1.

Differentiate cache replacement algorithms with their pros and

cons?
Cache replacement algorithms are used to determine which cache block to replace
when the cache is full and a new block needs to be fetched from memory. There are
several different cache replacement algorithms, each with its own pros and cons.

Random Replacement Algorithm

1. The random replacement algorithm selects a random cache block to replace

when the cache is full. Its main advantage is that it is simple to implement and
does not require any additional bookkeeping. However, it is not very efficient,
since it may replace a cache block that is still in use, leading to cache thrashing.
2. Least Recently Used (LRU) Replacement Algorithm

The LRU replacement algorithm replaces the cache block that has been
accessed least recently when the cache is full. It is more efficient than the
random replacement algorithm because it takes into account the history of cache
block access. However, its implementation requires maintaining a history of
block accesses, which can be costly in terms of hardware resources.

3. Least Frequently Used (LFU) Replacement Algorithm

The LRU replacement algorithm replaces the cache block that has been
accessed least frequently when the cache is full. It is similar to the LRU
algorithm, but it considers the frequency of block access rather than the time of
access. However, the implementation of the LFU algorithm can be complex, since
it requires maintaining a count of each block's usage frequency.

4. Most Recently Used (MRU) Replacement Algorithm

The MRU replacement algorithm replaces the cache block that has been
accessed most recently when the cache is full. It is the opposite of the LRU
algorithm, but it suffers from the same problem of requiring bookkeeping of the
history of block accesses.

5. First-In, First-Out (FIFO) Replacement Algorithm

The FIFO replacement algorithm replaces the cache block that was first inserted
into the cache when the cache is full. It is simple to implement, but it does not
 take into account the frequency or recency of block accesses, which can lead to
poor cache performance.

Overall, the choice of cache replacement algorithm depends on the specific

requirements of the system and the trade-offs between efficiency, complexity, and
hardware resources. The LRU algorithm is often considered the best choice for most
applications because it balances efficiency and complexity. However, in certain
situations, other algorithms may be more suitable.

2.Draw flag register of 80386 processor and explain system flags with
example?

The 80386 processor has a 32-bit register called the EFLAGS (Extended Flags) register,
which contains system flags that indicate the status of the processor after an operation
has been performed. The EFLAGS register consists of 18 bits, with the remaining bits
reserved.

The system flags in the EFLAGS register can be divided into three categories: status
flags, control flags, and system flags.

Status Flags
 1. Status flags indicate the result of an operation performed by the CPU. There are
six status flags in the EFLAGS register:
● Zero Flag (ZF): set to 1 if the result of an operation is zero, otherwise set to 0.
● Sign Flag (SF): set to 1 if the result of an operation is negative, otherwise set to 0.
● Carry Flag (CF): set to 1 if an arithmetic operation generates a carry out of the
most significant bit, otherwise set to 0.
● Overflow Flag (OF): set to 1 if an arithmetic operation generates a signed
overflow, otherwise set to 0.
● Parity flag (PF): indicates if the number of set bits is odd or even in the
binary representation of the result of the last operation.
● Trap Flag (TF): enables single-step mode for debugging purposes.
● Auxiliary Carry Flag (AF): set to 1 if an arithmetic operation generates a carry out
of bit 3, otherwise set to 0.

Control Flags

● Control flags determine the behavior of the processor during an operation. There
is one control flags in the EFLAGS register:
● Direction Flag (DF): determines the direction in which string operations are
performed (0 for left to right, 1 for right to left).

System Flags

System flags control certain features of the processor, such as paging and virtual 8086
mode. There are 5 system flags in the EFLAGS register:

● I/O Privilege Level (IOPL): determines the level of privilege required to access I/O
instructions and ports.
● Interrupt Flag (IF): determines whether interrupts are enabled or disabled.
● Nested Task Flag (NT): enables nested task support.
● Resume Flag (RF): enables the processor to resume from a debug exception.
● Virtual-8086 Mode Flag (VM): enables virtual 8086 mode.

Examples of system flags in use include the Interrupt Flag (IF), which can be used to enable or

disable interrupts, and the Alignment Check Flag (AC), which can be used to detect memory

alignment errors. The Zero Flag (ZF) and Sign Flag (SF) can be used to determine the result of a

mathematical operation, and the Overflow Flag (OF) and Carry Flag (CF) can be used to detect

overflow and carry conditions in arithmetic operations. The Control Flags (TF, IF, IOPL) can be used
to control the behavior of the processor during execution, such as enabling or disabling interrupts or

changing the privilege level required to access I/O instructions and ports.

