain may be expressed in
multiples of the pitch. Length of roller chain should be in multiples of twice the pitch

g. Horsepower Ratings for Roller Chain Drives. Chain drives should be protected against dirt and moisture and the oil
supply kept free from contamination. A good grade of non-detergent petroleum-base oil is recommended. Recommended
lubricant viscosities. Data for each size of chain are divided into four zones
- Type I manual lubrication
- Type II drip lubrication
- Type III bath or disc lubrication
- Type IV oil stream lubrication
CHAPTER 11

PIPING

 Section 1.0 Scope

This chapter includes Power Piping System Design and pipe color coding for safety and proper fluid identification in the system.

 Section 2.0 Definitions

Pipe and Tube – The fundamental difference between pipe and tube is the dimensional standard to which each is manufactured.
A pipe is a tube with a round cross section, while a tube is a hollow product of round or any other cross section with a continuous
periphery. Round tube size is specified with respect to any two, but not all three of the four dimensions are outside diameter or
bell at one end.

Black Pipe – Steel pipe that has not been galvanized.

Bell and Spigot Joint – Most commonly used joint in cast-iron pipe. Each piece is made with an enlarged diameter or bell at one
end, into which the plain or spigot end of another piece is inserted when laying.

Bull Head Tee – A tee the branch of which is larger than the run.

Butt Weld Joint – A welded pipe joint made with the ends of the two pipes butting each other, the weld being around the
periphery.

Carbon Steel Pipe – Steel pipe which owes these properties chiefly on the carbon which it contains.

Check Valve – A valve designed to allow a fluid to pass through in one direction only. A common type has a plate so suspended
that the reverse flow aids gravity in forcing the plate against a seat, shutting off reverse flow.

Compression joint – A multi-piece joint with cup shape threaded nuts which, when tightened, compress tapered sleeves so that
they form a tight joints on the periphery of the tubing they connect.

Cross-Over – A small fitting with a double offset, or shaped like the letter U with the ends turned out. It is only made in small
sizes and used to pass the flow of one pipe past another when the pipes are in the same plane.

Expansion Loop – A large bend in pipe line to absorb longitudinal expansion in the pipe line due to heat.

Galvanized pipe – Steel pipe coated with zinc to resist corrosion.

Gate Valve – A valve employing a gate, often wedge-shaped, allowing fluid to flow when the gate is lifted from the seat. Such
valves have less resistance to flow than globe valves.

Globe valve – One with a somewhat globe shaped body with a manually raised or lower disc which when closed rests on a seat so
as to prevent passage of a fluid.

Header - A large pipe or drum into which each of a group of pipe is connected. Also used for a large pipe from which a number
of smaller ones are connected in line and from the side of the large pipe.

Malleable Iron – Cast iron head-treated to reduce its brittleness. The process enables the materials to stretch to some extent and
to stand greater shock.

Manifold – A fitting with a number of branches in line connecting to smaller pipes. Used largely as an interchangeable term with
header.

Medium pressure – When applied to valves and fittings, implies they are suitable for the working pressure of from 862 to 1207
kPa (125 to 175 psi).

Mill Length – Also known as random lengt. Run-of-mill pipe is 4880 mm to 6000 mm in length. Some pipes are made in double
lengths 9150 to 10675 mm.

Relief Valve – Designed to open automatically to relieve excess pressure.

Run - A length of pipe made of more than on piece of pipe; a portion of a fitting having its end in line or nearly so, in
contradistinction to the branch or side opening, as of a tee.
Saddle Flange – A flange curved to fit a boiler or tank and to be attached to a threaded pipe. The flange is riveted or welded to the
boiler or tank.

Screwed Flange – A flange screwed on the pipe which is connected to an adjoining pipe.

Socket weld – A joint made by use of a socket weld fitting which has a prepared female end or socket for insertion of the pipe to
which it is welded.

Standard Pressure – Formerly used to designate cast-iron flanges, fittings, valves, etc. , suitable for a maximum working steam
pressure of 862 kPa.

Street elbow – An elbow with a male thread on one end, and female thread on the other end.

