GROUP 1

What is Engineering Materials?

Engineering materials refers to the

group of materials that are used in
the construction of manmade
structures and components.
Metals Polymers Ceramics Composites
❖are Solid at room temperature, except mercury, which is liquid
❖Metals have very high melting point. Metals are… shiny when
they cut.
❖Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity.
❖Metals are usually strong & malleable so they can be
hammered into shape.
❖Metals are the most commonly used class of engineering
material.
❖formed by combining a metal with one or more other metallic
and/or non-metallic materials.
Ferrous Alloys
❖Ferrous alloys have iron as the base element.
❖These alloys and include steels and cast irons.
❖Ferrous alloys are the most common metal alloys
in use due to the abundance of iron, ease of
production, and high versatility of the material.
❖ The biggest disadvantage of many ferrous alloys is
low corrosion resistance.
 Carbon Steel

❖ Carbon steels are basically just mixtures of iron and

carbon. Most carbon steels are plain carbon steels, of
which there are several types.
 Low-Carbon Steel

❖Low-carbon steel has less than about 0.30% carbon.

❖It is characterized by low strength but high ductility.
❖Common uses for low-carbon steel include wire,
structural shapes, machine parts, and sheet metal.
Medium-Carbon Steel

❖ Medium-carbon steel contains

between about 0.30% to 0.70%
carbon.
❖ It can be heat treated to increase
strength, especially with the higher
carbon contents.
❖ Medium-carbon steel is frequently
used for axles, gears, shafts, and
machine parts.
 High-Carbon Steel

❖High-carbon steel contains between about 0.70% to

1.40% carbon.
❖It has high strength but low ductility.
❖Common uses include drills, cutting tools, knives,
and springs.
 Yield Ultimate Elongation Elastic Density Poisson's
Material Condition
Strength [ksi] Strength [ksi] % Modulus [psi] [lb/in3] Ratio
Hot Rolled 32 50 25

Cold Worked 60 70 5

AISI 1020 Stress 29e6 0.283 0.32

50 65 10
Relieved
Annealed 28 48 30

Normalized 34 55 22

Hot Rolled 45 75 15

Cold Worked 80 90 5

AISI 1045 Stress 29e6 0.283 0.32

70 80 8
Relieved
Annealed 35 65 20

Normalized 48 75 15
ASTM A36 36 58 21 29e6 0.283 0.3
ASTM A516 Grade 70 38 70 17 29e6 0.283 0.3

NOTE : See our materials database for data conforming to specific material specifications.
Low-Alloy Steel
❖Low-alloy steels, also
commonly called alloy steels,
contain less than about 8%
total alloying ingredients.
❖Low-alloy steels are typically
stronger than carbon steels
and have better corrosion
resistance.
 Yield Ultimate Elongation Elastic Density Poisson's
Material Condition
Strength [ksi] Strength [ksi] % Modulus [psi] [lb/in3] Ratio
Hot Rolled 70 90 20
Stress
85 105 10
Relieved
AISI 4130 29e6 0.283 0.32
Annealed 55 75 30

Normalized 60 90 20

Hot Rolled 90 120 15

Stress
100 120 10
Relieved
AISI 4140 29.7e6 0.283 0.32
Annealed 60 80 25

Normalized 90 120 20

ASTM A242 46 67 18 30e6 0.282 0.3

Grade A 45 75 15
ASTM A302 29e6 0.282 0.29
Grade C 50 80 17
Quenched
ASTM A514 & 100 110 18 29e6 0.283 0.3
Tempered
 Yield Ultimate Elongation Elastic Density Poisson's
Material Condition
Strength [ksi] Strength [ksi] % Modulus [psi] [lb/in3] Ratio
ASTM A517 Grade F 100 115 16 29e6 0.280 0.29

Class 1 50 80 18

ASTM A533 Class 2 70 90 16 29e6 0.282 0.29

Class 3 83 100 16

ASTM A572 Grade 50 50 65 18 30e6 0.283 0.3

ASTM A588 50 70 18 29.7e6 0.280 0.28

ASTM A633 Grade E 55 75 18 29.7e6 0.280 0.28

Grade 50 50 60 20

Grade 60 60 70 17

ASTM A656 Grade 70 70 80 14 29e6 0.282 0.29

Grade 80 80 90 12

Grade 100 100 110 12

 Yield Ultimate Elongation Elastic Density Poisson's
Material Condition
Strength [ksi] Strength [ksi] % Modulus [psi] [lb/in3] Ratio
ASTM A710 Grade A 80 85 20 29.7e6 0.280 0.3

