CHAPTER

1
FREQUENCY

OUTLINE

OBJECTIVES • INTRODUCTION
• ORGANIZING DATA
After completing this chapter, • HISTOGRAMS, FREQUENCY POLYGONS,
you should be able to: AND OGIVES
• OTHER TYPES OF GRAPHS
1. Organize data
using frequency
distributions.
2. Represent data in
frequency
distributions
graphically using
histograms,
frequency
polygons, and
ogives.
3. Represent data
using Pareto
charts, time series
graphs, and pie
graphs.
4. Draw and interpret
a stem and leaf
plot.
 Coronavirus (COVID-19) key figures in the
Philippines 2022
As of April 21, 2022, approximately 3.68 million people had
been confirmed as infected with the COVID-19 virus in the Philippines.
Of those, over 3.6 million had recovered and around 60 thousand died.
The number of the total case, active cases, recoveries and deaths are
shown in the following table.

Looking at the numbers presented in a table does not have the same impact as presenting numbers in a
well-drawn chart or graph. The article did not include any graphs. This chapter will show you how to construct
appropriate graphs to represent data and help you to get your point across to your audience.

INTRODUCTION

When conducting a statistical study, the researcher must gather data for the particular variable under study. For
example, if a researcher wishes to study the number of people who were confirmed as infected with the COVID-19
virus in the Philippines, he or she has to gather the data from various doctors, hospitals, or health departments. To
describe situations, draw conclusions, or make inferences about events, the researcher must organize the data in
some meaningful way. The most convenient method of organizing data is to construct a frequency distribution.

After organizing the data, the researcher must present them so they can be understood by those who will benefit
from reading the study. The most useful method of presenting the data is by constructing statistical charts and
graphs. There are many different types of charts and graphs, and each one has a specific purpose.

This chapter explains how to organize data by constructing frequency distributions and how to present the data by
constructing charts and graphs. The charts and graphs illustrated here are histograms, frequency polygons, ogives,
pie graphs, Pareto charts, and time series graphs. A graph that combines the characteristics of a frequency
distribution and a histogram, called a stem and leaf plot, is also explained.

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 ORGANIZING DATA

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
Suppose a researcher wished to do a study the distance in kilometer that the 30 employees of an institution
traveled to work each day. The researcher first would have to collect the data by asking each employee the
approximate distance the store is from his or her home. When data are collected in original form, they are called
raw data. In this case, the data are

2 5 3 7 2 1
8 15 5 10 2 3
6 5 6 8 12 3
1 8 4 11 7 8
7 5 10 11 5 3
Class limits (in km)
Solution: Tally Frequency
1-4 10
5-8 14
9-12 5
13-16 1
Total = 30

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 Since little information can be obtained from looking at raw data, the researcher organizes the data into
what is called a frequency distribution. A frequency distribution consists of classes and their corresponding
frequencies. Each raw data value is placed into a quantitative or qualitative category called a class. The frequency
of a class then is the number of data values contained in a specific class. A frequency distribution is shown for the
data set above.

Now some general observations can be made from looking at the data in the form of a frequency
distribution. For example, the majority of employees live within 8 kilometers from the school.

A frequency distribution is the organization of raw data in table form, using classes and frequencies.

The classes in this distribution are 1–3, 4–6, etc. These values are called class limits. The data values
1, 2, 3 can be tallied in the first class; 4, 5, 6 in the second class; and so on.
With small samples from a population, we can record the sample observations, arrange them in
increasing order, and see the general level and amount of variation by inspecting the individual values. With
large number of values, the frequency distribution is more compact presentation of data.
The frequency distribution is an arrangement of numerical data according to size or magnitude.

CONSTRUCTION:
1. Using the range of the data (the interval between the highest and lowest figure) as a guide, the
data are divided into a number of convenient sized groups. The groups are called class
intervals.

The size of the class interval is dependent upon the number of values to be included in the
distribution. The range of the values is determined and is divided by the number of class
intervals desired. The resulting size is rounding off. Few class intervals are used when a limited
number of values are included and a large number when the distribution is to compiled from
many values. The most efficient number of class intervals usually lies between ten to twenty
groups.