Stress-Relieving – Uniform heating of a structure or portion thereof to a sufficient temperature to relieve the major portion of the
residual stresses, followed by uniform cooling.

Wrought Iron – Iron refined to a plastic state in a pudding furnace. It is characterized by the presence of about 3 percent slag
irregularly mixed with pure iron and about 0.5 percent carbon.

Wrought Pipe – Refers to the both wrought steel and iron. Wrought in this sense means worked, as in the process of forming
furnace-welded pipe from skelp, or seamless pipe from the plates or billets.

 Section 3.0 General Requirement

3.1. All piping should run parallel to building walls.

3.2. Grouped piping shall be supported on racks either on horizontal or vertical planes.

3.3. All piping to headers shall come from below rack.

3.4. All piping from the header shall go up above the rack.
3.5. All piping below or above racks shall be supported on separate racks.
3.6. All piping should run with slight inclination for drainage of main header.
3.7. All piping on racks shall have a sufficient spacing for pipe or chain wrenches so that any single line can be altered without
disturbing the rest of the piping rack.
3.8. All piping 63.5 mm and above shall be flanged while smaller sizes can be screwed.
3.9. On long headers, a pair of flanges shall be provided for every three lengths of 6000 mm of pipes smaller than 63.5 mm.
3.10. On long headers, a pair of unions shall be provided for every three length of 6000 mm of pipes smaller than 63.5 mm.
3.11. All piping subject to varying temperatures shall be provided with expansion joints or expansion loops to take care of
expansion.
3.12. No galvanized piping shall be used for steam.
3.13. No piping material shall be used that is easily corroded by the material passing thru.
3.14. All piping shall be clamped by “U” bolts or clamps to supporting racks except steam piping. All steam piping shall be
supported on rollers or sliding support for expansion.
3.15. Piping support shall be placed on a 3000 mm interval or less.
3.16. All steam piping shall be supported on rollers or sliding support for expansion.
3.17. All piping carrying pressure shall be of sufficient bursting strength for the pressure applied. A minimum factor of safety of 4
for working pressure applied shall be used.
3.18. A minimum factor of safety of 4 for working pressure shall be used.
3.19. For conveying liquid subjects to water hammer, additional safety factor of a minimum of 100% of working pressure shall be
used.
3.20. Piping support shall be placed on a 3000 mm interval or less.
3.21. All piping carrying steam, hot water or hot liquids shall be properly insulated to prevent accidental contact and loss of heat.
3.22. Drains from the steam piping shall be provided with steam straps.
3.23. On all screwed joints, the threaded portion shall enter fittings with three threads by hand before a pipe wrench is applied.
3.24. Pipe wrench shall be lubricated by white lead, red lead, graphite and oil or other approved thread lubricants before tightening.
3.25. No rubber or rubberized gasket shall be used for steam or hot liquids.
3.26. A shut off valve shall be installed on every branch from the header.
3.27. All piping shall be reasonably cleaned before installation.
3.28. All piping shall be free from burrs or protruding metals inside.
3.29. No piping carrying steam or hot liquids shall be embedded on concrete walls or floors.

3.30. Where piping has to be located in trenches the pipe shall be supported on steel branches on floor of trench.
3.31. Where piping has to be located in trenches a suitable drainage or sump for removal of liquid accumulations shall be provided
for trench.
3.32. Where piping carrying steam or hot liquids have to pass walls of concrete suitable sleeves made of pipes ones size bigger
shall be imbedded in concrete before piping is laid.
3.33. Piping to all equipment shall not be subjected to any stress on equipment being connected.
3.34. Pipe carrying liquids with solid shall use long radius elbows or tees with plugs in the direction of flow.