HY-80 80 --- 18 29.7e6 0.280 0.3

HY-100 100 --- 16 29.7e6 0.284 0.3

NOTE : See our materials database for data conforming to specific material specifications.
❖Tool steels are primarily used to make
tooling for use in manufacturing, for
example cutting tools, drill bits, punches,
dies, and chisels.
❖Stainless steels have good
corrosion resistance, mostly due to
the addition of chromium as an
alloying ingredient.
❖Stainless steels have a chromium
composition of at least 11%.
 Element Austenitic Ferritic Martensitic Element Austenitic Ferritic Martensitic

Carbon 0.03 - 0.25% 0.08 - 0.20% 0.15 - 1.2% Carbon 0.03 - 0.25% 0.08 - 0.20% 0.15 - 1.2%

Chromium 16 - 26% 11 - 27% 11.5 - 18% Chromium 16 - 26% 11 - 27% 11.5 - 18%

Nickel 3.5 - 22% --- --- Nickel 3.5 - 22% --- ---

Manganese 2% 1 - 1.5% 1% Manganese 2% 1 - 1.5% 1%

Silicon 1 - 2% 1% 1% Silicon 1 - 2% 1% 1%

NOTE : Table adapted from Lindeburg

❖Austenitic stainless steel is the most
common form of stainless steel.
❖It has the highest general corrosion
resistance among stainless steels.
❖ It is also the most weldable of the
stainless steels due to its low carbon
content.
❖Austenitic stainless steels are generally more
expensive than other stainless steels due to
nickel content.
❖Austenitic stainless steels are not magnetic,
although ferritic and martensitic stainless steels
are.
❖ Common applications include fasteners,
pressure vessels, and piping.
❖Ferritic stainless steel has high
chromium content and medium
carbon content.
❖ It has good corrosion resistance
rather than high strength.
❖Martensitic stainless steel has
high carbon content (up to 2%)
and low chromium content.
❖ Common applications include
cutlery and surgical instruments.
❖Duplex stainless steel contains both
austenitic and ferritic phases.
❖It can have up to twice the strength of
austenitic stainless steel.
❖Duplex stainless steel is generally as
weldable as austenitic, but it has a
temperature limit.
❖Precipitation-hardenable
stainless steel can be
strengthened through
precipitation hardening, which is
an age hardening process.
❖Cast iron is a ferrous alloy containing high levels of
carbon, generally greater than 2%.
❖Cast irons have a low melting temperature which
makes them well suited to casting.
➢Gray Cast Iron
▪ Gray cast iron is the most common type.
▪ Gray cast iron is a brittle material, and its
compressive strength is much higher than its
tensile strength.
➢Ductile Cast Iron (Nodular Cast Iron)
▪ The addition of magnesium to gray cast iron improves
the ductility of the material.
▪ The resulting material is called nodular cast
iron because the magnesium causes the graphite
flakes to form into spherical nodules.
▪ It is also called ductile cast iron. Nodular cast iron has
good strength, ductility, and machinability.
▪ Common uses include crankshafts, gears, pump
bodies, valves, and machine parts.
➢White Cast Iron
▪ White cast iron has carbon in the form of
carbide, which makes the material hard,
brittle, and difficult to machine.
▪ White cast iron is primarily used for wear-
resisting components as well as for the
production of malleable cast iron.
➢Malleable Cast Iron
▪ Malleable cast iron is produced by heat
treating white cast iron
❖Pure aluminum is soft and weak, but it
can be alloyed to increase strength. Pure
aluminum has good corrosion resistance
due to an oxide coating that forms over the
material and prevents oxidation.
❖Alloying the aluminum tends to reduce its
corrosion resistance.
Aluminum alloys are named according to a 4-digit number,
where the first number indicates the major alloying
element. A processing code follows the 4-digit number,
which indicates the condition and treatment of the
material.
Series Major Alloying Element Heat Treatable Suffix Treatment
None (commercially
1XXX No -F As fabricated
pure)
2XXX Copper Yes -O Annealed
3XXX Manganese No
4XXX Silicon No (mostly) -HX Cold worked (strain hardened)
5XXX Magnesium No
Solution heat treated, precipitation
6XXX Magnesium and Silicon Yes -TX
hardened
7XXX Zinc Yes
 Yield Ultimate Elastic
Elongation Density Poisson's
Material Condition Strength Strength Modulus
% [lb/in3] Ratio
[ksi] [ksi] [psi]

