Precipitation

EARTH-ATMOSPHERE ENERGY EXCHANGE

CWR 4120 Hydrology

Dr. Wahl
 Earth-atmosphere energy
exchange
• Hydrological processes are driven by exchange of mass
(water) and energy between the earth and atmosphere
• Water exchanged through
• Precipitation
• Evapotranspiration
• Energy exchanged by
• Electromagnetic radiation (shortwave and longwave)
• Sensible and latent heat

Hydrology- Basic concepts 2

 Earth-atmosphere energy
exchange
• sensible heat: fluxes of heat are driven by
temperature gradients
• e.g. hot cup of coffee on a cold day; heat flows from
the coffee to the surrounding air, and you can
measure a temperature change over time
• latent heat: fluxes of heat are driven by phase
changes
• e.g. heat is released when water condenses (vapor
to liquid)
• There is no associated change in temperature

Hydrology- Basic concepts 3

 Earth-atmosphere energy
exchange
• All matter with temperature above absolute zero radiates
electromagnetic energy at a rate given by its temperature,
emissivity (property of the surface), and the universal
Stefan-Boltzmann constant
• When emitted electromagnetic energy encounters matter, it
may be absorbed, reflected, or transmitted through the
matter.
• When the energy is absorbed
by matter, it may change the
temperature or phase of the
matter (cause ice to melt)
• If the matter reflects or
transmits the energy, the
properties of the matter are
unchanged

Hydrology- Basic concepts 4

 Earth-atmosphere energy
exchange
Two main types of electromagnetic energy are of consequence to
hydrologic processes:
1. Shortwave radiation (solar electromagnetic energy,
wavelength 0.2 to 3 μm)
• Travels from sun to Earth; some is reflected, absorbed in
Earth’s atmosphere
• The remaining energy, incident solar radiation, is
transmitted and reaches the Earth surface, where it is
reflected (controlled by surface albedo, 𝜶𝜶) or absorbed
• Warms the Earth surface (sensible heat) or provides energy
for phase changes like melting and evaporation (latent heat)
2. Longwave radiation (terrestrial electromagnetic energy,
wavelength 4 to 60 μm)
• All matter emits longwave radiation

Hydrology- Basic concepts 5

 Earth-atmosphere energy
exchange

Global energy balance

Hydrology- Basic concepts 6
 Earth-atmosphere energy
exchange

remember this one

Global energy balance for later
Hydrology- Basic concepts 7
 Earth-atmosphere energy
exchange
Maintaining the energy
balance
• On a global scale, energy from
incoming solar radiation is
balanced by outgoing
radiation; energy is conserved
• But inputs and outputs vary
spatially
• Latitudes between 35° S and
35° N receive more incoming
radiation than outgoing;
• opposite is true for poleward latitudes, which maintains the
energy balance
• Thus, net poleward transport of energy via general
circulation of the atmosphere (winds) and oceans

Hydrology- Basic concepts 8

 Earth-atmosphere energy
exchange
Patterns of general
circulation & precipitation
• Air rises in tropics and around
60° N and 60° S
• causes low atmospheric
pressure and high
precipitation in these regions
• Air descends in poles and around
30° N and 30° S
• atmospheric pressure is high,
precipitation is low

Where are most of the world’s

deserts located?

Hydrology- Basic concepts 9

 Earth-atmosphere energy
exchange
Interannual climate oscillations
• Regular, periodic climate patterns on timescales greater than 1
year
• Cause conditions outside the mean climate, with teleconnections
between temperature, precipitation, and runoff
• Require no outside forcing; oscillatory phenomena
• Example: El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is an oscillation
with 3 -7 year period between warm phase (El Nino) and cool
phase (La Nina); atypical precipitation, droughts, floods often are
associated with ENSO events
• name ‘El Nino’ given by Peruvian fishermen. One of the first signs
of a El Nino event is warming water in the Pacific off the coast of
Peru in late fall. Fishermen noticed the low harvest around
Christmas of these years and called the phenomena El Nino.