3.Explain MOV instruction using ALP with its different variants available.

State the limitation of MOV instruction.

MOV (short for "move") is an assembly language instruction that copies data from one location

to another. It is a fundamental instruction that is available on most CPU architectures and is

used extensively in assembly language programming.

The syntax for the MOV instruction is typically as follows:

Mov Destination,Source

where destination is the location where the data will be copied to, and source is the

location where the data will be copied from.

There are several variants of the MOV instruction available, depending on the size and

type of data being moved. The most common variants include:

● MOV byte: copies a single byte of data between locations.

● MOV word: copies a 16-bit word of data between locations.

● MOV dword: copies a 32-bit double word of data between locations.

● MOV immediate: copies a constant value directly into a register or memory

location.

● MOV register: copies the contents of one register into another register.

Here is an example of using the MOV instruction in an assembly language program:

MOV AL, 0x41 ; Move the ASCII code for 'A' into the AL register
MOV BL, AL ; Copy the contents of AL into the BL register

The MOV instruction has a few limitations:

● an immediate value cannot be moved into a segment register directly (i.e. mov

ds,10)

● segment registers cannot be copied directly (i.e. mov es,ds)

● a memory location cannot be copied into another memory location (i.e. mov

aNumber,aDigit)

4..Illustrate Direct mapping technique in detail

Direct mapping is a common technique used in computer architecture to implement

cache memory. In direct mapping, each memory block is mapped to a specific cache
block using a simple mathematical formula.
Let's consider an example where we have a cache with 8 blocks, and a memory with 32
blocks. In direct mapping, each memory block is mapped to a specific cache block
using the following formula:

Cache Block = (Memory Block) mod (Number of Cache lines)

Using this formula, memory block 0 would be mapped to cache block 0, memory block 1
would be mapped to cache block 1, and so on. Memory block 8 would be mapped to
cache block 0 (since 8 mod 8 = 0), memory block 9 would be mapped to cache block 1,
and so on.

Direct mapping divides an address into three parts: t tag bits, l line bits, and w word
bits. The word bits are the least significant bits that identify the specific word within a
block of memory.

The line bits are the next least significant bits that identify the line of the cache in
which the block is stored. The remaining bits are stored along with the block as the
tag which locates the block’s position in the main memory.

This mapping scheme has some advantages and disadvantages:

Advantages:

1.Simple and easy to implement.

2.Low Hardware Cost.

3.High cache Hit rate.

Disadvantages:

1.Limited Flexibility

2.Low cache hit rate for certain access patterns

3.Cache conflicts

5.Explain memory hierarchy in detail with a diagram.

The Computer memory hierarchy looks like a pyramid structure which is used to
describe the differences among memory types. It separates the computer storage
based on hierarchy.

Level 0: CPU registers

Level 1: Cache memory

Level 2: Main memory or primary memory

Level 3: Magnetic disks or secondary memory

Level 4: Optical disks or magnetic types or tertiary Memory

In Memory Hierarchy the cost of memory, capacity is inversely proportional to speed.

Here the devices are arranged in a manner Fast to slow, that is form register to
Tertiary memory

Level-0 − Registers

The registers are present inside the CPU. As they are present inside the CPU, they
have least access time. Registers are most expensive and smallest in size generally in
kilobytes. They are implemented by using Flip-Flops.

Level-1 − Cache

Cache memory is used to store the segments of a program that are frequently
accessed by the processor. It is expensive and smaller in size generally in Megabytes
and is implemented by using static RAM.

Level-2 − Primary or Main Memory

It directly communicates with the CPU and with auxiliary memory devices through an
I/O processor. Main memory is less expensive than cache memory and larger in size
generally in Gigabytes. This memory is implemented by using dynamic RAM.
Level-3 − Secondary storage

Secondary storage devices like Magnetic Disk are present at level 3. They are used as
backup storage. They are cheaper than main memory and larger in size generally in a
few TB.

Level-4 − Tertiary storage

Tertiary storage devices like magnetic tape are present at level 4. They are used to
store removable files and are the cheapest and largest in size (1-20 TB).