Al 2014 T6, T651 59 67 7 10.5e6 0.101 0.33

Al 2024 T4 40 62 10 10.5e6 0.1 0.33
Al 5052 H32 23 38 9 10.1e6 0.097 0.33

H116, H321 31 44 10
Al 5083 10.3e6 0.096 0.33
H32 31 56 12
T4 16 26 16
Al 6061 9.9e6 0.098 0.33
T6 35 38 8
Al 7075 T6, T651 68 78 6 10.3e6 0.101 0.33
NOTE : See our materials database for data conforming to specific material specifications.
❖Nickel alloys have high temperature
and corrosion resistance.
❖Common alloying ingredients include
copper, chromium, and iron.
❖ Common nickel alloys include Monel,
K-Monel, Inconel, and Hastelloy.
 Yield Ultimate Elongation Elastic Density Poisson's
Material Condition
Strength [ksi] Strength [ksi] % Modulus [psi] [lb/in3] Ratio

Hastelloy C- Solution
41 100 40 29.8e6 0.321 0.28
276 annealed
Grade 1 55 110 30
Inconel 625 29.8e6 0.305 0.28
Grade 2 40 100 30

Grade 1 85 120 20

Inconel 686 29.8e6 0.315 0.28

Grade 2 125 135 20

Grade 3 150 160 20

Solution
annealed & 120 150 20
Inconel 718 aged 29.4e6 0.297 0.29
Solution heat
150 180 10
treated
 Yield Ultimate Elongation Elastic Density Poisson's
Material Condition
Strength [ksi] Strength [ksi] % Modulus [psi] [lb/in3] Ratio

Solution
40 75 45
annealed
Inconel 725 Solution 29.6e6 0.3 0.31
annealed & 120 150 20
aged
Annealed 25 70 35

Hot worked 40 75 30
Monel 400 26e6 0.319 0.32

Cold worked,
stress 50 80 20
relieved
Annealed &
85 130 20
Monel K- aged
26e6 0.306 0.32
500 Cold worked
100 140 15
& aged
NOTE : See our materials database for data conforming to specific material specifications.
❖Copper alloys are generally characterized as being
electrically conductive, having good corrosion
resistance, and being relatively easy to form and cast.
❖Copper alloys primarily consist of brasses and
bronzes.
 Yield Ultimate Elongation Elastic Density Poisson's
Material Condition
Strength [ksi] Strength [ksi] % Modulus [psi] [lb/in3] Ratio