Hydrology- Basic concepts 10

Earth-atmosphere energy
exchange

11
El Niño

12
El Niño impact on hurricanes

13
La Niña impacts on hurricanes

14
La Niña impacts on hurricanes

15
El Niño impacts on U.S. precipitation

16
La Niña impacts on U.S. precipitation

17
 Water capacity of atmosphere
• Amount of water vapor in atmosphere plays important role in
hydrologic cycle
• Water vapor is any water molecule in the gas phase at a
temperature lower than its critical point (the highest temperature
at which water can remain a liquid).
• For example, water has a critical temperature of 374 °C (647
K). This is the highest temperature at which liquid water can
exist; at higher temperatures it is steam. At lower
temperatures, water in gas phase is known as water vapor.

Hydrology- Basic concepts 18

 Water capacity of atmosphere
• The vapor pressure is the partial pressure of water vapor in air
• When air is fully saturated with water vapor, the vapor pressure is
the saturation vapor pressure (e*)
• e* is a function of temperature; either addition of more water
vapor or lowering of temperature will cause condensation

Warmer air can hold

more water vapor

Hydrology- Basic concepts 19

 Water capacity of atmosphere
• warming or cooling of air through adiabatic processes
occurs when air moves to a new location and is subject to a
higher/lower pressure.
• Due to the relationship of T and P, the air changes
temperature without any exchange of sensible or latent
heat

• For example, when

air moves to a
higher elevation,
pressure decreases,
density decreases
and temperature
decreases. This is
adiabatic cooling.

Hydrology- Basic concepts 20

 Water capacity of atmosphere
• The rate of cooling with elevation is the adiabatic lapse
rate; near the Earth surface this rate is a mean decrease of
6.5 °C/km
• As water vapor in air cools, it condenses, releasing latent
heat; this keeps the lapse rate of moist air lower than of
dry air
• Adiabatic cooling of moist air is the genesis of precipitation

Hydrology- Basic concepts 21

 Earth-atmosphere energy
exchange

remember this one

Global energy balance for later
Hydrology- Basic concepts 22
 Earth-atmosphere energy
exchange
The Greenhouse effect
• Some constituents of the Earth’s atmosphere,
such as water vapor and Greenhouse gases (CO2,
O3, N2O, CH4, ect.) are very good at absorbing
the specific wavelengths of longwave radiation
emitted from Earth’s surface.
• The absorbed energy heats the atmosphere,
which warms and re-emits the energy back to the
Earth.
• This ‘Greenhouse’ process keeps the mean Earth
surface temperature much higher than it would
be otherwise

Hydrology- Basic concepts 23

 Earth-atmosphere energy
exchange

Recent change in global mean

concentrations of greenhouse gases
Hydrology- Basic concepts 24
 Earth-atmosphere energy
exchange

And recent change in global mean surface

temperature; note error bars in 1890s,
1940s, 2000s
Hydrology- Basic concepts 25
 Earth-atmosphere energy
exchange

And recent change in global mean surface

temperature; note error bars in 1890s,
1940s, 2000s (they don’t overlap)
Hydrology- Basic concepts 26
 Earth-atmosphere energy
exchange

Observed global average changes (black line), model simulations using only changes in
natural factors (solar and volcanic, in green), and model simulations with the addition of
human-induced emissions (blue). Climate changes since 1950 cannot be explained by
natural factors or variability, only by human factors. (Figure source: adapted from Huber
and Knutti). 27
Earth-atmosphere energy
exchange

28
 Earth-atmosphere energy
exchange
Hydrologic change due to changing composition
of Earth’s atmosphere and temperature:
• Intensification of global hydrological cycle
• Ocean warming  more Evaporation
• Atmosphere is warmer and can hold more
water vapor  positive feedback to more
warming since more longwave radiation is
attenuated and back-radiated to Earth
• More precipitation, but delivered in fewer
events  More frequent and severe floods
and droughts
• Less precipitation as snow  change in timing
of peak flows
Hydrology- Basic concepts 29