CIVL6008 Bridge Engineering Construction Materials and Choice of Structural Systems Outline * Quality in bridge design * Choice of span * Selection of superstructure type* + Further cases of steel bridges + Further cases of concrete bridges Quality in bridge design Basic objectives: (a) Functional = to carry traffic over obstruction (that performs certain functions) - part of a network - others: traffic capacity, speed, safety, comfort, etc. (b) Structural os - effect on cost, ete. Economie - first cost (design, construction, ete.) ~ maintenance cost (@) Aesthetic - ACABAS (Advisory Committee on Appearance of Bridges and Associated Structures) c a Quality in bridge design Basic objectives: (@) Functional (b) Structural (©) Economic (a) Aesthetic Evaluation of alternatives: Which is more important? + Common footbridges + Urban flyovers + Major crossingsLoad-supporting structure of bridge deck Insitu concrete + Traditional and most usual Precast concrete + In some European bridges + Precast conercte planks (RC or PC) + Continuity* (post-tensioned, ete.) Steel Open-grid steel floors - USA - good on de-icing - light-weight Load-supporting structure of bridge deck Steel + Orthotropic steel deck - stronger - popular Load-supporting structure of bridge deck Criteria for choice: + Durability + Bending strength + Axial strength * Cost + Dead weight + Riding quality Load-supporting structure of bridge deck Integration: Top flange of girder Top chord of trass 1 ATID a d [ é i, [ Tie of an arch Strut in a selftied suspension bridge Concrete or steel? :Load-supporting structure of bridge deck Isolation: Main structure Dead weight: Important for long-span bridges €.g. orthotropic steel deck vs. RC slab Superstructure Choice of span Choice of span ad Se fa Cost © axth pier/m width oo > b Span X deck variable fixed cost independent spanChoice of span TLLitl deck T7777 Total cost cost o Satb of pler/ x2 (a snail) m span Span x Cost of span Typically, the foundation cost increases linearly at a slow rate with span Figute 1. Foundation costs for bridges of various spans. (Cost of ene por par m | Optimum span Figure 2. Total costs for bridges of various spans. (Cost pe sa mof deck —Siperstruture cost ° 0 0 ~ ‘span (m) Tthas been customary to assume that the optinuum span satisfies the condition that the superstructure and substructure costs are roughly equal Selection of superstructure type ‘The choice is primarily a function of the span. It is also influenced by: * Quality and cost of materials; + Foundation conditions; + Height to the deck surface; and * Constraints placed by the site on erection What bridges do we have? + A fact sheet from Highways Department + An MSc(Eng) project dissertationSpan lengths for various types of superstructure ‘Structural, Material Range of Maximum Span Type Spans (mi) in Service () (upto 1971) Slab Concrete 0-12 ‘Concrete 208, Bendorf Seel 30-260 261, Saval Cablestayed Concrete =240 235, Maracaibo Steel 90 - 330 320, Knie ‘Truss Steel 90 - 550 549, Quebec (rail) 480, Greater New Orleans (voad) ‘Arch Concrete 90-310 308, Gladesvlle Steel Truss 240-520 511, Bayonne Steel Rib 120-360 366, Port Mann 1298, Verrazano Suspension | Steel Span lengths for various types of superstructure For updated information, see World’s longest spans by bridge type Chronological development of the world's longest bridge span 8 Superstructure type — Steel plate girders Steel plate girders = = (OpPastsveted, (0) Welded wits @atinvted —@)atlweled © Bae ‘Rach pnes, Fire 3. Typical plate girder ross scion.Steel plate girders Distinctive features: + Advantages: simplicity of geometry and low fabrication costs + Disadvantages: inefficient use of the web material * Reasonable maintenance costs * Deck acts as part of the upper flange (i.e. integral top deck) a Steel plate girders Distinctive features: + Use of thin flanges? (variation of width, stiffeners) + Thin web vs. thick web: correct choice of web and stiffening system is related to the contrast between material and fabrication costs = my | fever cs Thin web Thick web v v Less mater, cost 7g. Mere material More labour Less labour 2 Steel plate girders Distinctive features: + Use of longitudinal stiffeners spanning between cross- frames / + Variation of girder depth / section possible Steel plate girders Distinctive features: + Multi-steel or hybrid girder Stenger steel) L777) 7777 ze BsSteel plate girders Distinctive features: * Choice between (a) 2 widely spaced primary (b) Multiple primary girders ssirders + subsidiary girder system supporting deck TIT ce fe ee ‘at gles ¢ Girder depth 7 dng ogee Total flange area + Total cost of main girder + => * Check cost of deck girders Steel plate girders Distinctive features: + Appearance is normally satisfactory; but check (a) Haunched girders (oblique side view) TT Sal diaphragm ier oxtand Steel plate girders Distinctive features: (b) Soffit curve Farabola —N-G. ? AE mag] Helical bar gd er |_2E_ b. Bolted vi igid = bar oenior ae belt connection T 0 o © “Typical seas connector: (0 stud; () channel; (celica bar: Aig bar; Fine 5. Typical shea comectrs (Ghga tense Wa counesion or reat decks () bled ip br occa (@) so; @) camelSuperstructure type — Prestressed concrete Prestressed concrete Features: + To avoid tension cracking + Methods: pretensioning and post-tensioning * Classification: Class 1: no tensile stress except at transfer Class 2: tensile stress not exceeding flexural tensile strength Class 3: partially prestressed (cracking allowed) * Durable; no tension cracking + Increased dead weight (compared with steel) ‘A penalty especially in long-span bridges w Prestressed concrete + Rational use of high-strength materials © High strength steel © High strength steel Prestressed RC structures PC structures * Cost / volume * but cost / strength + Prestressed concrete Early attempts in prestressing were unsuccessful because + low-strength steel was used + long-term effects of creep and shrinkage reduced the prestress force very much For example, + Mild steel S,=250Nimm; FOS = 1.25 >f,= 200 Nimm?* £200 _1¢99,<10° (1000 microstrains) E, 200x10 Shrinkage sain =60010% Effective prestress =200x. =o = 80 N/mm? 200-80 _ Loss + 100% = 60% ssPrestressed concrete Modem high strength steel f= 1300 Nimm? 300 200x10° 2E 00x10 (6500 microstrains) Shrinkage strain of 600x10° is not significant (around 10% loss) Material proof-loaded during construction (7) Efficient use of materials if Shear strength T => thinner web possible + Fe Labour cost / material cost T ” Prestressed concrete Adjustment of B.M. in continuous bridge possible Sl er nen — = ia Saar = Reduces mid-span sagging moment Prestressed concrete Reasonable fatigue life Segmental construction possible (precast or in situ) Factory production possible (up to 40m normally) Construction sequence must be considered in design Satisfactory appearance (unchuttered exterior, shallower girder depth) External prestressing becoming popular ~ easier concreting, thinner web possible ~ cable replacement possible Superstructure type - TrussesTrusses Features: + Triangulated assembly of straight members + Characteristics: ~ straight centroidal axes ~ concurrent at joints - loaded only at joints (because of floor system) + Realistic designs —> small secondary moments + Systems: - floor system - vertical system (DL, LL) - horizontal system (WL, EQ) Trusses wee “Sa Re Components: FAD Z - deck slab mse - longitudinal stringers Pee - cross-girders - 2 main trusses - lateral bracing (upper and lower chords) ~ end sway frames - intermediate sway frames Trusses Trusses Different truss types LXTNZNZN Ne COERRK SON te Sowers Sor Shaidra lar.Trusses Trusses VYYYWVYVVVy [ WMV ate OK X \/ \] be32 1343216 /\ 25228 16 b+3 = 23 determinateTrusses Other features: + Primary member forces are axial loads + Open web system permits the use of a greater overall depth + Stiffer structure and more economical; relative lightness + Fabrication and maintenance costs * + Economical for medium spans (160 — 500m) Span: plate girder < truss < suspension bridge The cable-stayed bridge emerges as a new competitor Standard stiffening structure for suspension bridge (acceptable aerodynamic behaviour) e.g. N. & S. Bisan-Seto Bridges along Kojima-Sakaide Route, Japan; Tsing Ma Bridge Trusses Erection advantage ~ by small crane: member by member - by larger crane: bay by bay (field connections minimized) Deck ~ independent floor system. = deck integral with truss chord Rarely looks well (complexity of elevation and awkward ‘member intersections in oblique views) eee Trusses * Construction depth are & al Deck bridge Ze a mone (TVW) [B, . F Half-through =) we iE). k Bp z or combinations! Trusses “e 2 ‘eg over the Fas Rive.Trusses Superstructure type —Box girders Box girders Features + Multiply connected boundary = an exterior + at least one interior surface TCE ULT TIO CLIT) Figure 10. Typical box girder sections Box girders Components: ToT - top flange (including side cantilever) - bottom flange -webs I - diaphragms (intermediate