Evolving Landscape of Residential Education

Samuel Kai Wah Chu · Kevin Kin Man Yue ·
Christina Wai-Mui Yu · Elaine Suk Ching Liu ·

Chun Chau Sze · Kevin Conn · Elsie Ong ·
Michelle Wing-tung Cheng · Jingyuan Fu ·
Shida Hou Editors
Evolving
Landscape
of Residential
Education
Enhancing Students’ Learning in
University Residential Halls
Evolving Landscape of Residential Education
Samuel Kai Wah Chu · Kevin Kin Man Yue ·
Christina Wai-Mui Yu · Elaine Suk Ching Liu ·
Chun Chau Sze · Kevin Conn · Elsie Ong ·
Michelle Wing-tung Cheng · Jingyuan Fu ·
Shida Hou
Editors
Evolving Landscape
of Residential Education
Enhancing Students’ Learning in University
Residential Halls
Editors
Samuel Kai Wah Chu Kevin Kin Man Yue
University of Hong Kong The School of Chinese Medicine
Hong Kong, Hong Kong Hong Kong Baptist University
Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong
Christina Wai-Mui Yu
Department of Social Sciences Elaine Suk Ching Liu
Education University of Hong Kong City University of Hong Kong
Tai Po, Hong Kong Hong Kong, Hong Kong
Chun Chau Sze Kevin Conn

Nanyang Technological University New York University
Singapore New York, NY, USA
Singapore, Singapore
Michelle Wing-tung Cheng
Elsie Ong Education University of Hong Kong
University of Northampton Tai Po, Hong Kong
Northampton, UK
Shida Hou
Jingyuan Fu Guanghua School of Stomatology
Faculty of Education Sun Yat-sen University
University of Hong Kong Guangzhou, China
Hong Kong, Hong Kong
ISBN 978-981-16-8905-5 ISBN 978-981-16-8906-2 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8906-2
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse
of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
Contents
Part I Introduction
1 A Review of Current University Residential Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Michelle Wing-tung Cheng and Samuel Kai Wah Chu
Part II Models and Outcomes

2 A New Theoretical Model Through Which to Examine
Student Residence Life Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3 Residential Education in the US . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Kevin Conn
Part III Current Programmes and Case Studies

4 Optimising Students’ Learning in Residential Halls:
A Case Study of How to Connect Hall Life Education
with Community Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Elaine Suk Ching Liu
5 Care Across Borders Through Hall Life Education
Programmes: Case Studies from Hong Kong Baptist University . . . 49
Kevin Kin Man Yue
6 Deeper Experiential Engagement Projects (DEEP)
in Residential Halls: Equipping for the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Chun Chau Sze
Part IV Students’ Voices

7 Attaining Graduate Attributes Through Hall Life Education:
Perspectives of Local and Non-local Residents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Kevin Kin Man Yue
v
vi Contents
8 ASK: An Undergraduate’s Growth Through International

Residential Education Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Rosetta Wai-Chung Law and Christina Wai-Mui Yu
9 A Comparison Between HKU Residential Life and Residential
Life in the US . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Kevin Conn and Katie Ling
10 Introducing Financial Literacy to Residential Colleges’
General Education: A Systematic Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Jingyuan Fu, Shida Hou, and Christina Wai-Mui Yu
Part V Ongoing Research and Implications

11 Comparison of How Residential Hall Experience Impacts
Hong Kong University Students’ Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Elsie Ong and Samuel Kai Wah Chu
12 Capacity Building for Advancing and Sustaining Residential
Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
13 Strengthening the Alignment of Residential Educational Aims
and University Educational Aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Part VI Future Directions and Conclusion

14 Summarising Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Michelle Wing-tung Cheng, Christina Wai-Mui Yu, Kevin Conn,
Chun Chau Sze, Elsie Li Chen Ong, and Samuel Kai Wah Chu
Part I
Introduction
Chapter 1
A Review of Current University
Residential Settings
Abstract This chapter first gives a brief introduction of the aims of this book,
providing a global overview of current residential hall systems. It then looks at the rich
tradition and history of university residential halls from an educational perspective.
A review of the relevant literature with regard to the university residential setting is
also provided to illustrate the importance of university residential halls. The chapter
concludes by examining current difficulties and challenges encountered by residential
communities.
Keywords University residential hall systems · Educational value · Difficulties