4.2. Color bands and pipes flow identifications shall be as

specific and installed as shown in page 192

 Section 5.0 Fluid Flow Velocities

5.1. In practice, the average fluid flow velocities maybe shown
as follows:

A. Water ……. 1.5-3.0 meter/second

B. High pressure saturated steam ……. 25-50 meter/second
C. High pressure superheated steam ……. 50-77 meter/second
D. Atmospheric Exhaust steam ……. 40-60 meter/second
E. Low pressure exhausted steam ……. 100-120 meter/second

 Section 6.0 Power piping system design

6.1. Scope. Power piping system include all steam, water and oil piping and the component parts such as the pipe, flanges, bolting,
gaskets, valves and fittings for steam generating plants, central heating plants and industrial plants.

6.2. Materials. Material used shall conform to table 11.6.2, any material other than those specified should meet the physical and
chemical requirements and, test of the latest revision of the respective specifications in the table 11.6.2.

6.3. Valves. It is mandatory that valves be (a) of the design or equal to the design which the manufacturer thereof recommends for
the service, and (b) of materials allowed by the code for the pressure and temperature.

6.4. Wall thickness. The following formula shall be used to determine the pipe wall thickness:

Where:
tm=minimum pipe wall thickness in mm
P= maximum internal service pressure in kPa
t = nominal pipe wall thickness in mm
D = outside diameter of the pipe in mm
S= Allowable stress in materials in kPa
C= allowance for threading, mechanical strength and/or corrosion in mm
Y= coefficient for values

6.5. Variation in pressure and temperature. Either pressure or temperature, or both, may exceed the nominal design values if
the computed stress in the pipe wall calculated for the pressure doesn’t exceed the allowable S value in table 11.6.5 and 11.6.5a
for the expected temperature by more than the following allowances for the period of duration indicated.

A. Up to 15 percent increase above the S value during 10 percent of the operating period.

6.6. Pressure reducing and relief valves

A. The vents shall be of ample size and as short and direct as possible. The combined discharge capacity of the relief valves shall
be such that the pressure rating of the lower pressure piping and equipment will not be exceed if the reducing valves sticks open.
B. It is mandatory that the pressure gauge be installed on the low pressure side of the reducing valve.

6.7. Pipe

A. For pressure above 4137 kPa, the pipe shall be:

1. seamless steel meeting ASTM specifications A-106, A-312, A-335 or A-378; or
2. forged or bored steel meeting A-380; or
3. Automatic welded steel meeting A-312.
4. electric-fusion welded steel pipe meeting with ASTM specifications A-155…

B. For pressure above 1724 kPa, but not above 4137 kPa, shall be:
1. Seamless steel in accordance with ASTM specification A-106
2. Electric-fusion welded steel pipe in accordance with ASTM specification A-155.
3. Electric resistance welded steel pipe of ASTM specification of A-135 or
4. Seamless or electric resistance welded steel pipe of ASTM specification of a-53

C. For service up to 400oC and pressure of not over 1724 kPa, any of the following classes of pipe may be used:
1. Electric fusion welded steel of ASTM specification A-134 or A-139
2. Electric resistance welded steel pipe of ASTM specification A-135, or
3. Wrought iron pipe of ASTM specification A-72.

D. Grade A seamless steel pipe of ASTM specification A-106, wrought iron pipe of ASTM specification A- 72, Grade A seamless
steel pipe of ASTM A-53, A-135 or A-139 shall be used for close coiling, cold bending or other uses.

E. Pipe permissible for the service specified in Sec. 11.6.7.3 may be used for temperature higher than 400 C unless otherwise
prohibited, if the S value in accordance with Sec. 11.6.4 is used when calculating the pipe wall thickness.

F. Pipe meeting API Specification 5L may also be used.

6.8. Boltings
A. The following standards shall apply to bolting:
1. For steam service pressure-1724 kPa or for steam temperature exceeding 232 C, the bolting material shall conform to ASTM
specification A-193. For temperature exceeding 400 C, only bolt studs are recommended. When sast iron flanges are used, bolting
material shall be of carbon steel conforming to ASTM specification A- 307, Grade B, or A-107, Grade 1120.

B. Bolts or bolt-studs may have reduced shanks of a diameter not less than the diameter at root of threads.

C. Nuts shall conform to ASTM specification A-194.

6.9. Flanges
A. Flanges shall conform to the American standard B 16.5 for respective pressures and temperature or to the specifications set by
the manufacturer.