6.Compare Fully associative and set associative cache memory

mapping techniques in detail.
7.Illustrate cache read/fill algorithm in detail.
The cache read/fill algorithm is the process used by a cache memory to retrieve data from main

memory when the CPU needs to access it. The algorithm involves several steps, which are as

follows:

1. The CPU issues a memory read request to the cache: When the CPU needs to read data from
memory, it first sends a request to the cache to check if the data is already stored in the
cache. The cache receives the request and starts the cache read/fill algorithm.
 2. The cache checks its tag array: The cache checks its tag array to determine whether the
requested data is already present in the cache or not. The tag array contains tags for each
block of memory in the cache, which are used to identify which memory block is stored in
each cache block.
3. If the data is in the cache, the cache returns the data to the CPU: If the requested data is
present in the cache, then it is immediately returned to the CPU. This is known as a cache hit,
and it results in a fast access time since the data is already present in the cache.
4. If the data is not in the cache, the cache issues a memory read request: If the requested data
is not present in the cache, then the cache issues a memory read request to the next level of
the memory hierarchy (usually main memory).
5. When the requested data is fetched from memory, it is stored in the cache: Once the
requested data is fetched from memory, it is stored in the cache using the cache mapping
technique. The cache replacement algorithm determines which cache block is replaced with
the new data.
6. The requested data is returned to the CPU: Finally, the requested data is returned to the CPU
so that it can be used in the execution of the program.

Overall, the cache read/fill algorithm is designed to minimize the number of cache misses and
improve the performance of the system. By storing frequently used data in the cache, the CPU can
access it quickly, without having to wait for slower levels of memory to provide the data. The cache
read/fill algorithm is an important part of cache memory design, and various optimization
techniques are used to improve its efficiency.

8.Explain the following addressing modes with one example each :

(i) Displacement Addressing (ii) Register Indirect

Refer Q no 11

9.How many General purpose registers are present in 80386? List & draw

all of them
The Intel 80386 processor has a total of 8 general-purpose registers, each of which is 32 bits
wide. These registers are used to hold data and addresses during program execution. The
names and abbreviations of these registers are as follows:

1. EAX (Extended Accumulator Register): This register is used for arithmetic and logical
operations. It can also be used to hold function return values.

2. EBX (Extended Base Register): This register is often used as a base pointer for memory
access. It can also be used as a general-purpose register.

3. ECX (Extended Counter Register): This register is often used as a loop counter. It can also
be used as a general-purpose register.
4. EDX (Extended Data Register): This register is used for arithmetic and logical operations. It
can also be used to hold function return values.

5. EBP (Extended Base Pointer Register): This register is used as a base pointer for accessing
parameters and local variables on the stack.

6. ESP (Extended Stack Pointer Register): This register is used as a stack pointer to manage
the stack during program execution.

7. ESI (Extended Source Index Register): This register is often used as a source pointer for data
copying operations.

8. EDI (Extended Destination Index Register): This register is often used as a destination
pointer for data copying operations.

Here is a diagram that shows the layout of the 8 general-purpose registers in the 80386
processor:

31 0
+------------------------------+
EAX | EAX |
+------------------------------+
EBX | EBX |
+------------------------------+
ECX | ECX |
+------------------------------+
EDX | EDX |
+------------------------------+
EBP | EBP |
+------------------------------+
ESP | ESP |
+------------------------------+
ESI | ESI |
+------------------------------+
EDI | EDI |
+------------------------------+
```

10.Which are status flag bits in flag register? Discuss with an example
using ALP
The Flag Register in the 80386 processor contains a set of status flags that indicate the result of
the most recent arithmetic or logical operation. The following are the status flags present in the
flag register:

1. Carry Flag (CF): This flag is set when an arithmetic operation generates a carry or borrow
from the most significant bit of the result. It is used to detect overflow and underflow conditions.
2. Zero Flag (ZF): This flag is set when the result of an arithmetic or logical operation is zero. It
is used to check for equality or non-equality conditions.

3. Sign Flag (SF): This flag is set when the result of an arithmetic or logical operation has a
negative sign (i.e., the most significant bit is 1).

4. Overflow Flag (OF): This flag is set when an arithmetic operation generates an overflow or
underflow condition. It is used to detect errors in signed arithmetic operations.

5. Auxiliary Carry Flag (AF): This flag is set when an arithmetic operation generates a carry or
borrow from bit 3 to bit 4. It is used for specialized operations like BCD arithmetic.

6. Parity Flag (PF): This flag is set when the result of an arithmetic or logical operation has an
even number of 1 bits. It is used for error checking and to optimize some algorithms.

Here is an example of how the flag register is used in Assembly Language Programming (ALP)
to perform conditional branching:

```
; ALP code to check if a number is even or odd
MOV AX, 6 ; load the number into the accumulator
AND AX, 1 ; perform a bitwise AND with 1 to check the LSB
JZ EVEN ; jump to the EVEN label if the result is zero (i.e., the number is even)
ODD: ; the number is odd
; perform odd number processing here
JMP END ; jump to the END label to exit the program
EVEN: ; the number is even
; perform even number processing here
END:
; exit the program
```

In this example, the AND instruction performs a bitwise AND operation between the number in
the accumulator and the value 1, which results in the LSB of the number. If the LSB is zero, then
the number is even, and the program jumps to the EVEN label. Otherwise, if the LSB is one,
then the number is odd, and the program jumps to the ODD label. The ZF flag is set if the result
of the AND operation is zero, indicating that the number is even. If the ZF flag is not set, then
the number is odd. Therefore, the ZF flag is used to perform conditional branching in this
program.

11.Describe the following addressing modes with examples.

i. Immediate addressing
ii. Register Indirect addressing
iii. Direct addressing
iv.Displacement addressing
The following are the different addressing modes available in Assembly Language Programming
(ALP):

i. Immediate addressing: In this addressing mode, the operand is specified directly in the
instruction itself. The processor uses the value specified in the instruction as the operand. For
example:

```
MOV AX, 5 ; Move the value 5 into the AX register
```

Here, the immediate value 5 is used as the operand.

ii. Register Indirect addressing: In this addressing mode, the operand is stored in a register, and
the register is specified in the instruction. The processor uses the contents of the register as the
operand. For example:

```
MOV AX, [BX] ; Move the value stored in the memory location pointed to by the BX register into
the AX register
```

Here, the register BX is used to store the memory address of the operand, and the square
brackets [] are used to indicate indirect addressing.

iii. Direct addressing: In this addressing mode, the operand is directly specified in the instruction
as a memory address. The processor uses the memory location specified in the instruction as
the operand. For example:

```
MOV AX, [1234H] ; Move the value stored in the memory location 1234H into the AX register
```

Here, the memory address 1234H is directly specified as the operand.

iv. Displacement addressing: In this addressing mode, the operand is obtained by adding a
constant value to the contents of a register. The processor uses the resulting memory location
as the operand. For example:

```
MOV AX, [BX+2] ; Move the value stored in the memory location pointed to by the BX register
plus 2 into the AX register
```

Here, the register BX is used to store the memory address of the operand, and the constant
value 2 is added to it to obtain the final memory location. The square brackets [] are used to
indicate indirect addressing.

In summary, Immediate addressing mode uses the operand value directly in the instruction,
Register Indirect addressing mode uses a register to hold the address of the operand, Direct
addressing mode uses the memory location directly as the operand, and Displacement
addressing mode uses a register and a constant value to calculate the memory location of the
operand.

12.Illustrate cache mapping techniques and describe any one

technique in detail

Cache mapping techniques are used to map memory blocks from the main memory to the
cache memory. There are three common cache mapping techniques:

1. Direct Mapping
2. Fully Associative Mapping
3. Set Associative Mapping

i. Direct Mapping:
In Direct Mapping, each block of main memory is mapped to only one block in the cache
memory. The cache is divided into a number of sets, and each set contains a fixed number of
blocks. Each block of main memory is mapped to one specific block in the cache memory based
on its address. The mapping is done by taking the remainder of the main memory block address
when it is divided by the total number of blocks in the cache memory.
For example, suppose we have a cache memory with 8 blocks, and a main memory with 32
blocks. Each block in the main memory is of 8 bytes, and the cache is divided into 4 sets, each
containing 2 blocks. In this case, the mapping is done as follows:

- Blocks 0-3 of the main memory are mapped to blocks 0-3 of the cache memory.
- Blocks 4-7 of the main memory are mapped to blocks 0-3 of the cache memory.
- Blocks 8-11 of the main memory are mapped to blocks 4-7 of the cache memory.
- Blocks 12-15 of the main memory are mapped to blocks 4-7 of the cache memory.
- And so on.

This means that each block of main memory is mapped to a specific block in the cache memory
based on its address. If a block is already present in the cache memory and a new block needs
to be added, the existing block is replaced with the new block based on the mapping technique.

One advantage of Direct Mapping is that it is simple and easy to implement. However, it also
has some limitations. One major limitation is that if two blocks of main memory map to the same
block in the cache memory, they will conflict with each other and cause cache thrashing. This
can lead to performance issues and decreased efficiency.

Overall, Direct Mapping is a simple and efficient cache mapping technique, but it may not be the
best choice for all applications. Other mapping techniques like Fully Associative Mapping and
Set Associative Mapping may be more appropriate depending on the specific requirements of
the system.

Q13) Draw Register Organization of 80386 and illustrate General purpose registers in detail.
->

The registers of 80386 are divided as general-purpose registers and special registers.

General-purpose registers are

● 32-bit EAX, EBX, ECX, EDX, ESI, SDI, EBP and ESP.

Special registers are

● Segment (selector) registers 16-bit CS, DS, ES, SS, FS, and GS
● 32-BIT EIP
● EFLAGs

General purpose register:

 General purpose registers are extra registers that are present in the CPU
and are utilized anytime data or a memory location is required. These
registers are used for storing operands and pointers.

Types:

Data registers: Data registers consist of four 32-bit data registers, which are used
for arithmetic, logical and other operations. Data registers are again
classified into 4 types they are: AX,BX,CX,DX

Pointer registers: The pointer registers consist of 16-bit left sections (SP, and BP)
and 32-bit ESP and EBP registers : SP, BP

Index registers: The 16-bit rightmost bits of the 32-bit ESI and EDI index registers.
SI and DI are sometimes employed in addition and sometimes in
subtraction as well as for indexed addressing. : SI, DI

Q14)Draw and illustrate bit pattern for flag register of 80386 with significance of
each bit.->
 1. Status flags: These flags reflect the state of a particular program.

2. Control flags: These flags directly affect the operation of a few

instructions.

3. System flags: These flags reflect the current status of the machine and

are usually used by the operating systems than by application

programs.

(Refer to Q2).....

Q15)Interpret least recently used replacement algorithm in detail.

LRU (Least Recently Used) is a common replacement algorithm used in computer

systems and cache memories to determine which block or page to evict when the cache
is full and a new block or page needs to be loaded.

The basic idea behind LRU is to evict the block or page that has been accessed the least
recently, under the assumption that it is less likely to be accessed again in the near
future. This is accomplished by keeping track of the access history of each block or
page, and evicting the one that was accessed the furthest in the past.
Q16)Describe in detail cache filling process and explain cache hit and
cache miss.

cache filling is the process of copying data from main memory into cache
memory to improve performance. here are three cache mapping
techniques to choose from:

Direct-mapped cache. It’s the simplest technique, as it maps each

memory block into a particular cache line.

Fully-associative cache. This technique lets any block of the main

memory go to any cache line available at the moment.

Set-associative cache. It combines fully-associative cache and

direct-mapped cache techniques. Set-associative caches arrange
cache lines into sets, resulting in increased hits.

● When an application needs to access data, it first checks its

cache memory to see if the data is already stored there. If the
data is not found in cache memory, the application must retrieve
the data from a slower, secondary storage location, which results
in a cache miss.
● Cache misses can slow down computer performance, as the