and challenges · Residential communities
Introduction
Most universities around the world provide residential accommodation; yet, only a
few, such as Harvard University, the University of Oxford, and the University of
Cambridge, perceive residential halls as part of the higher education curriculum and
as providing educational value. Since interpretations of residential education vary
among universities and countries, this chapter first describes the history of university
residential halls. Then, it provides an overview of current residential hall systems
worldwide and examines them from an educational perspective. At the end of the
first chapter, a review of relevant literature in regard to the challenges encountered in
university residential settings is elaborated upon, so that educators and researchers
who are interested in the field may further work on the identified issues to enhance
the educational value of university residential halls.
M. W. Cheng (B)
Graduate School, The Education University of Hong Kong, Tai Po, Hong Kong
e-mail: chengwt@eduhk.hk
S. K. W. Chu
Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 3
S. K. W. Chu et al. (eds.), Evolving Landscape of Residential Education,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8906-2_1
4 M. W. Cheng et al.
The Origins of the University Residential System
‘Residential university’ is a concept that was newly raised by the end of the thirteenth
century. Neither Oxford nor Cambridge was established as a residential university
when it was founded. However, a university residential model named the Oxbridge
model emerged from these two medieval universities, in the hope of providing a
better and safer teaching and learning environment for scholars and students.
As one of the oldest universities in Western society, Oxford grew rapidly after
1167, when students were banned from attending the University of Paris by the British
government (Morris, 1978). Social conflicts between students and townspeople arose
during the medieval period, as the British King granted more privileges regarding
food and shelter to Oxford students. These privileges directly harmed the interests
of merchants in the town, as well as deepening social inequality, which resulted in
intense relationships between the town and the university in the late twelfth century.
Fierce riots broke out when town authorities did not consult orthodox bodies and
hanged two Oxford scholars after accusing them of causing the death of a woman.
These events resulted in the suspension and reform of Oxford, including the estab-
lishment of primitive halls of residence to protect students. Therefore, this context
led to the founding of the two oldest colleges in Oxford: Balliol College (1263) and
Merton College (1264).
During the suspension of Oxford, some scholars took refuge from hostile towns-
people by moving from Oxford to Cambridge (Morris, 1978). This migration led to
the establishment of the University of Cambridge (Leedham-Green, 1996). However,
students in Cambridge were exploited by townspeople there and had to pay for over-
charged rooms and food (Roach, 1959). To prevent similar incidents from occur-
ring again in Oxford, the British King tried to ensure the protection of scholars by
providing shelters for students through the absorption of hostels in the town. As
a result, colleges were able to house students and the first college in Cambridge,
Peterhouse (1284), was founded.
The Existing Residential System Worldwide
With the colonisation of North America, nine colonial colleges, including intuitions
such as Harvard and Princeton, were founded based on the Oxbridge Model (Blim-
ling, 2014). In the 1930s, Harvard implemented their residential college system:
‘the housing system’. It was the first university in the United States to put forth
a residential college and has kept the housing arrangement to this day to mitigate
socioeconomic disparities. Substantial efforts and resources are invested in the devel-
opment of the Harvard community, including the provision of academic, personal,
and social counselling and community services for students. Academic advisers,
peer advising fellows, resident deans, and proctors help first-year students with both
academic and personal matters. Under the housing system, all first-year students
1 A Review of Current University Residential Settings 5
are required to live in Harvard Yard, which has shared suites and dining halls that
are exclusive to freshmen. After their first year, freshmen enter the housing lottery
through blocking groups (Under the current upper-class housing system, “blocking
groups” are self-selected groups of one to eight freshmen who are placed into the
same house) (Herwitz & Siegal, 2017); then, each group is sorted into one of the 12
Harvard Houses. The author of this chapter randomly interviewed several students
at Harvard. According to the respondents, over 95% of undergraduate students often
choose to stay in residential houses throughout their undergraduate years at Harvard,
although it is not compulsory to do so after freshman year.
At Princeton, all freshmen are assigned to one of six colleges, and upper-class
housing is employed after their first year. On-campus housing for undergraduate
students is guaranteed and the school has organised academic workshops and semi-
nars in residential halls to provide academic support to students through residen-
tial education (Hageman, 1879). The author also interviewed students at Princeton.
According to the respondents, residential life is central to the Princeton experience,
with 98% of undergraduates living on campus. Intellectual exchange is emphasised
at the college; students function as small groups, interacting with and being inspired
by academic tutors and senior students.
In the above residential systems, every student at each institution has the oppor-
tunity to experience the residential system for at least one academic year. Resi-
dential experiences are not limited to lodging; they also provide opportunities for
personal and social development, as well as career and academic support. Later in the
twentieth century, the US National Institute of Education proposed the construction
of ‘living-learning programs’ (LLPs) in university residential halls (Inkelas, 2008;
Inkelas et al., 2008; Inkelas et al., 2008; Inkelas & Soldner, 2011). LLPs are defined
as academic and/or extracurricular programmes that are tailored for undergraduates
who live together in halls of residence (Soldner & Szelényi, 2008, p. 15). To put
the idea of LLPs into practice, external parties, such as faculties and student affairs
offices, take the initiative to host various LLPs in halls for student residents (Inkelas
et al., 2008).
The long history of campus residency in Western countries and the concept of the
residential university have slowly become more popular around Asia. For instance,
the University of Hong Kong took reference from the Oxbridge model and was
established as a residential-based university in 1912. However, LLPs are not a new
concept in Asian countries. The University of Macau has transformed itself into a
residential-college university since 2014, providing all undergraduate students with
at least one year of residential experience. The school requires all full-time academic
staff members to commit one hour per week to resident development services, such as
providing support for student learning beyond the classroom and organising activities
that challenge students to take responsibility and grow, according to Chen (2017).
Prior to that, the National University of Singapore (NUS) clustered residential spaces
and learning facilities to launch its University Town in 2008, in order to promote the
nexus of living, learning, and working in residential colleges (Chan & Ng, 2008).
This system is different from conventional residential halls in Singapore, which have
minimal learning activities structured within their operations.
In 2011, a partnership between Yale University and the NUS gave rise to the
Yale-NUS College. Never intended to be a carbon copy of Yale University, it has
incorporated Singapore and South East Asian contexts into its curriculum. However,
its residential college system mirrors that of Yale and other leading universities in
the United States, effectively infusing liberal arts and science education into residen-
tial living (Bailyn, 2020). The Yale-NUS College creates ‘nested communities’ that
support lifelong learning in liberal arts and sciences by combining academic, intellec-
tual, social, cultural, athletic, and artistic life. It encourages students to pursue a co-
curricular life of student governments, clubs, and organisations, so as to develop lead-
ership, independence, agility, and strength of mind. The student-government system
enshrines core values of transparency; all meetings are open to the student body,
student concerns are effectively reported to all administrative arms, and account-
ability is employed, with all committees having student members acting as monitors
for input and oversight. The college also sponsors education programming events,
invites guests for tea, and offers programmes to enhance students’ intellectual and
cultural experiences. The intercultural engagement of the college activates diversity
consciousness and enables dialogues among students to cultivate greater bravery and
inclusiveness. The college advocates a culture of self-discovery through knowledge
sharing and self-exploration. In case students need any help, there are professional
support staff standing by. Emotional safety plans, solidarity meals, and meditation are
offered monthly as spaces for healing. The living-and-learning experience between
classroom and community defines the residential model of the Yale-NUS College.
Nanyang Technological University (NTU) Singapore, on the other hand, has
opted to layer a residential education scheme over its existing conventional resi-
dential halls, starting in 2014 with two pilot halls and progressively expanding to all
22 undergraduate halls by 2018. Although most residential activities remain extra-
curricular, creative projects leveraging links between hobbies and academic disci-
plines have been weaved into the overall fabric of the NTU residential halls, carving
a co-curricular learning niche to strengthen holistic education (Pang et al., 2016).
University Residential Education
Residential colleges, which are responsible for providing residence, catering,