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 Other requirements are:
a) The class interval should not overlap.
b) When the values tabulated coincide with the integer or with selected values, these
values should generally constitute the midpoints of the groups.
c) When possible, the class intervals should be of uniform size.
2. The groups are then placed in a column with lowest class interval at the top and
the rest of the class intervals following according the size.
3. The data are then scored. Each figure is checked once next to the class interval
into which it falls.

Examp le :
Example. Construct a frequency distribution for the following data:

23 35 20 65 79 88 45 57 119 67
67 55 81 100 112 96 53 28 40 53
70 93 86 75 60 101 93 86 94 81
38 44 57 69 52 35 46 69 77 66
50 71 30 45 83 79 105 88 68 60

Solution:

1. Construct a stem and leaf plot.

STEM AND LEAF PLOT

A stem and leaf plot present a graphical display of the data using the actual numerical values of each
data point.
Steps in constructing a stem and leaf plot
1. Divide each measurement into two parts: stem and leaf.
2. List the stem in column, with a vertical line to the right.
3. For each measurement, record the leaf portion in the same row as its corresponding stem.
4. Order the leaves from lowest to highest in each stem.
2 038
3 0558
4 04556
5 0233577
6 005677899
7 015799
8 1136688
9 3346
10 015
11 29

2. Compute the range

Range = 119 – 20 = 99

3. Compute the class interval

Class interval = 99/10 = 9.9 ≈ 10

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 4. Using the stem and leaf plot, we now construct the frequency distribution,
Class interval = 99/10 = 9.9 ≈ 10

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

Amount of Sales Number of Sales

(Class intervals) (Frequency)
20 - 29 3
30 - 39 4
40 - 49 5
50 - 59 7
60 - 69 9
70 - 79 6
80 - 89 7
90 - 99 4
100 - 109 3
110 - 119 2
Total 50

CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

A distribution in which the frequencies are cumulated is called cumulative frequency distribution. It
shows the total frequency below the upper limit of the groups or classes. Taking the previous table,

Amount of Sales Number of Sales Cumulative Frequency

(Class intervals) (Frequency) (cf)
20 - 29 3 3
30 - 39 4 7
40 - 49 5 12
50 - 59 7 19
60 - 69 9 28
70 - 79 6 34
80 - 89 7 41
90 - 99 4 45
100 - 109 3 48
110 - 119 2 50

Two types of frequency distributions that are most often used are the categorical frequency
distribution and the grouped frequency distribution. The procedures for constructing these
distributions are shown now.

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CATEGORICAL FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

The categorical frequency distribution is used for data that can be placed in specific categories, such as
nominal- or ordinal-level data. For example, data such as political affiliation, religious affiliation, or major field
of study would use categorical frequency distributions

Example:

Twenty teachers were given a blood test to determine their blood type. The data set is
A O B A AB
O AB A B AB
A B A AB A
A AB AB B B

Construct a frequency distribution for the data.

Solution:

Since the data are categorical, discrete classes can be used. There are four blood types: A, B, O, and
AB. These types will be used as the classes for the distribution.

The procedure for constructing a frequency distribution for categorical data is given next.

STEP 1Make a table as shown.

Class Tally Frequency Percentage

A 7 35 %
B 5 25 %
O 2 10 %
AB 6 30 %
Total = 20

STEP 2Tally the data and place the results in column B.

STEP 3Count the tallies and place the results in column C.
STEP 4Find the percentage of values in each class by using the formula

f
%= ∙ 100 %
n
where f = frequency of the class and n = total number of values. For example, in the class of
type A blood, the percentage is
7
%= ∙ 100 %=35 %
20

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EXERCISE 1.1

1. Data below shows the age of 30 people.

24 56 31 45 27 29
33 21 30 35 41 27
25 28 36 39 42 48
37 31 30 45 29 31
35 41 47 44 32 29

a) Construct a stem and leaf display

b) Construct a frequency distribution with the lowest limit 20 and class width of 4.
c) Construct cumulative frequency distribution from (b).