70/30 Annealed 18 45 30
Copper- 21.8e6 0.323 0.3
Nickel Cold worked 50 65 10

90/10 Annealed 15 38 30
Copper- 20.3e6 0.323 0.3
Nickel Cold worked 30 50 15

Aluminum
32 85 12 15.5e6 0.269 0.316
Bronze
Solution heat
75 85 8
Beryllium treated
18.5e6 0.298 0.27
Copper Precipitation
140 165 3
heat treated
Nickel
Aluminum Annealed 34 90 10 16.7e6 0.274 0.32
Bronze 632
NOTE : See our materials database for data conforming to specific material specifications.
❖Titanium alloys are light, strong, and have high corrosion
resistance.
❖Their density is much lower than steel, and their
strength-to-weight ratio is excellent.
❖There are three categories of titanium alloys: alpha
alloys, beta alloys, and alpha-beta alloys.
▪ Alpha alloys do not respond to heat treatment and
are instead strengthened through solid-solution
strengthening processes.
▪ The beta and alpha-beta alloys can be strengthened
by heat treatment, primarily through precipitation
hardening.
 Yield Ultimate Elastic
Elongation Density Poisson's
Material Condition Strength Strength Modulus
% [lb/in3] Ratio
[ksi] [ksi] [psi]
Commerc
Grade 2 40 50 20 14.8e6 0.163 0.34
ially Pure
Ti-5Al-
Annealed 110 115 10 15.5e6 0.162 0.31
2.5Sn
Ti-6Al-4V Grade 5 120 130 10 16e6 0.16 0.31
Ti-6Al-4V,
Grade 23 110 120 10 16.5e6 0.16 0.31
ELI
Ti-5-1-1-1 Grade 32 85 100 10 16e6 0.16 0.31
NOTE : See our materials database for data conforming to specific material specifications.
❖Polymers are materials that consist
of molecules formed by long chains
of repeating units.
❖They may be natural or synthetic.
❖Many useful engineering materials are polymers, such as
plastics, rubbers, fibers, adhesives, and coatings.
Polymers are classified:
▪ as thermoplastic polymers,
▪ thermosetting polymers (thermosets), and
▪ elastomers.
❖The classification of thermoplastics and
thermosets is based on their response to
heat.
❖Thermoplastics do not experience any
chemical change through repeated heating
and cooling (unless the temperature is high
enough to break the molecular bonds).
❖Thermosets are typically heated
during initial processing, after which
they become permanently hard.
❖Thermosets typically have greater
hardness and strength than
thermoplastics.
❖Elastomers are highly elastic polymers
with mechanical properties similar to
rubber.
❖Elastomers are commonly used for
seals, adhesives, hoses, belts, and
other flexible parts.
❖ Ceramics are solid compounds that may
consist of metallic or nonmetallic elements.
❖ Ceramics have excellent corrosion and wear
resistance, high melting temperature, high
stiffness, and low electrical and thermal
conductivity.
Ceramics
 Glasses
❖Glasses are common materials and are
seen in applications including windows,
lenses, and containers.
❖Glasses are amorphous, whereas the
other ceramics are mainly crystalline.
➢heating until melting, then pouring
into molds to cast into useful
shapes
➢heating until soft, then rolling
➢heating until soft, then blowing
into desired shapes
❖Cements are materials that, after mixing with
water, form a paste that then hardens. Because
of this characteristic, cements can be formed
into useful shapes while in paste form before
they harden into rigid structures.
❖Cement is very inexpensive to produce, and it
is used widely in the construction of buildings,
bridges, and other large structures.
Cements
❖Clay is a very common ceramic
material. It can be mixed with
water, shaped, and then
hardened through firing at high
temperature.
Clay Product
STRUCTURAL CLAY
PRODUCTS WHITEWARES
❖Refractory ceramics can
withstand high temperatures
and extreme environments.
They can also provide thermal
insulation.
Refractories
❖Abrasive ceramics are hard materials
that are used to cut, grind, and wear
away other softer materials.
❖Typical properties of abrasives include
high hardness, wear resistance, and
temperature resistance.
Abrasives
❖A composite material is a
material in which one or
more mutually insoluble
materials are mixed or
bonded together.
Composites

.
The primary classes of composites
are particulate composites, fibrous
composites, and laminated
composites
➢Particulate composites are created by
adding particles of one material to a
matrix (the filler material). The particles
will typically account for less than 15% of
the total material volume. The particles
are added to improve upon some
shortcoming of the matrix material.
➢A fibrous composite is a material in
which fibers of one material are
embedded within a matrix. The fibers
carry most of the stress, and the matrix
serves to hold the fibers in place and to
transmit stress between the fibers.
➢Laminated composites are
created by combining
layers of composite
materials.
1.Chemical composition
2.Atomic bonding
3.Corrosion resistance
4.Acidity or Alkalinity
 The chemical composition of engineering material
indicates the elements which are combined together to
form that material. Chemical composition of a material
effects the properties of engineering materials very much.
The strength, hardness, ductility, brittleness, corrosion
resistance, weldability etc. depends on chemical
composition of materials.
Hence, we should also have the knowledge of
chemical composition of engineering materials.
Sl.
No. Material Chemical Composition
1. Steel Fe, Cr, Ni