socialising activities, and academic support to students under the Oxbridge
model, have paved the way for university residential education. In the history
of campus residency, the possibility of bringing the potential of education to
students’ residential environment among education institutions was raised long ago
(Astin, 1977; Chickering, 1969; O’ Hara, 2006; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991;
Schroeder & Mable, 1994), particularly in its roles and impacts on student resi-
dents. For instance, Pascarella and Terenzini (1991) compared undergraduates who
were and were not living on campus. The results demonstrated that university resi-
dential experiences led to better persistence and a significantly higher graduation
rate among students. Another key study, which followed 101 undergraduates for five
years to track their personal development, found that social competencies and the
appreciation of diversity were higher among those who had residential experience
(Magolda, 1992). In addition, Astin (1999) mentioned that students who participate
in residential activities to support and build hall communities engage in learning
experiences that have a positive impact on their education and personal develop-
ment. However, Blimling (1989) found that simply living in residential halls does
not necessarily support the contention that halls have a significant effect on students’
attitudes, values, academic performance, or intellectual or psychosocial development.
Current research related to university residential education is scarce, particularly in
regard to student residential learning outcomes and different structured/unstructured
residential programmes. Although some residential universities claim to facilitate
residents’ whole-person development via student residential experience, a formal
evaluation of whether or not residential halls have achieved these goals is lacking,
and there are now doubts that such goals can actually be fulfilled (Cheng & Chan,
2019).
Sense of Belonging
Past research has reached a consensus that residential experience promotes a sense
of belonging to one’s university. According to Hughes (1994), residence halls are
the home in which students can develop an identity during the intensive learning
period. Past research has investigated the differences between commuter students
and resident students in regard to their social development on campus (Lima, 2014;
Winston & Anchors, 1993). Studies revealed that, compared to resident students,
commuters generally get involved less in on-campus activities and student organi-
sations. As a result, commuters generally feel more isolated and less socially active
on campus. Residential halls serve as a safety net for students to explore campus.
According to Rinn (2004), ‘the safety a student feels within a residence hall commu-
nity can thus serve as a starting point for student exploration’ (p. 69). Residents
create different social circles and build peer relationships with each other in residen-
tial halls. According to the review panel on residential hall education and culture,
‘hall members work hard to sustain their particular hall culture, values and iden-
tity, often encapsulated in distinctive names’ (The University of Hong Kong Media,
2017, p. 1). A close-knit community can be created within each hall (Spanierman
et al., 2013). When residents are strongly committed to it, a sense of belonging and
bonding are created. Social identification within the residential hall can help residents
to adjust to university life both academically and socially (Braxton & Mundy, 2001).
Residence halls provide a social platform for residents’ interactions and further
encourage a sense of community, thereby reducing levels of university student
departure.
Academic Achievement
The relationship between residential experience and academic achievement is uncer-

tain. A meta-analysis was conducted by Blimling (1989), which selected 21 studies
among published research regarding halls of residence in higher education across
20 years. The results suggested that students living in halls generally have better
academic performance, but this result became insignificant when prior academic
achievement was controlled. These results are aligned with a study in America that
studied the quality of residential education by distributing questionnaires to 2678
residents (Pike et al., 1997). There was no significant increase regarding students’
interactions with faculty staff or the frequency with which they accessed academic
resources on campus. Students’ first-year college experiences revealed that academic
achievement and persistence were not directly or indirectly improved by their resi-
dential experience. However, Astin (1973) found a positive relationship between
living in residential halls and GPA. Similarly, another study shows that on-campus
accommodation with living-learning centres can positively affect students’ academic
development (Inkelas et al, 2007). Thus, the results of previous literature are not only
inconclusive, but were also conducted a long time ago. The latest related research
concerns how the architecture of residence halls may affect students’ academic
outcomes (Brown et al., 2019), but there is still a lack of current studies exam-
ining how different types of residential experiences may affect students’ academic
performance.
As mentioned above, there is an absence of current research on the effectiveness
of residential education. López et al. (2010) noted that the actual mechanisms of how
student residents benefit from their residential experiences are still unknown and there
is a lack of standardised assessment addressing how student residents benefit from
residential experiences. University residential halls provide unique student involve-
ment in the collegiate setting, which may have a distinct influence on students’ devel-
opment and learning, different from in-class or other out-of-class experiences. Given
that actual residence life outcomes are still doubtful, the effectiveness of university
residential experiences in student development remains as a question. López et al.
(2010) believed that there are still missing pieces in the puzzle of why some students
benefit from residing on campus and some do not. It is believed that students’ social
activities in residential settings should be examined to understand the actual mecha-
nisms underlying this issue, as Terenzini et al. (1996) stated that the real advantage
of university residential halls does not necessarily stem from the hall itself, but
rather from the opportunities and activities for socialisation facilitated by the living
space. Without a thorough understanding of how residents may benefit from resi-
dential experiences, it is difficult to design and create educational and meaningful
residential experiences for students.
Challenges to Creating Educational Residential Experiences
Although residential systems are different in various countries and universities,