2. Forty instructors were given the following grades: P = poor, S = satisfactory, VS = very satisfactory, E
= excellent. Construct a categorical frequency distribution.

a) Find the percentage of values in each class by using the formula

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 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF A FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

A frequency distribution can be represented graphically by plotting along the horizontal axis the
intervals into which range of values is split and erecting a rectangle on each interval with height equal to the
corresponding frequency. Such a diagram is called a histogram. Figure below shows the histogram of the given
frequency distribution.

Example:

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION HISTOGRAM

Amount of Sales Number of Sales 10

(Class intervals) (Frequency)
9
20 - 29 3
30 - 39 4 8
40 - 49 5 7
50 - 59 7 6
60 - 69 9
70 - 79 6 f 5
80 - 89 7 4
90 - 99 4 3
100 - 109 3
110 - 119 2 2
Total 50 1
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Class intervals

A frequency distribution may also be represented by a frequency polygon which is obtained by plotting the
frequency to scale vertically about the center of the corresponding interval on the horizontal axis. The figure below
shows the frequency polygon for the same example.

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 A distribution in which the frequencies are cumulated is known as the ogive. Figure below shows the ogive
for the same example.

OTHER TYPES OF GRAPH

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 After data have been collected, they can be consolidated and summarized in tables.

When the variable of interest is qualitative, the statistical table is a list of the categories being considered
along with measure of how often each value occurred. The measure can be presented in the following way:
 The frequency or number of measurements in each category
 The relative frequency, or proportion of measurements in each category
 The percentage of measurement in each category
Once the measurements are summarized in a statistical table, you can either use a pie chart or a bar chart to
display the distribution of the data. The pie charts display how the total quantity is distributed among the
categories. The bar charts use the height of the bar to display the amount in a particular category.
Example:

4000 freshmen were admitted in the college of engineering of a university in Manila for the school year, 2021 –
2022. The students were enrolled in the following programs:
Program Number of students
Chemical Engineering 320
Civil Engineering 440
Computer Engineering 720
Electrical Engineering 1080
Electronics and Communication 800
Industrial Engineering 400
Mechanical Engineering 240
Total 4,000

Calculation for the pie chart

Program Frequency Relative Percent Angle
Chemical Engineering 320 0.08 8% 28.8°
Civil Engineering 440 0.11 11% 39.6°
Computer Engineering 720 0.18 18% 64.8°
Electrical Engineering 1080 0.27 27% 97.2°
Electronics and Communication 800 0.20 20% 72°
Industrial Engineering 400 0.10 10% 36°
Mechanical Engineering 240 0.06 6% 21.6°
Total 4,000 1.00 100% 360°

Program Preference in Engineering

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Bar Graph (same example)

When quantitative variable is recorded over time at equally spaced intervals (daily, weekly, monthly,
yearly, etc.) the data set forms a time series. Time series data are most effectively presented on a line chart.

Example:
Table below shows the daily produce of a mining company

Day 1 2 3 4 5 6
Number of Tons
24 31 28 35 40 34
(in million)

The Line Graph

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EXERCISE 1.2

1. Data below shows the time per week (in hours) of 40 students spend playing mobile legends.

24 56 31 45 27 29 35 41
33 21 30 35 41 27 38 29
25 28 36 39 42 48 27 18
37 31 30 45 29 31 15 11
35 41 47 44 32 29 19 33

a. Construct a frequency distribution with the lowest limit 10 and class width of 5
b. Draw a histogram and a frequency polygon
c. Draw an ogive of the above distribution

2. Table below is a summary of brands preference of 500 randomly selected smartphone buyers in
Ormoc City.

Vivo Oppo Samsung Realme Xiaomi

105 115 97 120 63

a. Construct a percentage or relative distribution

b. Construct a pie chart to describe the data
c. Construct a bar chart to describe the data

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