diaphragms) ‘Top flange as deck slab LL deck slab —> webs / whole section (simplified load path) Shear lag effect, especially for wide boxes ass owe Tbr ee,Box girders + Higher torsional stiffness (compared with open section) ~ especially for curved alignment - efficient support of eccentric loads scoor - efficient distribution of load + Box girder vs. beam deck - flange area T ~high span / depth ratio possible ~ slender and aesthetic ~ material and other costs T - deflection of fully stressed design * - buckling problem for steel flanges, 9 Box girders Erection problem - from plates, sections, ete. - stability: collapse of partially completed West Gate Bridge, Melbourne, Australia during construction in 1970 Enclosed space - for services (e.g. Tsing Yi South Bridge) = even substation! | West Gate Bridge 4 Easy maintenance - easier maintenance compared to equivalent girder with open section - enclosed space may be hermetically sealed Visually attractive a Superstructure type — Stiffened suspension bridge Peta co) Stiffened suspension bridge Why stiffened? Limit? - T-Y. Lin suggested = 20km possible under self-weight - Skm feasible (7) Prvbleus? ~ Aerodynamic instability Clifton Bridge, Bristol (1864) Tacoma Narrows Bridge yap bY Sembard Kingdom Brinel ~ A classical lessonStiffened suspension bridge ‘Tacoma Narrows Bridge ~ designed for 200mph wind speed - very “lively” after opening (nicknamed “Galloping Gertie”) “Local fotks lost no time in nicknaming the bridge "Galloping Gertie." Fascinated by Gertie, thousands of people drove Inndreds of miles to experience the sensation of crossing the rolling center span. The disappearance and then reappearance of cars ofien highlighted the experienc: a Stiffened suspension bridge + Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1 July ~ 7 Nov 1940) - failed under 70mph wind speed in November 1940 Stiffened suspension bridge Tacoma Narrows Bridge Possible reasons for failure: - the wind blowing against the bridge had the same frequency as the resonance frequency of the bridge, causing vibrations to build up disproportionate to the force of the wind; ~ vortices generated around the bridge matched the resonance and caused oscillations to gradually bunld up; and ~ random fluctuations in wind turbulence were enough fo cause the bridge to collapse. Major weaknesses: flexibility, both vertically and in torsion ~ high ratio of bridge span to girder depth ~ high ratio of bridge span to deck width Stiffened suspension bridge Features: + Normally for spans over 1000m + Usually all-steel structure, apart from towers and foundations + Flexible main cables in direct tension ~ constructed from high strength wires: supported by towers and anchorages + Deck hung from cables by hangers constructed of high strength wire ropes + Tension structures => economical for long spans + Cost of main cables must be balanced against that of the associated anchorages and towers «Stiffened suspension bridge Main cables are stiffened either by a pair of stiffening trusses or by a system of girders at deck level = control aerodynamic movements ~ limit local angle changes in deck (2 ce, Stiffened suspension bridge + Easy erection (without intermediate staging) + Elegant and neatly expresses its functions + Height of towers may be a drawback - especially within approach circuits for airport ~ ¢.g. suspension bridge was ruled out in planning for Eastem Harbour crossing + Mostly with two main cables; but mono-cable suspension bridges do exist Stiffened suspension bridge ‘Two arrangements of hangers vertical hangers 4 ~ inclined hangers escapee ener ate Examples ~ Tsing Ma Bridge siting te ea gee yi ied epson ie: ~ Humber Bridge ‘ ates ce | oT oma \ seat \ omy ‘ote Fee Satu mapeica np me alae Stiffened suspension bridge + Use of aerial spinning Spinning wheel ‘on endless hauling rope counterweight tower: achorage Cable spinning on Verrazano Narrows Bridge.Stiffened suspension bridge ‘Tsing Ma Bridge Stiffened suspension bridge Tsing Ma Bridge Stiffened suspension bridge ‘Tsing Ma Bridge ~ erection sequence ‘ud Fondation, Towers and Anchorage ‘anne oko | Fig. 22.1 im Stiffened suspension bridge Tsing Ma Bridge ~ erection sequence ‘Compact abies Fi Cale Bands nd Suspenders ‘Wasa Seannenae Fig. 225 Fgzae x nStiffened suspension bridge + Tsing Ma Bridge — sections Stiffened suspension bridge ‘Tsing Ma Bridge ~ sections Superstructure type — Cable-stayed girder bridges Cable-stayed girder bridges The cable-stayed girder bridge consists of: = amain girder