similar challenges have been identified in creating meaningful residential education
that facilitates student development. First, internationalisation efforts within higher
education have led to rapid increases in non-local students. Students with diverse life
experiences, such as in their political, cultural, racial, religious, and socio-economic
backgrounds, are housed together (Crisp & Turner, 2011). Although this presents
opportunities to promote cultural integration, it requires extra efforts to integrate
people from different walks of life. As cultural diversity in residential halls may
lead to lifestyle conflicts and language barriers among residents, this may further
discourage or inhibit students in regard to becoming involved in residential hall life
(Blimling, 2014). Yet, some studies suggest otherwise, stating that conflicts are short-
lived and students can become more open and accepting of cultural differences by
living with very different people (Levine & Dean, 2012). Despite this possibility, it
is unclear how cultural integration can be facilitated in hall communities.
Second, peer influence is a double-edged sword in regard to students’ residen-
tial experiences. It is no wonder that residential halls were described as containing
cohesive social atmospheres (O’Hara, 2016), as they are places where students build
friendships and meet new people. According to Blimling (2014), this complex social
system of the residential peer environment has the potential to create positive learning
experiences for students. Unlike living at home, where students can take a break from
socialising with their peers, living in residential halls forces residents to interact with
and befriend others who are living under the same roof, especially their roommates,
people who live on the same floor and residential tutors (Cheng & Chan, 2021). Resi-
dential halls provide students with many opportunities to practise interacting with
others in different situations. However, residential halls also have the power to create
negative peer influence on student residents. For instance, past studies have found
that occurrences of binge drinking and drug abuse are significantly higher among
hall residents than among commuters (Brower et al., 2003; Novik & Boekeloo, 2013;
White et al., 2006).
Third, a clear and updated list of factors affecting student involvement in resi-
dential halls has not yet been established. The latest lists were developed a decade
ago, reporting that intangible factors, such as students’ gender, subject of study,
relationships with resident tutors, and frequency of interactions with peers and
faculty members have significant impacts on students’ involvement in residential
halls (Arboleda et al., 2003). It is not certain if such lists are still applicable today;
for example, current studies have found that gender no longer plays a significant role
in student hall involvement (Chu et al., 2019), while the quality and quantity of resi-
dent assistants may have more influence on residents than expected (Cheng & Chan,
2020). Thus, there is a lack of consensus regarding how various factors affect student
involvement, leading to challenges in creating educational residential experiences
that attract students to participate in halls.
Fourth, researchers do not have a clear understanding of the residence life