system must wait for the slower data retrieval process to
complete.
 ● A cache hit is a state in which data requested for processing by a
component or application is found in the cache memory. It is a faster
means of delivering data to the processor, as the cache already contains
the requested data.

Q17)Illustrate the following instructions with examples in ALP. MOVS , REP ,CLD
,STD

->MOVS: The MOVS instruction copies the contents of one memory location to another
memory location. It can be used to copy a single byte or multiple bytes.

Format:

MOV destination,source

Examples: mov ax,bx

mov ax,10h

mov si,es:[bx]
 2. REP: The REP instruction is used with other string instructions to repeat the
operation a specified number of times. It can be used with instructions like
MOVS, CMPS, and SCAS.

3. CLD: The CLD instruction is used to clear the direction flag (DF) in the flag
register. This sets the direction of string operations to forward.
4. STD: The STD instruction is used to set the direction flag (DF) in the flag register.
This sets the direction of string operations to backward.

Q18) Explain the following instructions with ALP. i) CMP ii) JMP iii) SUB iv) CALL

-> CMP: The CMP instruction is used to compare two operands. It subtracts the second
operand from the first operand and sets the appropriate flags in the flag register
based on the result of the subtraction. It does not modify the operands
themselves. :CMP destination, source

JMP: The JMP instruction is used to perform an unconditional jump to another location
in the program. It can be used to create loops, perform function calls, or
implement conditional statements.: JMP ABC (jump to abc level)

SUB: The SUB instruction is used to subtract the second operand from the first operand
and store the result in the first operand. It can be used to perform arithmetic
operations, compare values, or decrement a counter.
CALL: The CALL instruction is used to call a subroutine or function. It pushes the
address of the next instruction onto the stack and transfers control to the
subroutine. After executing the subroutine, the RET

Q19) Illustrate the following instructions with examples in ALP. i) INC ii) MUL iii) ROL
iv)SHL

->INC: The INC instruction is used to increment the value of an operand by 1. It can be
used to increment a counter, index a loop, or add a constant value to a register.

MUL: The MUL instruction is used to perform an unsigned multiplication of two

operands. It multiplies the first operand by the second operand and stores the
result in a register. The size of the operands determines the size of the result.
ROL: The ROL instruction is used to rotate the bits of an operand to the left. It shifts the
bits to the left and wraps the least significant bit around to the most significant
bit.

SHL: The SHL instruction is used to shift the bits of an operand to the left. It inserts
zeros into the least significant bit positions and shifts the remaining bits to the
left.
Q20) Explain RISC and CISC architectures in detail.

RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing) and CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computing) are
two different architectures used in computer processors. They differ in their approach to
designing the processor instruction set and how the processor executes those instructions.

RISC Architecture:
RISC processors have a reduced instruction set, meaning they have a small number of simple
and basic instructions that can be executed quickly. The RISC architecture aims to improve
performance by simplifying the instruction set and reducing the number of cycles required to
execute each instruction. These instructions are generally executed in a single clock cycle,
which makes RISC processors faster than CISC processors. RISC processors are known for
their high performance and are commonly used in embedded systems and mobile devices.

The key features of the RISC architecture are:

- A small and simple instruction set
- Instructions are executed in a single clock cycle
- A large number of general-purpose registers are available
- Memory access is performed through load and store instructions
- Complex operations are performed using simple instructions

CISC Architecture:
CISC processors have a large and complex instruction set, which allows them to perform
complex operations in a single instruction. These instructions can perform multiple operations
and can access memory directly, which makes programming easier. CISC processors are
slower than RISC processors because each instruction requires more cycles to execute.

The key features of the CISC architecture are:

- A large and complex instruction set
- Instructions can perform multiple operations
- Memory access can be performed directly
- Fewer general-purpose registers are available
- Complex operations can be performed using a single instruction

Overall, both RISC and CISC architectures have their advantages and disadvantages, and the
choice between them depends on the requirements of the system being designed. RISC
processors are generally used in systems that require high performance and low power
consumption, while CISC processors are used in systems that require easier programming and
support for complex operations.
21.Illustrate conditional JUMP (JMP) and unconditional jump
instructions with two examples and mention the flags affected using
ALP
Jump instructions in assembly language allow the program to transfer control to a different part
of the program based on certain conditions or unconditionally. The two types of jump
instructions are conditional jump (JMP) and unconditional jump.

1. Conditional Jump (JMP):

Conditional jump instruction transfers the control to the target location based on the result of a
certain condition. If the condition is true, the program jumps to the target location, otherwise, it
continues to execute the next instruction. The conditional jump instruction affects the flags
register in the 80386 processor.

Example 1: Jump if Zero (JZ)

The JZ instruction transfers control to the target location if the Zero flag is set to 1.