B. 172 kPa and class 862 kPa cast iron integral or screwed companion flanges maybe used with a full gasket or with a ring gasket
extending to the inner edge of the bolt holes. When using a full face gasket, the bolting maybe of heat treated carbon steel, or alloy
steel. When using a ring gasket, the bolting shall be of carbon steel equivalent to ASTM A-307, Grade B, without heat treatment
other than stress relief.

C. When bolting together two class 1724 kPa integral or screwed companions cast iron flanges, having 1.6 mm raised steel
equivalent to ASTM A-307, Grade B. without heat treatment other than the stress relief.

D. 1034 kPa steel flanges maybe bolted to cast iron valves, fitting or other parts, having either integral class 862 kPa companion
flanges. When such construction is used, the 1.6 mm raised face on the steel flange shall be removed. When bolting such flanges
together using full face gasket, the bolting maybe heat treated carbon steel or alloy steel.

E. 2069 kPa steel flanges maybe bolted to cast iron valves, fittings, or other parts having either integral class 1724 kPa cast iron
flanges or screwed class 1724 kPa cast iron companion flanges without any changes in the raised faces on either flange.

6.10 Fittings
A. The minimum metal thickness of all flange or screwed fittings shall not be less than that specified for the pressure and
temperatures in the respective American standard.

B. All fittings in nominal sizes above; 80 mm for pressure above 1724 kPa but not above 2758 kPa; 50mm for pressure above
2758 kPa but not above 4137 kPa, and 40 mm for pressure above 4137 kPa but not above 17238 kPa shall have flanged ends or
welding ends.6.11

Gaskets
A. Gaskets where required, shall be of a material that resist attack by the fluid carried in the pipe line. Gaskets shall be as thin as
the finish of surface will permit to reduce possibility of blowing out.
B.
B. Paper, vegetable fiber, rubber or rubber inserted gaskets shall not be used for temperatures in excess of 121 C.
C. Asbestos compositions gaskets maybe used as permitted in the American standard for steel pipe flanges and flange fittings.
This type of gaskets shall not be used on lines carrying oil or other liquids above their spontaneous ignition temperatures.

D. The use of metal or metal asbestos gaskets is not limited as to pressure provided that the gasket material is suitable for the
service temperature. These types of gaskets are recommended for use with small male and female or the small tongue and groove
facings.

6.12 Hangers, Supports, Anchors

A. Piping and equipment shall be supported in a thoroughly substantial and workman. In tunnels and buildings of permanent fire
proof construction, piping may be supported on or hung from wood structures if all piping used for conveying fluids at
temperatures above 121 C is spaced or insulated from such wooden members to prevent dangerous heating.

B. Hangers and supports shall permit free expansion and contraction of the piping between anchors. All piping shall be carried in
adjustable hanger.

6.13 Pipe sleeves

A. When steam pipes pass through metal partitions, etc. a clearance of at least 6.35 mm under hot and cold condition shall be left
all around the pipe, or pipe covering. In any cases, if the fluid temperature exceeds 121 C, the pipe shall be insulated inside the
sleeve with a covering of at least standard thickness.

C. Walls, floors, partitions, beams, etc., shall not be cast solidly to or built up around and in contact with a steam, hot water, or hot
oil pipe.

6.14 Drains, Drips, and Steam Traps

A. Suitable drains or drips shall be provided whatever necessary to drain the condensate from all sections of the piping and
equipment whenever it may collect. At least one valve shall be place in each drip or drain line.

B. Drip lines from the steam headers, mains, separators, and other equipment shall be properly drained by traps installed in
accessible locations and below the level of the apparatus drained.

C. Drip lines from the steam headers, mains, separators, and other equipment operating at different pressure shall not be connected
to discharge through the same trap. Where several traps discharge into one header which is or maybe under pressure, a stop valve
and a check valve shall be placed in the discharge line from each trap.

D. Trap discharge piping shall have the same thickness as the inlet piping unless it is vented to atmosphere or operated under low
pressure and has no stop valves. The trap discharge piping shall have at least the pressure to which it may be subjected against
freezing when necessary.