outcomes that students can develop through residential hall experience. Although
structured LLPs are popular around the world, Inkelas and Soldner (2011) have criti-
cised these residential hall programmes for lacking a systematic focus of research on
their effectiveness in delivering the student residence life outcomes the programmes
are designed to promote. Without knowing what residence life outcomes can be
developed, it is difficult to create the kinds of residential experiences that can facil-
itate student development. According to Bronkema and Bowman (2017), evidence
proving connections between specific characteristics of residence halls and desired
residence life outcomes is almost non-existent. Although Cheng and Chan’s (2019)
study provided an updated reference with which to understand students’ residence
life outcomes in non-LLP residential settings, their work was not tested in LLP
settings.
Fifth, despite there being residential educational aims that have been commonly
shared by local universities, the particular residential educational aims of institutions
generally diverge from one another. Stated or unstated residential educational aims
have not been measured regarding their alignment with each university’s educational
aims. Therefore, it is still unclear whether or not residential activities are conducted
in a way that facilitates the achievement of university educational aims.
This chapter has presented the history of residential halls, as well as their current
development. It has also discussed the lack of research on student residential expe-
riences and residence life outcomes. After describing the challenges that university
residential communities encounter, it is hoped that future studies will be conducted
to address the identified problems, as well as to provide evidence-based recommen-
dations for the development of better residential environments that are beneficial to
student development and the advancement of university residential education.
References
Arboleda, A., Wang, Y., Shelley, M. C., & Whalen, D. F. (2003). Predictors of residence hall
involvement. Journal of College Student Development, 44(4), 517–531. https://doi.org/10.1353/
csd.2003.0036
Astin, A. W. (1977). Four critical years: Effects of college on beliefs, attitudes, and knowledge.
Jossey-Bass.
Astin, A. W. (1999). Student involvement: A developmental theory for higher education. Journal
of College Student Personnel, 25(4), 297–308.
Bailyn, C. (2020). Diversifying the liberal arts curriculum in an Asian Context. In Diversity and
inclusion in global higher education (pp. 163–181). Palgrave Macmillan.
Blimling, G. S. (1989). A meta-analysis of the influence of college residence halls on academic
performance. Journal of College Student Development, 30(4), 298–308.
Blimling, G. S. (2014). Student learning in college residence halls: What works, what doesn’t, and
why. Wiley.
Braxton, J. M., & Mundy, M. E. (2001). Powerful institutional levers to reduce college student
departure. Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice, 3(1), 91–118.
https://doi.org/10.2190/M127-V05B-5E5J-F9LQ
Bronkema, R., & Bowman, N. A. (2017). A residential paradox? Residence hall attributes and
college student outcomes. Journal of College Student Development, 58(4), 624–630. https://doi.
org/10.1353/csd.2017.0047
Brower, A. M., Golde, C. M., & Allen, C. (2003). Residential learning communities positively affect
college binge drinking. NASPA Journal, 40(3), 132–152. https://doi.org/10.2202/1949-6605.1260
Brown, J., Volk, F., & Spratto, E. M. (2019). The hidden structure: The influence of residence hall
design on academic outcomes. Journal of Student Affairs Research and Practice, 56(3), 267–283.
https://doi.org/10.1080/19496591.2019.1611590
Chan, D., & Ng, P. T. (2008). Developing transnational higher education: Comparing the approaches
of Hong Kong and Singapore. International Journal of Educational Reform, 17(3), 291–307.
https://doi.org/10.1177/105678790801700306
Chen, H. (2017, August 30). Learning outcomes of the residential colleges at the University of
Macau. The University of Hong Kong. http://www.cetl.hku.hk/conf2016/wp-content/uploads/
2016/08/Haydn-CHEN-Learning-Outcomes-of-the-RCs-at-UMac-2016.5.pdf
Cheng, M. W., & Chan, C. K. (2019). Do university residential experiences contribute to holistic
education? Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 42(1), 31–48. https://doi.org/
10.1080/1360080X.2019.1659211
Cheng, M. W., & Chan, C. K. (2021). ‘Invisible in a visible role’: A photovoice study exploring the
struggles of new resident assistants. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 45(5), 688–703.
https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2020.1812547
Chickering, A. W. (1969). Education and identity. Jossey-Bass.
Chu, S., Chau, A., Chung, R., Chong, E., Ong, E., & Tam, A. (2019). A comparison of residence
hall experience for students of different backgrounds. Journal of Student Affairs Research and
Practice, 56(3), 326–339. https://doi.org/10.1080/19496591.2019.1582428
Crisp, R. J., & Turner, R. N. (2011). Cognitive adaptation to the experience of social and cultural
diversity. Psychological Bulletin, 137(2), 242–266. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021840
Hageman, J. F. (1879). History of Princeton and its institutions (Vol. 2). JB Lippincott & Company.
Herwitz, E., & Siegal, G. (2017, March 9). Blocked out: Deconstructing Harvard’s housing system.
The Harvard Crimson. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2017/3/9/deconstructing-harvards-
housing-system/
Hughes, M. (1994). Helping students understand and appreciate diversity. In C. C. Schroeder & P.
Mable (Eds.), Realizing the educational potential of residence halls (pp. 190–217). Jossey-Bass.
Inkelas, K. K. (2008). National study of living-learning programs: 2007 report of findings. University
of Maryland. https://drum.lib.umd.edu/handle/1903/8392
Inkelas, K. K., Daver, Z. E., Vogt, K. E., & Leonard, J. B. (2007). Living–learning programs and
first-generation college students’ academic and social transition to college. Research in Higher
Education, 48(4), 403–434. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-006-9031-6
Inkelas, K. K., & Soldner, M. (2011). Undergraduate living–learning programs and student
outcomes. In L. W. Perna (Ed.), Higher education: Handbook of theory and research (pp. 1–55).
Springer.
Inkelas, K. K., Soldner, M., Longerbeam, S. D., & Leonard, J. B. (2008). Differences in student
outcomes by types of living–learning programs: The development of an empirical typology.
Research in Higher Education, 49(6), 495–512. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-008-9087-6
Inkelas, K. K., Soldner, M., & Szelenyi, K. (2008). Living-learning programs for first year students.
In W. Zeller (Ed.), Residence life programs and the new student experience (pp. 53–67). National
Resource Center for the First-Year Experience and Students in Transition.
Leedham-Green, E. S. (1996). A concise history of the University of Cambridge. Cambridge
University Press.
Levine, A., & Dean, D. R. (2012). Generation on a tightrope: A portrait of today’s college student.
Wiley.
Lima, M. C. M. (2014). Commuter students’ social integration: The relationship between involve-
ment in extracurricular activities and sense of belonging (Doctoral dissertation, The George
Washington University). PQDT Open. https://pqdtopen.proquest.com/pubnum/3617177.html
López Turley, R. N., & Wodtke, G. (2010). College residence and academic performance: Who
benefits from living on campus? Urban Education, 45(4), 506–532. https://doi.org/10.1177/004
2085910372351
Magolda, M. B. B. (1992). Knowing and reasoning in college: Gender-related patterns in students’
intellectual development. Jossey-Bass.
Morris, J. (1978). The Oxford book of Oxford. Oxford University Press.
Novik, M. G., & Boekeloo, B. O. (2013). Comparison of student self-reported and administrative
data regarding intercession into alcohol misuse among college freshmen dormitory residents.
Journal of College Student Development, 54(2), 202–208. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2013.0016
O’Hara, R. J. (2006, November 27). Four foundations for the renewal of university life. Collegiate
Way. http://collegiateway.org/foundations/
Pang, N., Sze, C. C., Tan, O. K., Lwin, M., & Kwok, K. W. (2016). Making connections: Fieldwork
and visual arts at the studio@ CresPion Halls of residence at National Technological University.
HKU Centre for the Enhancement of Teaching and Learning. https://www.cetl.hku.hk/conf2016/
wp-content/uploads/2016/08/Studio-Paper-FINAL-v2.pdf
Pascarella, E. T., & Terenzini, P. T. (1991). How college affects students: Findings and insights from
twenty years of research. Jossey-Bass.
Pike, G. R., Schroeder, C. S., & Berry, T. R. (1997). Enhancing the educational impact of residence
halls: The relationship between residential learning communities and first-college experiences
and persistence. Journal of College Student Development, 38(6), 609–621.
Rinn, A. (2004). Academic and social effects of living in honors residence halls. Journal of the
National Collegiate Honors Council: Online Archive, 173.
Roach, J. P. C. (Ed.). (1959). A history of the county of Cambridge and the Isle of Ely: Volume 3,
the city and University of Cambridge. British History Online. https://www.british-history.ac.uk/
vch/cambs/vol3
Schroeder, C. C., & Mable, P. (1994). Realizing the educational potential of residence halls. Jossey-
Bass.
Soldner, M., & Szelényi, K. (2008). A national portrait of today’s living-learning programs. Journal
of College and University Student Housing, 35(1), 14–31.
Spanierman, L. B., Soble, J. R., Mayfield, J. B., Neville, H. A., Aber, M., Khuri, L., & De La
Rosa, B. (2013). Living learning communities and students’ sense of community and belonging.
Journal of Student Affairs Research and Practice, 50(3), 308–325. https://doi.org/10.1515/jsarp-
2013-0022
Terenzini, P. T., Pascarella, E. T., & Blimling, G. S. (1996). Students’ out-of-class experiences and
their influence on learning and cognitive development: A literature review. Journal of College
Student Development, 37(2), 149–162.
The University of Hong Kong Media. (2017, February 5). Towards a holistic education: Trans-
forming education culture. The University of Hong Kong. https://www.hku.hk/press/news_detail_
15889.html
White, B. P., Becker-Blease, K. A., & Grace-Bishop, K. (2006). Stimulant medication use, misuse,
and abuse in an undergraduate and graduate student sample. Journal of American College Health,
54(5), 261–268. https://doi.org/10.3200/JACH.54.5.261-268
Winston, R. B., & Anchors, S. (1993). Student development in the residential environment. In R.
B. Winston, S. Anchors, & Associates (Eds.), Student housing and residential life: A handbook
for professionals committed to student development goals (pp. 25–64). Jossey-Bass.
Part II
Models and Outcomes
Chapter 2
A New Theoretical Model Through
Which to Examine Student Residence
Life Outcomes
Abstract To understand students’ development through their unique residential