```
MOV AX, 0 ; move 0 to AX register
CMP AX, 0 ; compare AX with 0
JZ TARGET ; jump to TARGET if Zero flag is set

; continue with next instructions if Zero flag is not set

TARGET:
; code to be executed at TARGET location
```

Example 2: Jump if Carry (JC)

The JC instruction transfers control to the target location if the Carry flag is set to 1.

```
MOV AX, 1 ; move 1 to AX register
SUB AX, 2 ; subtract 2 from AX
JC TARGET ; jump to TARGET if Carry flag is set

; continue with next instructions if Carry flag is not set

TARGET:
; code to be executed at TARGET location
```

2. Unconditional Jump:
Unconditional jump instruction transfers control to the target location without any condition. The
program always jumps to the target location specified in the instruction.

Example 1: Jump unconditionally (JMP)

The JMP instruction unconditionally transfers control to the target location.

```
 JMP TARGET ; jump to TARGET location unconditionally

; code after JMP instruction will not be executed

TARGET:
; code to be executed at TARGET location
```

Example 2: Jump to a Register Location (JMP REG)

The JMP instruction can also transfer control to the memory location stored in a register.

```
MOV EAX, OFFSET TARGET ; move the offset of TARGET to EAX register
JMP EAX ; jump to the memory location specified by EAX

; code after JMP instruction will not be executed

TARGET:
; code to be executed at TARGET location
```

Unconditional jump instructions do not affect any flags in the 80386 processor.

22.Compare write back and write through policies of memory

In computer architecture, write-back and write-through are two common policies used for
handling updates to the main memory. Both policies affect the performance and behavior of the
memory subsystem. Here's a comparison of write-back and write-through policies:

Write-Through Policy:
In the write-through policy, every write operation updates both the cache and the main memory.
When a write operation is performed on a cache block, the corresponding block in the main
memory is updated immediately with the same data. This ensures that the data in the main
memory is always up-to-date, but at the cost of additional memory traffic.

The advantage of write-through is that it provides better data consistency and reliability, as the
data in the cache and main memory is always in sync. However, this policy can result in slower
performance due to the additional memory traffic generated by every write operation.

Write-Back Policy:
In the write-back policy, the updates are first made to the cache, and the corresponding block in
the main memory is updated only when the cache block is evicted. When a cache block is
marked as dirty and needs to be evicted, the entire block is written back to the main memory.
This reduces the memory traffic as compared to the write-through policy, as not every write
operation results in a write to main memory.

The advantage of write-back is that it can improve performance by reducing memory traffic.
However, this policy can result in data inconsistencies between the cache and main memory.
Specifically, if a block in the cache is modified and not yet written back to main memory, and
another processor reads from the same block in main memory, it may read stale data, leading to
data inconsistency.

Overall, both policies have their own advantages and disadvantages. Write-through policy
provides better consistency and reliability, but can result in slower performance. Write-back
policy can improve performance, but can lead to data inconsistencies. The choice of policy
depends on the specific requirements of the system and the trade-offs between consistency and
performance that the system is willing to make.

Q23) List different addressing modes of 80386? Illustrate any four

addressing modes with examples.
->The addressing modes help us specify the way in which an operand’s effective
address is represented in any given instruction.
24.Describe with example MUL and DIV instruction using ALP .
Mention which flags get affected with each instruction
MUL and DIV are two arithmetic instructions in x86 assembly language used to perform
multiplication and division operations respectively. Here are examples of each instruction along
with the flags that get affected:

MUL Instruction:
The MUL instruction is used to perform unsigned multiplication of two operands. The syntax for
the MUL instruction is as follows:
```
MUL operand
```
where operand can be a register or a memory location.

For example, let's say we want to multiply the value in register AX with the value in memory
location 1000H. The ALP code for this would be:

```
MOV AX, 5 ; Move 5 to AX register
MOV BX, [1000H] ; Move the value at memory location 1000H to BX register
MUL BX ; Multiply AX by BX
```

In this example, the MUL instruction multiplies the value in register AX with the value in memory
location 1000H and stores the result in the DX:AX register pair. The CF and OF flags are set to
0, while the AF and SF flags are undefined. The ZF flag is set to 1 if the result is zero, otherwise
it is set to 0. The PF flag is set to 1 if the least significant byte of the result has an even number
of 1 bits, otherwise it is set to 0.

DIV Instruction:
The DIV instruction is used to perform unsigned division of two operands. The syntax for the
DIV instruction is as follows:
```
DIV operand
```
where operand can be a register or a memory location.

For example, let's say we want to divide the value in register AX by the value in memory
location 1000H. The ALP code for this would be:

```
MOV AX, 100 ; Move 100 to AX register
MOV BX, 5 ; Move 5 to BX register
DIV BX ; Divide AX by BX
```

In this example, the DIV instruction divides the value in register AX by the value in memory
location 1000H and stores the quotient in the AL register and the remainder in the AH register.
The CF, OF, and AF flags are undefined, while the ZF flag is set to 1 if the quotient is zero,
otherwise it is set to 0. The SF and PF flags are set according to the quotient value.

Overall, MUL and DIV instructions are powerful arithmetic instructions that can be used to
perform multiplication and division operations in assembly language. However, it is important to
be aware of the flags that get affected by these instructions to ensure correct behavior of the
program.