system at deck + Cable-stayed bridges - above problems not seriousCable-stayed girder bridges Behaviour of cable, }—____1______., , Hookean stiffness prevails —___w Gravitational stiffness prevails Cable-stayed girder bridges ‘Typical arrangements: (a) Fan Cables converge to a point (a) fan (b) Harp Cables in parallel tiers (b) harp Cable-stayed girder bridges Typical arrangements: (©) Modified fan or semi-fan (c) modified fan (@) Externally anchored harp (@) externally anchored harp (©) Single cable No such difference (© single cable Cable-stayed girder bridges Features + Economy in material, weight and cost (high-strength cables in tension) + “Straight” cables and stiffer + Cable forces cause compression in deck and prestress concrete + Shorter cables and easier to erect (compared with suspension bridges) ©Cable-stayed girder bridges Great freedom in arrangement (number and positions of cables) - mainly tension and compression - mainly bending Cable-stayed girder bridges + Cable arrangement - single vertical plane = two vertical planes - two or more inclined planes US Poet!’ Qype! Dalit. plane ie Ting Kau Bridge : h vt oii (ee Shui ( ng ne pried *| deck Mun Bridge 4 inclined planes Cable-stayed girder bridges Good to provide jacking details ~ at tower or deck - for adjustment for creep, cable length errors, variations in ‘Young's modulus, ete. Cables facilitate cantilever erection of segments; cable adjustment provides useful effective control Aerodynamic instability not serious compared with suspension bridges Cable-stayed girder bridges + Dynamic behaviour (and stiffness) depends on cable arrangement Harp © very ns f 5 very Hexible (may use external anchoring) Fan: stiffer “Single foor ha with’ anchor ‘par? Cable-stayed girder bridges % Superstructure type — Arch bridges PAN Tera NVM ESC ome sR CLE “SUE ip) by LI Chun (4 4) in 610 Arch bridges An arch may be defined as a member shaped an id supported in such a way that intermediate transverse loads are transmitted to the supports primarily by axial compressive forces in the arch. The classical arch form consists of a curved rib springing, from abntments which enpply reactions having the inward-acting horizontal components essential for arch action. ‘A large number of variants are possible. The arch rib may be hingeless, or may have one, two or three hinges. Arch bridges Extradas or back Intrados or i sot (clement between Springing tine __aéineent sections) Span ‘Skewback ‘Abutment Figure 10.1 Arch bridge nomenclature. ‘Oxford English Dictionary + Extrados (ekstrerdas) + Intrados (mttrerdns) * Voussoir (vuzswax(r), -a:(r))Arch bridges Logical arch rib profile FOR ps, portale 2s arch | ceo /\ em Arch bridges Types of arch bridges: + Number of hinges: 0, 1, 2,3 oN Ss oT (Hinges (Hinges (0 t4ngeten =_—_— szatzally gc oo derma (o2Hinget > (o)3inge 5 Arch bridges Types of arch bridges: + Spandrel: - solid or filled spandrel ~ open spandrel ~ braced spandrel (similar to trusses) BES (O Solid spandret (@) Open spanrel (h) Braced spandel Arch bridges ‘Types of arch bridges: + Tied arches ec, SB yy (9 Tied arch Bowstring or Langer girder) (@ Tied arch (Tied arch ut o> AyArch bridges Types of arch bridges: + Curved rib replaced by many straight segments funicular arch (0 Rigid fame ( telined eg fame (2-Hinged) (strut frame) ZN ee (etna ame () Cantilever arch : Arch bridges Types of arch bridges: * Moment-resisting rib - stiffened deck arch (stiff deck tends to even out loading) PN PN Conventional arch wih Oona eat ie (@ stiffened deck arch a (@ Stiffened deck are Arch bridges Features: + Bending moments reduced => economical in material (compare with girders) + Horizontal reactions to arch rib essential - only if suitable foundation available, e.g. valley ~ e.g. (previously) footbridge over Tuen Mun Highway ~ highway bridge over Chatham Road + High fabrication and erection costs Arch bridges + Erection problem: - easiest for cantilever arch (0) Cantilever arch = most difficult for tied arch ects, (@ Tied arch (Bowstring or Langer girder) 6Arch bridges Predominantly a compression structure = spandrel columns ~ arch sib = estimate of buckling behaviour e.g stiffened deck design with slender arch rib; penalties due to buckling (@ stiffened deck arch First-order elastic theory may be inadequate ~ compare with Euler analysis of columns Careful detailing important to avoid undesirable moments in deck, columns and rib Pq () Conventional arch with ‘moment-resistant rib Arch bridges + Headroom problem: + Aesthetic The End