experiences, a new model is proposed to explain factors that affect students’ hall
involvement, particularly in regard to how various residential experiences may result
in different student residence life outcomes. The model is built upon a prelimi-
nary framework that consists of the input-environment-output model (Astin’s student
involvement theory) and the presage-process-product (3P) model. It is crucial to first
understand how the residential environment has impacts on student involvement and
development, before any practical recommendations or interventions are given to
the residential community. Adopting this new model can enable researchers and
stakeholders to better understand student dynamics in university residential settings.
keywords Residential experiences · Residential outcomes · Theory of student

involvement · Presage-process-product model
Introduction
Various university residential systems exist around the world; yet, no consensus has
been reached regarding how to understand student residential experiences and their
residential outcomes. There is an absence of a structured framework with which
to investigate student development in non-academic contexts. To better understand
student residential outcomes after living in halls, this chapter combines two existing
theories—the theory of student involvement (specifically, the input-environment-
outcome model) and the presage-process-product (3P) model—to propose a new
student involvement model for university residential halls. The new model comple-
ments the I-E-O model by including the cognitive elements of students, while also
taking into account the 3P model by considering the impact of the environment.
M. W. Cheng (B)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8906-2_2
16 M. W. Cheng
The Theory of Student Involvement (I-E-O Model)
Astin (1984) proposed the theory of student involvement to study environmental and
human influences on student development. The scope of this theory is broad and
has abstract assessment constructs (Fawcett & Desanto-Madeya, 2012) capable of
exploring how student learning outcomes are associated with the learning environ-
ment. This theory emphasises the way in which student participation in the learning
process is active rather than passive. Its rationale is that every individual has finite
time and energy; therefore, measuring how students spend their time and energy can
reflect their priorities and levels of involvement in their learning environment. To
structure the theory of student involvement, the input-environment-outcome (I-E-O)
model was developed by Astin (1984) (see Fig. 2.1) with five basic tenets.
Input refers to the qualities that students originally have at the time of entry; for
instance, demographic information (e.g., age, gender, academic year), educational
and family background, financial and social status, and behavioural patterns. Envi-
ronment refers to students’ experiences in the educational setting. Variables such
as curricula, programme facilitators, teaching styles, extra-curricular activities, and
courses are included as the environment to understand students’ university experi-
ence. Output refers to the ‘talents’ that students try to develop through the educational
settings.
According to Astin (1993), time and energy are limited resources for everyone, but
how students allocate time and use energy on various activities reflects their priorities.
Five basic tenets were constructed in the student involvement theory to identify the
mediating mechanism that explains how different programmes and settings result in
student achievement and development:
(1) Involvement requires physical and psychological energy. The investment of
physical and psychological energy in the environment (also referred to as the
‘object’ in the theory and therefore as such in this study) ranges from highly
generalised to highly specific. University residential experiences can be very
diverse between and within universities. Students may choose to allocate time
and energy on different objects.
(2) Involvement occurs along a continuum. At various times, individuals show
different degrees of involvement in various objects. Students’ involvement
Fig. 2.1 The

input-environment-outcome Environment
(I-E-O) Model (Astin, 1984)
Inputs Outputs
2 A New Theoretical Model Through Which to Examine Student … 17
levels in residential halls may vary over the course of the academic year and
directly affect their residence life outcomes.
(3) Involvement has both quantitative and qualitative features. The amount of time
and level of involvement invested in an activity influence a learner’s develop-
ment. Astin (1984) defined the qualitative feature of involvement as the devoted
psychological energy involved. For example, a qualitative feature of residen-
tial involvement can be a positional leadership role in different residential
activities, such as a team captain or chairperson of an executive committee.
The quantitative feature is defined as the physical amount of energy devoted,
which can be measured by the amount of time spent on different residential
activities.
(4) Development is proportional to the quantity and quality of involvement.
Learning outcomes are directly proportional to the quantity and quality of
student involvement. There is a need to identify whether a positive or nega-
tive correlation exists between student development and student involvement
levels.
(5) The effectiveness of education is related to the capacity of that policy or practice
to increase involvement. The capacity of educational policy and practice in this
context is directly related to its effectiveness in increasing student involvement.
Astin highlighted the fourth and fifth tenets to provide suggestions for educators
attempting to design more effective residential educational programmes.
Student involvement theory is a suitable theory to use to examine the impact
of residential education. Yet, it is a behavioural construct that quantifies time and
energy to reflect students’ involvement; ‘it is not so much what the individual thinks
or feels, but what the individual does, how he or she behaves, that defines and iden-
tifies involvement’ (Astin, 1984, p. 298). Therefore, the adoption of student involve-
ment theory alone cannot provide a complete understanding of student residential
development.
The Presage-Process-Product (3P) Model
The presage-process-product (3P) model was proposed by Biggs (1989) to explain