6.15 Hydrostatic tests

A. Before Erection. All valves, fittings, etc. shall be capable of withstanding a hydrostatic shell test made before erection equal to
twice the primary steam service pressure, except that steel fittings and valves shall be capable of withstanding the test pressure as
given in the American standard for steel pipe flanges fittings for the specific material, pressure standard and facing involved.

11.6.2, the pipe shall be capable of meeting a minimum internal hydrostatic test pressure determined from the formula;

Where:
P= test pressure in kPa
t = nominal pipe wall thickness in mm
D= pipe outside diameter in mm
S= allowable stress in material in kPa and which shall be taken as not less than 50 percent of the specified yield point of the
material except that hydrostatic test shall not exceed 17238 kPa for sizes 80mm and below, or 19306 kPa for sizes over 80 percent
of the specified yield point.

B. After erection. All piping systems shall be capable of withstanding a hydrostatic test pressure of one and
one-half times the design pressure, except that the test pressure shall in no case exceed the adjusted
pressure temperature rating for 38 C as given in the American standard for steel pipe flanges and flange fittings for the material
and pressure standard involved.

6.16 Expansion and Flexibility

a. Piping systems are subject to a diversity of loadings creating stresses of different types and patterns, of which only the
following more significant ones need generally be considered in piping stress analysis:

1. Pressure, internal or external

2. Weight of pipe, fittings and valves, containing fluid and insulation, and other external loadings such as wind.
3. Thermal expansion of the line.
b. Materials. The thermal expansion range shall be determined as the difference between the unit expansion shown for the
maximum normal operating metal temperature and that for the minimum normal-operating metal temperature for materials not

included in this table, reference shall be made to authority source data, such as publication of the National Bureau of Standards.
The cold and hot moduli of elasticity, Ec and Eh, and the moduli of torsional rigidity, Gc and Gh, respectively, may be taken as
the values shown for the minimum and maximum normal operating metal temperatures for ferrous and for non-ferrous materials.

6.17 General

a. Piping systems shall be designed to have sufficient flexibility to prevent thermal expansion from causing:

1. Failure from over-stress of the piping material or anchors.

2. Leakage at joints
3. Detrimental distortion of connected equipment resulting from excessive thrusts and moments.

b. Flexibility shall be provided by changes of direction in the piping through the use of bends, loops, and off-sets; or
provision shall be made to absorb thermal strains by expansion joints of the slip joints or bellows type. If desirable,
flexibility may be provided by increasing or corrugating portions or all of the pipe. In this case, anchors or ties of
sufficient strength and rigidity shall be installed to provide for end forces due to fluid pressure and other causes.
c.
d. Basic Assumptions and Requirements

1. Formal calculations or model tests shall be required when reasonable doubt exists as to the adequate flexibility
of a system. Each problem shall be analyzed by a method appropriate to the conditions

No hard and fast rule can be given as to when as analysis should be made. However, in the absence of better information the need
for a formal stress analysis for a two-anchor system of uniform pipe size is indicated when the following approximate criterion is
not satisfied:

Where:
D = nominal pipe size, 1mm
Y = resultant of movements to be absorbed by pipe line, mm
U = anchor distance (length of straight-line joining anchors), meter.
L = developed length of line axis, meter.

1. In calculating the flexibility of a piping system between anchor points, the system shall be treated as a
whole. The significance of all parts of the line and of all restraints such as solid hangers or guides, including
intermediate restraints introduced for the purpose of reducing moments and forces on equipment or small
branch lines shall be recognized.

2. Calculations shall take into account stress-intensification factors found to exist in components other than
plain straight pipe. Credit may be taken for the extra flexibility of such components.

3. Dimensional properties of pipe and fittings as used in flexibility calculations, shall be based on nominal
dimensions. The pressure stresses for services subject to severe corrosion shall be based on the reduced
thickness of the pipe.
4. The total expansion ranges from the minimum of the maximum normal- operating temperature shall be used
in all calculations, whether piping is cold sprung or not. Not only the expansion of the line itself, but also
linear and angular movements of the equipment to which it is attached, shall be considered.