2. Brass Cu = 90%, Ni = 10%

3. Bronze 90% Cu, 10% Ni

4. Invar Fe = 64%, Ni = 36%

5. Gun Metal Cu = 88%, Tin = 10%, Zn = 2%

6. German Silver or Nickel Silver or Electrum Cu = 50%, Zn = 30%, Ni = 20%

7. Nichrome Ni = 60%, Cr = 15%, Fe = 25%

8. Phosphor Bronge Cu = 89 – 95.50% , Tin = 3.50 -10%, P = 1%

9. Manganin Cu = 84%, Mn = 12%, Ni = 4%

10. Constantan Cu = 60%, Ni = 40%

 Atomic bonding represents how atoms are
bounded to each other to form the material. Many
properties, such as melting point, boiling point,
thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity of
materials are governed by atomic bonding of
materials. Hence, to understand the properties of
materials, it is very important to study the atomic
bonding of materials
➢IONIC BOND – forms by exchanging of
valence electrons between atoms.
➢COVALENT BONDS – forms by sharing of
electrons between atoms.
➢METALLIC BONDS – found in metals.
❖is a gradual chemical or electrochemical attack on
a metal by its surrounding medium. Due to the
corrosion, metal starts getting converted into an
oxide, salt or some other compound. Corrosion of
a metals is effected by many factors such as air,
industrial atmosphere, acid, bases, slat solutions
and soils etc. Corrosion has a very adverse effect
on materials. Due to corrosion, the strength and
life of a material is reduced.
 Corrosion resistance of a material is the
ability of material to resist the oxidation in
atmospheric condition. Generally pure metals
such as iron, copper, aluminum etc. gets
corroded in slowly in atmosphere. To avoid
the corrosion of these metal in pure form, we
use these metals in the form of alloys such as
stainless steel, brass, bronze, German silver,
Gunmetal etc.
❖is an important chemical property of engineering
materials. A material is acetic or Alkane, it is decided by
the ph value of the material. Ph value of a material
varies from 0 to 14. Ph value of 7 is considered to be
neutral. Ordinary water is having ph value of 7. The
materials which are having ph value below 7 are called
Acetic and Materials which are having ph value greater
than 7 are called alkane. Acidity of Alkalinity of material
indicates that how they react with other materials.
I. Ferrous
Composition:
● Alloy of iron (Fe), carbon (C), silicon
(Si), and manganese (Mn).
● Also contains some percentage of
Sulphur (S) and phosphorus (P) as
impurity elements, along with some
titanium (Ti) and other trace elements.
● C content of pig iron is high, typically in
the range of 3.5 % to 4.5
Uses:
● Used for making
steel and pure iron
units.
● Steelmaking
Composition:
● 2 to 4 percent
carbon, along with
varying amounts of
silicon and
manganese and
traces of impurities
such as sulfur and
phosphorus.
Uses:
It includes many essential
automotive parts such as
differential carriers,
differential cases, bearing
caps, steering-gear
housings.
Composition:
● Pure iron which is having
more than 99.5% of iron
as the major constituent.
● Other typical
compositions like carbon,
silicon and sulphur are
available in very fewer
compositions.
Uses:
● t is often used to
make metal gates, iron
railings, garden
furniture, driveway
gates and other
decorative ironwork
for outdoor display.
Composition:
(1) Carbon steel
generally consists of
less than 2% carbon
along with traces of
manganese, sulfur,
silicon, and
phosphorus.
Composition:
(2) Alloy steel is a
type of carbon steel,
which consists of one
or more elements
other than carbon,
added to produce the
desired characteristic.
Composition:
(3) Stainless steel is a type of
steel that is corrosion and
rust-resistant. Chromium is
the element that sets it
apart, which is responsible
for the materials’ luster.
Stainless steel has a
chromium content of more
than 10.5% and can go up to
30% in some applications.
Composition:
(4) Tool and die steel
ideally has a carbon
content range between
0.7% to 1.5%. These are
manufactured in
carefully controlled
conditions to produce
the desired quality of
steel.
d. Steel
II. Non-Ferrous
Production of Aluminum
● Aluminium is derived from the
mineral bauxite.
● Bauxite is converted to
aluminium oxide (alumina) via
the Bayer Process.
● The alumina is then converted to
aluminium metal using
electrolytic cells and the Hall-
Heroult Process.
Alloy Designation
● Aluminium is most commonly
alloyed with copper, zinc,
magnesium, silicon, manganese
and lithium. Small additions of
chromium, titanium, zirconium,
lead, bismuth and nickel are also
made and iron is invariably
present in small quantities.
Uses:
● Complicated machines with numerous
moving parts, including automated
equipment and robots, use aluminum for its
light weight and formability.
● Engineers turn to aluminum for its mold-
making ability, another benefit of its ability
to take all variety of shapes
● Reddish colored and takes a bright
metallic luster.
● Malleable, ductile, and a good
conductor of electricity and heat.
● The combination of physical
properties such as strength,
conductivity, corrosion resistance,
machinability and ductility make
copper suitable for a wide range of
applications.
b. Copper
Uses:
Today, copper is most commonly
used to engineer electrical wire,
roofing materials, plumbing pipes,
and industrial machinery.
➢ It is an alloy, a chemical
compound made of two
or more metals made by
melting them together.
The physical properties of
the brass depend on the
relative amounts of
copper and zinc in the
mixture.
Uses:
➢Decorative and mechanical. These
applications can include fittings
(fasteners and connectors), tools,
appliance parts, and ammunition
components.
An alloy traditionally
composed of copper
and tin. Modern
bronze is typically 88