students’ learning processes. The model (see Fig. 2.2) combines several factors of
classroom learning environment and these factors may influence each other. Presage
refers to what students possess prior to the learning process (similar to the input
in the I-E-O model), process is about learning-focused activities, and the product
is students’ learning outcomes. The 3P model has been widely adopted to examine
student learning in higher education (Barattucci et al., 2017; McMahon et al., 2016),
especially classroom learning (Clinton, 2014; Han, 2014).
Until now, a substantial amount of research has modified Biggs’ 3P model (e.g.,
Cybinski, & Selvanathan, 2005; Freeth & Reeves, 2004). Prosser et al. (1994) devel-
oped a version of this model (see Fig. 2.3), as past studies suggested that students’
18 M. W. Cheng
Presage Process Product
STUDENT
FACTORS
Prior knowledge,
ability, and
motivation.
LEARNING
LEARNING-
OUTCOMES
FOCUSED
Quantitative (facts
ACTIVITIES
and skills), qualitative
Appropriate/deep
TEACHING (structure and
and
CONTEXT transfer), and
Objectiveness, inappropriate/surfac
affective
assessment, e.
(involvement).
climate/ethos,
teaching, and
institutional
procedures.
Fig. 2.2 The 3P model of teaching and learning (Biggs, 1989)
Fig. 2.3 The presage-process-product (3P) model (Prosser et al., 1994)
perceptions of context affect their learning approaches and learning outcomes (e.g.,
Trigwell & Prosser, 1991; Ramsden & Moses, 1992). According to Trigwell and
Prosser (1991), students with perceived assessment emphasising rote learning were
more likely to adopt surface learning, while those with perceptions of high teaching
quality and clear goals tended to adopt deep learning. This version of the 3P model
was chosen for use in the current study because it is a cognitive construct that explores
students’ perceptions. This characteristic of the model enables it to supplement the

I-E-O model, which involves the use of a behavioural construct to explore students’
devotion to activities by measuring quantifiable time and energy. In addition, Prosser
et al.’s version of the 3P model matches the context of residential settings better than
Biggs’. The 3P model is understood from a cognitive perspective as a ‘causal chain’
from presage to product (Prosser et al., 1994). From this perspective, information
is constructed from the external environment in relation to the student’s internal
learning process. In contrast, Biggs proposed a system theory to interpret the 3P
model, in which various parts of the model are independently constituted but are in
continuous interaction with one another.
It is not unusual to find the model combined with other theories in past research.
The two adopted models are both flexible constructs in regard to being combined with
others. For instance, the student involvement theory was combined with the college
impact model to explore student learning outcomes associated with out-of-class expe-
riences (Kuh, 1995) and the 3P model was combined with the DEDEPRO model (an
acronym for the phases of designing and developing a product) to understand the
processes of teaching and learning (De la Fuente, Sevillano, Sander, & Cardelle-
Elawar, 2014). In this chapter, the new model is based mainly on the structure of the
3P model, embedded with essential elements of the I-E-O model.
A New Model of Student Involvement in University

Residential Halls
To better understand the mechanisms that affect student involvement and develop-
ment in residence halls, a new model (see Fig. 2.4) is developed under the five
tenets that support the I-E-O model: (1) involvement requires physical and psycho-
logical energy; (2) involvement occurs along a continuum; (3) involvement has both
quantitative and qualitative features; (4) development is proportional to the quantity
and quality of involvement; and (5) education is related to the capacity to increase
involvement. Since the I-E-O model is a broad and general model (Grayson, 1997),
the new model is based mainly on the structure of the 3P model, which lists variants in
the presage, process, and product stages. The new model shows a linear progression
from presage (residential context and resident characteristics) through the process
(residential environment, residents’ perceptions, and residents’ involvement), to the
product (residents’ life outcomes).
Presage
Input in the I-E-O model resembles the presage in the 3P model; they both focus on the
initial characteristics of the subjects. Since inputs only refer to personal qualities that
20 M. W. Cheng
Presage Process Product
RESIDENTIAL
RESIDENTIAL ENVIRONMENT
CONTEXT (e.g., hall cultures and
(e.g., the hall management traditions, student autonomy,
approach) cultural diversity, and
available activities)
RESIDENTS’ LIFE
OUTCOMES
(e.g., well-being,
RESIDENTS’ RESIDENTS’ holistic competencies)
PERCEPTIONS INVOLVEMENT
RESIDENTS’
CHARACTERISTICS
(e.g., year of study,
country of origin)
Fig. 2.4 A new model of student involvement in University Residential Halls (Cheng, 2019)
students initially possess and neglect the impact of the residential hall environment,
presage was adopted in the current model, as it considers the initial characteristics
of both teaching context and students in the 3P model. In this new model, presage
takes into account the residents’ characteristics and residential context, which affect
residents’ perceptions toward residential halls and the residential environment.
Residents’ characteristics are the personal qualities that students initially possess.
Cheng (2019) examined the impact of demographic information and educational
background on students’ residential involvement. The study revealed that only
students’ year of study and country of birth were significantly related to students’
residential involvement; no significant correlation between student involvement and
other personal qualities (e.g.., age, gender, field of study) was found. Therefore, only
these two personal qualities were included as examples.
Year of study reflects the weight of students’ academic workload, which further
affects their allocation of time for residential activities and how they perceive the
functions of residential halls. For instance, assignments and examinations for final-
year students are more demanding and challenging than those for first-year students
in general. Country of birth affects students’ tendencies and opportunities to blend
into the residential environment, especially when the medium of instruction of the
majority of local residents is in their native language.
Apart from residents’ characteristics, presage also includes residential context,
which specifically refers to the hall management approach. For instance, the hall
admissions and readmissions policy prioritises the time it takes students to travel
from home to campus more than their hall involvement, which affects how students
perceive residential halls. Moreover, the hall management approach has the power to
influence the residential environment (process), which is discussed in the following
section.
Process
Process in the 3P model emphasises students’ perceptions and the cognitive strategies
used for learning. Therefore, residents’ perception and residents’ involvement are
present. However, the 3P model neglects the potential impact of the environment on
students during the learning process. Hence, the new model uses the environment
from the I-E-O model to form the residential environment, which includes everything
that happens during the residential period that could influence residents’ perceptions
and residents’ involvement.
Considering the results in Cheng’s study (2019), the residential environment
consists of five residential characteristics: cultural diversity, unique hall cultures
and traditions, people-oriented nature, abundant activities available, and promoting
student autonomy. Since different residential halls have different management
approaches and cultures, these five residential characteristics are only listed as exam-
ples in the model for reference. According to the I-E-O model (Astin, 1993), inputs
correlate with environments, and the environmental factors in the new model are
also affected by the residential context in the presage stage. For example, the choice
of adopting bottom-up or top-down management strategies in a residential hall may
decide how many and what types of residential activities are available for residents,
or influence how much autonomy students can enjoy in the hall.
Residents’ perceptions toward residential halls are formed before their residence
begins, and their perceptions will change continuously throughout their stay. There-
fore, ‘residents’ perceptions’ is the only variable that is situated between the presage
and process stages of the new model. The author is aware that residents may have
formed different expectations of residential halls prior to their stay, as they would
have conducted research when they applied for accommodation in the halls. Students’
perceptions affect their hall involvement and, in return, how they respond to the hall
environment can also impact their perceptions. For instance, a resident who perceives
the hall only as a place to sleep tends to have low levels of involvement. In a people-
oriented environment, unmotivated individuals may freeride or demotivate other
residents, and further reinforce their own original perceptions.
Residents’ involvement is modified based on the students’ approaches to learning
from the 3P model, which uses the terms ‘surface’ and ‘deep’ learning to assess and
classify students’ learning approaches. Since the new model is focused on students’
holistic development, instead of students’ learning, these terms are not adopted. Still,
residents’ levels of involvement need to be measured qualitatively or quantitatively,
and can be categorised as high, moderate, or low. As explained above, residents’
22 M. W. Cheng
involvement is influenced by residents’ characteristics (presage), while residents’