5. Calculations for the expansion’s stresses SE shall be based on the modulus of elasticity Ec at room
temperature.

6.18 Stress and Reactions

a. Piping systems are subject to a diversity of loadings creating stresses of different types and patterns, of which only the
following more significant ones need generally be considered in piping stress analysis:

The expansion stresses shall be combined in accordance with the following formula.

Where:
Sb = iMb / Z = resultant bending stress kPa
St = Mt /2Z = torsional stress
Mb = resultant bending moment, newton-metre.
Mt = torsional moment, newton-metre
Z = section modulus of pipe (m3)
i = stress intensification factor

b. The maximum computed expansion stress, SE based on 100 per cent of the expansion and Ec for the cold condition shall not
exceed the allowable stress range, SA:

SC = allowable stress (S value) in the hot condition

Sh = allowable stress (s value) in the hot condition

SC and SH are to be taken from the table in the applicable sections of the code.

f = stress-range reduction factor for cyclic conditions. in the absence of more applicable date, the values of f shall be taken from
the table.

By expected life is meant total number of years during which system is expected to be in active operation.

The sum of the longitudinal stresses due to pressure, weight and other sustained external loadings shall not exceed Sh.

Where the sum of these stresses is less than Sh the difference between Sh and this sum may be added to the term 0.25 Sh in the
above formula. the longitudinal
pressure stress Sep shall be determined by dividing the end force due to internal pressure:

By the cross-sectional area of the pipe wall

In which

Sep = longitudinal pressure stress, kPa

P = internal pressure, kPa
d = nominal outside diameter of the pipe minus two times the normal wall thickness in mm.
D = nominal outside diameter of pipe, mm

1. The reactions (forces and moments) Rh and Rc in the hot and cold conditions, respectively, shall be obtained as follows
from the reactions R derived from the flexibility calculations based on the modulus of elasticity at room temperature Ec

Whichever is greater, and with the further condition that:

Where:

C = cold spring factor varying from zero for no cold spring to one for 100 per cent cold spring
SE = maximum computed expansion stress
EC = modulus of elasticity in the cold condition
Eh = modulus of elasticity in hot condition
R = range of reactions corresponding to the full
expansion range based on EC.

c. The design and spacing of support shall be checked to assure that the sum of the longitudinal stress due to the weight, pressure,
and other sustained external loading does not exceed Sh.

 Section 7.0 Industrial Gas and Air Piping Systems

7.1 This industrial air and gas in mines, power plants, industrial and gas manufacturing plants.

a. Piping with metal temperature above 232 degree or below - 2.9 OC.
b. Air piping systems operating at pressures of 207 kPa or less.
c. c. Piping lines with firebrick or other refractory material used for conveying hot gases.

7.2 Wall thickness of Pipe

The minimum thickness of pipe wall required shall be determined by the following formula for the designated pressure and for
temperature not exceeding 232-degree Celsius.

where: P = maximum allowable, operating pressure in kPa. The value obtained maybe rounded
to the next higher unit of 10. The maximum allowable operating pressure computed with S
values permitted under this paragraph, shall not exceed two-thirds of the mill test pressure
 for a service temperature of 38'~ or less and five-ninths of the mill test pressure for a service temperature of 232-degree Celsius.

S = maximum allowable hoop stress in kPa

For steel or wrought-iron pipe the value of S shall be 0.6

K for a service temperature of 38'~ or less or 0.52K for a service temperature of 232'~ where K is the stipulated minimum
effective yield strength calculated in the manner described in Section 1 1.7.3.

tm = minimum pipe wall thickness in mm, i.e., nominal wall thickness less the manufacturing tolerance for the thickness. Where
available from on hand or in stock, the actual measured wall thickness maybe used to calculate the maximum allowable operating
pressure.