percent copper and
about 12 percent tin.
Uses:
Bronze is used in architecture for
structural and design elements, for
bearings because of its friction
properties, and as phosphor bronze
in musical instruments, electrical
contacts, and ship propellers.
Aluminum bronze is used to make
machine tools and some bearings.
➢ Lead (Pb), a soft, silvery
white or grayish metal
in Group 14 (IVa) of the
periodic table. Lead is
very malleable, ductile,
and dense and is a poor
conductor of electricity.
➢ Tin (Sn), a chemical element
belonging to the carbon
family, Group 14 (IVa) of the
periodic table. It is a soft,
silvery white metal with a
bluish tinge, known to the
ancients in bronze, an alloy
with copper.
A lustrous bluish-white
metal. It is found in group IIb
of the periodic table. It is
brittle and crystalline at
ordinary temperatures, but it
becomes ductile and
malleable when heated
between 110°C and 150°C.
● Good conductor of electricity
and heat.
● Not affected by exposure to air
or to most reagents.
● Inert and a good reflector of
infrared radiation.
● Gold is the most malleable of
all metals.
Pure silver is nearly white,
lustrous, soft, very ductile,
malleable, it is an excellent
conductor of heat and
electricity. It is not a chemically
active metal, but it is attacked
by nitric acid (forming the
nitrate) and by hot
concentrated sulfuric acid.
I. Synthetic
Materials
➢ The Synthetic materials are those
materials that are made of
synthesized polymers or small
molecules. The compounds used to
make these materials come from
petroleum chemicals or
petrochemicals.
Composition:
● Consists of natural or synthetic binders
or resins with or without moulding
compounds.
● Plastics are compounds of carbon with
other elements such as hydrogen,
nitrogen and oxygen.
● The carbon combines with itself and
other elements and it forms more
complicated compounds.
Composition:
● Compounds of metallic elements
and oxygen
● Compounds of metallic elements
and carbon, nitrogen, or sulfur.
● In atomic structure they are most
often crystalline, although they
also may contain a combination
of glassy and crystalline phases.
Composition:
● May consist of fibers made of glass
or carbon-graphite, shorter
“whiskers” made of silicon carbide
or aluminum oxide, or longer
tungsten - boron filaments.
● Matrix material may be an epoxy
resin or other high-temperature
plastic, aluminum or some other
metal, or a ceramic such as silicon
nitride.
II. Natural
Materials
Composition:
● Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
calcium, potassium, sulfur,
nitrogen and magnesium.
● Most wood contains some
amount of water as well.
● Composed of cellulose fibers.
Composition:
● Natural rubber is from the
monomer isoprene
(2-methyl-1,3-butadiene), which is
a conjugated diene hydrocarbon.
● In natural rubber, most of the
double fonds formed in the
polymer chain have the Z
configuration, resulting in natural
rubber's elastomer qualities.
Composition:
• It is typically about 99.95
percent carbon.
• The other 0.05 percent can
include one or more trace
elements, which are atoms
that aren’t part of the
diamond’s essential
chemistry.
Composition:
● Natural gas is generally
composed of methane and
varying amounts of ethane,
propane, and butane.
● Petroleum gas composed
almost exclusively of methane
is termed “dry gas”.
❖ Chemical bonding provides the energy
necessary to hold two different atoms
together as part of a chemical compound.
❖ Strength of the bond depends on the
molecules or atoms involved in the process of
bond formation.
 lonic Covalent Hydrogen Metallic
Bonds Bonds Bonds Bonds
➢is a chemical bond formed when one atom
gives up one or more electrons to another
atom.
➢It is also known as electrovalent bonds
➢lonic bonds are generally formed between
metals and nonmetals
➢ A type of chemical bond in which there is
mutual sharing of electrons between two
atoms. It is further classified into single,
double, and triple covalent bond with
respect to mutual sharing of one, two, and
three bonds respectively.
➢ Its is also known as Molecular bonds
Lewis Structure of Water Molecule
❖ A single bond is formed when only one
pair of the electron is shared between the
two participating atoms. It is represented
by one dash (-). Although this form of
covalent bond has a smaller density and
is weaker than a double and triple bond,
it is the most stable.
❖ A double bond is formed when two
pairs of electrons are shared between
the two participating atoms. It is
represented by two dashes (=).
Double covalent bonds are much
stronger than a single bond, but they
are less stable.
❖ A triple bond is formed when three
pairs of electrons are shared between
the two participating atoms.
Triple covalent bonds are represented
by three dashes (≡) and are the least
stable types of covalent bonds.
➢A hydrogen bond is the attractive force
between the hydrogen attached to an
electronegative atom of one molecule and
an electronegative atom of a different
molecule. Usually the electronegative atom
is oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine, which has a
partial negative charge.
➢is the type of bonding found in metallic
elements. This is the electrostatic force of
attraction between positively charged ions and
delocalized outer electrons.
➢refers to the interaction between the
delocalized electrons and the metal nuclei.
Chemists commonly classify solids as
either metallic, ionic, molecular, or
covalent on the basis of macroscopic
differences in their physical properties,
which result from differences in bonding
on the atomic scale.
Bonding of atoms in a solid is determined by a
combination of two factors:

• the magnitude of the electronegativities of the atoms

in the solid
• the differences between these electronegativities
 Compounds with metallic bonds
should be metallic solids, those with
ionic bonds should be ionic solids, and
those with covalent bonds should be
either molecular or network covalent
solids.
 Metallic solids are expected for
combinations of atoms whose
electronegativities and electronegativity
differences place them in the lower left corner
of the bond-type triangle shown in the above
figure. Ionic compounds are found in the
center, toward the top of this triangle, and
covalent materials are found in the lower right
corner.
❖ are the points an atom, ion, or a
molecule can occupy in a crystal
giving its shape and characteristics. In
other words, it is defined as the
regular periodic arrangement of
particles in the solid
➢ are composed of planes of individual metal atoms held
together by the strong force of attraction between these
atoms, as shown in the figure below
➢has a valence electrons that aren’t
tightly bound to individual atoms so
they are free to migrate through the
metal. This is why metals are a good
conductor of electricity.
➢are formed when a solid contains two
or more elements for which there is a
large electronegativity difference
which results electrons transferred
from an atom to another.
 The lattice points in these solids are positive
and negative ions, such as the Na+ and Cl- ions
shown in the figure below, which are held together
by strong ionic Bonds.
 Covalent compounds usually crystallize
as molecular solids, in which the lattice points are
occupied by individual molecules, such as the
structure of dry ice shown in the figure below.
❑ individual molecules are
held together by relatively
strong Intramolecular Bonds
between the atoms that
form the molecule.
 The much weaker intermolecular bonds
between these molecules result from the
relatively weak van der Waals forces. The van
der Waals forces holding CO2 molecules
together in dry ice, for example, are so weak
that dry ice sublimes (passes directly from the
solid to the gas phase) at -78°C.
➢are a unique class of materials that can be viewed as a
single giant molecule made up of an almost endless
number of covalent bonds, such as the structure of
diamond shown in the figure below.
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