MODULE 5

LESSON 1. ABOUT TRANSFER FUNCTION

KATSUHIKO

 the transfer function of a linear, time-invariant, differential equation system is defined

as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output (response function) to the Laplace
transform of the input (driving function) under the assumption that all initial conditions
are zero.
 By using the concept of transfer function, it is possible to represent system dynamics by
algebraic equations in s.
 If the highest power of s in the denominator of the transfer function is equal to n, the
system is called an nth-order system

 The transfer function of a system is a mathematical model in that it is an operational

method of expressing the differential equation that relates the output variable to the input
variable.
 The transfer function is a property of a system itself, independent of the magnitude and
nature of the input or driving function
 If the transfer function of a system is known, the output or response can be studied for
various forms of inputs with a view toward understanding the nature of the system.
 If the transfer function of a system is unknown, it may be established experimentally by
introducing known inputs and studying the output of the system.

Automatic Control Systems - may consist of a number of components. To show the functions
performed by each component, in control engineering, we commonly use a diagram called the
block diagram

A block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the functions performed by each

component and of the flow of signals.

In a block diagram all system variables are linked to each other through functional blocks. The
functional block or simply block is a symbol for the mathematical operation on the input
signal to the block that produces the output.

Summing Point - A circle with a cross is the symbol that indicates a summing operation. The
plus or minus sign at each arrowhead indicates whether that signal is to be added or subtracted

branch point - is a point from which the signal from a block goes concurrently to other blocks or
summing points
Lesson 2. Open and Closed-Loop Transfer Function

Open-Loop Transfer Function and Feedforward Transfer Function.

According to Katsuhiko (2010), the ratio of the feedback signal B(s) to the actuating error signal
E(s) is called the open-loop transfer function. That is,

The ratio of the output C(s) to the actuating error signal E(s) is called the feedforward transfer
function, so that

*If the feedback transfer function H(s) is unity, then the open-loop transfer function and the
feedforward transfer function are the same (Katsuhiko, 2010).

According to Katsuhiko (2010), the transfer function relating C(s) to R(s) is called the closed-
loop transfer function. It relates the closed-loop system dynamics to the dynamics of the
feedforward elements and feedback elements. C(s) is given by
Thus, the output of the closed-loop system clearly depends on both the closed-loop transfer
function and the nature of the input.

TOPOLOGY

PARALLEL SYSTEM - Parallel subsystems have a common input and an output formed by the
algebraic sum of the outputs from all of the subsystems
CASCADE SYSTEM - Any finite number of blocks in series may be algebraically combined by
multiplication of transfer functions
FEEDBACK SYSTEM (CLOSED LOOP) -The third topology is the feedback form. Let us derive
the transfer function that represents the system from its input to its output. The typical feedback
system

BOOK SOURCE

LAPLACE TRANSFORM
This form is a much more convenient way of describing the relationship than a differential equation since
it can be easily manipulated by the basic rules of algebra.

we used the term gain to relate the input and output of a system with gain G = output/input.
When we are working with inputs and outputs described as functions of s we define the transfer
function G(s) as [output Y(s)/inpui X(s)] when all initial conditions before we apply the input are
zero:

TRANSFER FUNCTIONS OF COMMON SYSTEM ELEMENTS

 Gear train
 Amplifier
 Armature-controlled dc. Motor
 Potentiometer
 Valve controlled hydraulic
 Heating system
 Tachogenerator
 Displacement and rotation
 Height of liquid level in a container
A single input-single output system is often termed a SISO
system while a multiple input-multiple output system is a MISO system

QUESTION AND ANSWER:

1. Decide whether each of these statements is True (T) or False (F). A system has an input
x which gives rise to an output y with the following differential equation describing the
relationship:

With no initial conditions:

(i) The Laplace transform of the equation is 5Y(s) = 2X(s). FALSE
(ii) The system transfer function is 2/5. FALSE

A (i)T(ii)T
B (i)T(ii)F
C (i)F(ii)T
D (i) F (ii) F

2. An open-loop control system consists of two elements in series, the first having a transfer
function of 2s and the second a transfer function of 1/(s + 1). The overall transfer function of the
system is:
B. 2s/(s+1)

C. 3/(s+17)

A.
ANSWERS:

MODULE 7
MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE

temperature of a substance is a measure of the hotness, or coldness, of that substance.

The terms, heat and temperature, are closely related Temperature may be defined as "degree of heat"
but heat is usually taken to mean "quantity of heat”

Temperature and heat flow are related quantitatively by the second law of thermodynamics
Temperature scales, (Bicha & Prasuna, 2015), are based upon some recognized fixed points. At least two
fixed points are required which are constant in temperature and can be easily reproduced as:

Centrigrade and Fahrenheit heat scales

On both these scales the freezing point and boiling point of water are used as fixed point, the freezing
point.
0C to 32F

Kelvin and Rankine absolute scales

On the Kelvin and Rankine scales the absloute and hypothetically placed at -273.2° and -459.7°

International temperature scale

This scale, (Bicha & Prasuna, 2015), has been established and adopted provide an experimental basis for
the calibration of specific thermometers to indicate temperatures as close as possible to the Kelvin
thermodynamic scale

CLASSIFICATION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

a) Expansion Thermo Meters

Characteristics:
- Low cost.
- Simple and compact

Applications:
- Control of gas flow
- Electric iron boxes
- Domestic ovens

b) Liquid in glass thermometers (Range limited to about 600℃.)

The liquid in gas thermometers is one of the most common types of temp measuring devices. The unit
consists of glass envelope, responsive liquid and indicating scale (Bicha & Prasuna, 2015).

Liquid in metal thermometers

The two distinct disadvantages of liquid in glass thermometers are, (Bicha & Prasuna, 2015):
1. The glass is very fragile and hence care should be taken in handling these thermometers.

2. The position of the thermometer for accurate temp measurement is not always the best position for
reading the scale of the thermometer

GAS THERMOMETER (Range: -130°to 540°)

This system is defined as "a thermal system with a gas and operating on the principle of pressure change
with temperature change". The expansion, of a gas is governed by the ideal gas law:
Electrical Methods (Bicha & Prasuna, 2015),
In electrical methods of measuring temperature, the temperature signal is converted into electrical signal
either through a change in resistance or voltage development of emf.

- RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS
The thermometer comprises a resistance element or bulb, suitable electrical leads and an
indicating recording or resistance measuring instrument. The resistance element is, usually in
the form of a coil of very fine platinum, nickel or copper wound non -conductively

- THERMISTORS
Thermistors is a contraction of term Thermal Resistor. They are essentially semi-conductors
which behave as resistors with a high negative temperature coefficient. As -the temperature
increases, the resistance goes down, and as the temperature decreases, the resistance goes up.
This is just opposite to the effect of temperature changes on metals

- THERMOCOUPLES

The thermocouple is an extremely versatile device. Since the measurement of the temperature occurs
only at the actual interface between the two metals, the measurement area can be as large or as small
as one chooses. Most thermocouples today are made from two pieces of dissimilar wire, welded
together in a bead.