C = corrosion in millimeter obtained from the following:

Type of Pipe (mm) Value of C in inches

Threaded steel, wrought-iron Depth of thread or 1.7 mm whichever is larger

Grooved steel, wrought-iron Depth of groove
Plain end steel or wrought-iron 0.05 (1.7mm)

D = outside diameter of pipe in inches (mm)

7.3 Effective Yield Strength (K)

The effective yield strength K of steel or wrought-iron pipe maybe determined by taking the product of Y, the stipulated minimum
yield strength, and E, efficiency of the longitudinal joint.

Alternatively, the effective yield strength maybe determined by internal hydrostatic pressure tests on finished lengths of pipe or on
cylindrical samples cut from the results of such test in accordance with the ff. formula:

���
�=
2�

Where: K = effective yield strength in kPa

Py = pressure at the yield strength of the pipe in

kPa

This maybe taken as the pressure required to cause a volumetric offset of 0.2 per cent of as the pressure required to cause a
permanent increase in circumference of 0.1 per cent at any point, but other suitable methods of determining that the stress in the
steel has reached the yield strength maybe used, provided such methods conform in all respects to recognized engineering
practices. t = stipulated nominal pipe wall thickness in mm D = stipulated outside diameter of pipe in mm.

 Section 8.0 Refrigerator Piping System

 8.1 Refrigeration piping shall be understood to comprise all refrigerant and brine piping, whenever used and whether
erected on the premise or factory assembled.

 8.2 Minimum Design Pressures for Refrigerant Piping

a. Piping Systems for refrigerants shall be designed for not less than the pressures.

b. For refrigerants the design pressure for the high-pressure side shall be not less than the saturated vapour pressure of the
refrigerant at 54 C. The design pressure for the low-pressure side shall be not less than the saturated vapour pressure of
the refrigerant at 32 C. For refrigerant not listed in Table 11.8.2.1 & having a critical temperature below 54 C, the design
pressure for the high-pressure side shall be not less than 1.5 times the critical pressure and the design pressure for the
low-pressure side shall be not less than the critical pressure. In no case shall be design pressure be less than 270 kPa.

c. Piping systems for brine shall be designed for the maximum pressure which can be imposed on the system in normal
operation, but not less than 689.5 kPa including for cast-iron pipe, the water hammer allowance.

d. For working temperatures below 18 C, an allowance for brittleness of castings, forgings, bolting, and pipe shall be made
as follows:
CAST IRON, WROUGHT-IRON, and CARBON STEEL ferrous materials shall have the design pressure including
allowance for water hammer increased 2 percent for each degree below 18 C and shall not be used below – 73 C.

COPPER, BRASS, BRONZE. No adjustment.

8.3 Thickness of Pipe

The minimum thickness of pipe wall required shall be determined by the ff. formula:

Where:
tm = minimum pipe wall thickness in mm
P = maximum internal service pressure in kPa. The value of P shall not be taken at less than 689.5 kPa for any condition of service
or material.
D = outside diameter of pipe in mm
S = allowable stress in material due to internal pressure, kilo Pascal
C = Allowance for threading, mechanical strength, and/or corrosion, in mm obtained from the following list.

 8.4 Piping of Pressure Relieving Devices

The most important design factor about pressure relieving devices is the underlying principle of intrinsic safety. They must “fail
safe” or not at all. Therefore, the solution to problems in pressure relief piping must be based on sound design practices. Because
failure is intolerable, simplicity and directness of design should be encouraged as a mass to reliability.

There are at least four good reasons why the installation of pressure safety valves and disc should be engineered with care:

a. The inlet and outlet piping can reduce the capacity of the device below a safe value.

b. The operation of the device maybe adversely affected to the point where the opening or closing pressure is altered. In the
case of safety valves*, premature leaking or "simmering" may occur at pressures less than the set pressure or chattering
may occur after the valve opens.

c. The reaction thrust at the same time the device starts to discharge can cause mechanical failure of the piping.

d. Good design saves maintenance pesos.

 8.5 Safety Valve Inlet Piping

In order to operate satisfactorily, a safety valve must be mounted vertically. It should be directly on the vessel nozzle or on a short
connection fitting that provides direct and unobstructed flow between the vessel and the valve. Safety valves protecting piping
systems should of course be mounted in a similar manner. The device may never be installed on a fitting having a smaller inside
diameter than the safety valve inlet connection.

 8.6 Pressure Drop

The pressure drop between the vessel and safety valve inlet flange should not be so large that the valve is "starved" or chattering
will result. The following limitations are suggested:

A. The pressure drop due to friction should not exceed 1 percent of the accumulated relieving pressure.

B. The pressure drop due to velocity head loss should not exceed 2 percent of the accumulate relieving pressure.

Some safety valve manufacturers suggested a maximum total pressure drop of 2 percent of set pressure. In the absence of test
data, it is recommended that this more conservative limit be used.

 8.7 Piping Supports

Safety valves are instruments that must measure within three percent and perform a specific control function, but excessive strain
can negatively affect their ability to measure and control.

Supports for discharge piping should be designed to keep the load on the valve to a minimum. In high temperature service, high
loads can cause permanent distortion of the valve, even at low temperature. The discharge piping should be supported
free of the valve and carefully aligned so that the forces acting on the valve will be at minimum. Expansion joints or long radius
bends of proper design and cold spring should be provided to prevent excessive strain.

The discharge pipe is subjected to thermal expansion and discharge reaction forces, resulting in an impact load and bourdon effect
at each charge of direction. The piping must be adequately anchored to prevent sway or vibration while the valve is discharging.

NOTES: A. The maximum weight per span is based on bigger steel pipe size weight full of water fittings and insulated.
 1. The copper tubing and fittings (for instrument air lines) shall be supported not more than 5 feet on centers or as shown on
the drawings.

2. Vertical risers shall be supported from the building construction by means of approved pipe clamps of U-bolts at every
floor. Provide slide guides for pipes subject to thermal expansion. Supports shall be of adequate. Size structural steel
shapes or sections where pipe clamps are too short to connect to the building.

B. Pipe Anchors and Restraints:

1. Provide suitable pipe anchors to limit thermal expansion and over stressing of piping and adjacent connecting structures
when piping is subject to thermal expansion.

a. Rigid pipe anchors shall either be welded type construction or clamp bolted type whichever is suitable to the requirement.

b. Directional type pipe anchors where pipe movement is allowed in any one plate shall be designed to prevent excessive stresses
to the pipe and interference with adjacent pipes or structure.

2. Piping restraints should be provided to prevent unnecessary pipe movements due to vibration and seismic forces and
damage to pipe joints.

 8.8 Reaction Forces

The total stress imposed on a safety valve or its piping is caused by the sum of these forces:

a. Internal Pressure

b. Dead Weight of piping

c. Thermal expansion or contraction of either the discharge line of the equipment upon which the valve is mounted and

d. The bending moment cause by the reaction thrust of the discharge.

Where:
F1 = Reaction force, Kg
A = Area of valve orifice or disc., sq. mm.
P1 = inlet pressure at time of opening, kPa (set pressure plus 14.7)
K = ratio of specific heats, Cp/Cv.
Note: Psi x 6.895 = kPa.

If it is possible for air to be relieved from the system under special conditions, use a minimum valve of K = 1.4 for design.

Calculation of the reaction force for liquid service demonstrates that this force is negligible. However, since it is usually
possible to trap air or gas in any pressure system, it is recommended that K = 104 be
used in the above formulas as a basis design for liquid service.

 8.9 Compressor Piping

Piping in a compressor circuit should connect directly point to point, bends instead of elbows, angular branch connections
eliminate hard tees, double offsets should be avoided, intercoolers should be integrated with the machine, pulsation dampeners
should be located on the cylinders without interconnecting pipe, knockout drums should be adjacent to the machine, several
aftercoolers or exchangers should be stacked as much as possible, and equipment should be in process flow sequence.

Pipe supports are essential for reciprocating compressors due to vibration problems. Independent of any other foundation or
structure, pipe systems should be "nailed down" close to grade. Poorly designed compressor piping can be expensive to correct
after start-up.