involvement, residents’ perceptions, and residential environment are interrelated with
each other during the process, directly and indirectly influencing students’ residence
life outcomes.
Product
The product in the 3P model is the result of the learning determined by the interactions
between presage and process; it is similar to the ‘outputs’ in the I-E-O model. In this
new model, the product refers to all kinds of residence life outcomes, including
holistic competencies and well-being.
Conclusion
This chapter proposes a new model for students’ involvement in residential halls.
The model is refined and validated with empirical support from doctoral research
(Cheng, 2019). While Astin’s involvement theory has rarely been applied outside of
America (Ting et al., 2016), the new model demonstrates the possibility of combining
the input-environment-output (I-E-O) model and the presage-process-product model
(3P) to complement each other, and to understand student involvement in a specific
learning environment: residential halls. It is hoped that this derived model can be
used as a guide to conduct future related research studies, as well as be applied to
make practical recommendations for the advancement of current residential halls.
References
of College Student Personnel, 25(4), 297–308.
Astin, A. W. (1993). Assessment for excellence: The philosophy and practice of assessment and
evaluation in higher education. Oryx Press.
Barattucci, M., Pagliaro, S., Cafagna, D., & Bosetto, D. (2017). An examination of the applicability
of Biggs’ 3P learning process model to Italian university. Journal of E-Learning and Knowledge
Society, 13(1), 163–180. https://doi.org/10.20368/1971-8829/1277.
Biggs, J. B. (1989). Approaches to the enhancement of tertiary teaching. Higher Education Research
and Development, 8(1), 7–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/0729436890080102
Cheng, M. W. (2019). Generic competencies development through experiential learning: Inves-
tigating diversity in first-year residential experiences [Doctoral dissertation, The University of
Hong Kong]. HKU Theses Online (HKUTO). https://hub.hku.hk/bitstream/10722/279841/1/Ful
lText.pdf.
Clinton, V. (2014). The relationship between students’ preferred approaches to learning and behav-
iors during learning: An examination of the process stage of the 3P model. Instructional Science,
42(5), 817–837. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-013-9308-z
Cybinski, P., & Selvanathan, S. (2005). Learning experience and learning effectiveness in undergrad-
uate statistics: Modeling performance in traditional and flexible learning environments. Decision
Sciences Journal of Innovative Education, 3(2), 251–271. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4609.
2005.00069.x
De la Fuente, J., Sevillano, L. Z., Sander, P., & Cardelle-Elawar, M. (2014). The 3P and
DEDEPRO models as research heuristic. International Journal of Developmental and Educa-
tional Psychology. Revista INFAD de Psicología, 4(1), 155–164 https://doi.org/10.17060/ijodaep.
2014.n1.v4.599.
Fawcett, J., & Desanto-Madeya, S. (2012). Contemporary nursing knowledge: Analysis and
evaluation of nursing models and theories. FA Davis.
Freeth, D., & Reeves, S. (2004). Learning to work together: Using the presage, process, product (3P)
model to highlight decisions and possibilities. Journal of Interprofessional Care, 18(1), 43–56.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13561820310001608221
Grayson, J. P. (1997). Place of residence, student involvement, and first year marks. The Canadian
Journal of Higher Education, 27(1), 1–24. http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ550723.pdf.
Han, J. H. (2014). Closing the missing links and opening the relationships among the factors: A
literature review on the use of clicker technology using the 3P model. Journal of Educational
Technology & Society, 17(4), 150–168.
Kuh, G. D. (1995). The other curriculum: Out-of-class experiences associated with student learning
and personal development. The Journal of Higher Education, 66(2), 123–155. https://doi.org/10.
2307/2943909
McMahon, S., O’Donoghue, G., Doody, C., O’Neill, G., & Cusack, T. (2016). Expert opinion
regarding the preparation of entry-level physiotherapists for primary healthcare practice, exam-
ined using Biggs 3P’s model of teaching learning. Education for Primary Care, 27(3), 196–204.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14739879.2016.1179598
Prosser, M., Trigwell, K., Hazel, E., & Gallagher, P. (1994). Students’ experiences of teaching and
learning at the topic level. Research and Development in Higher Education, 16, 305–310.
Ramsden, P., & Moses, I. (1992). Associations between research and teaching in Australian higher
education. Higher Education, 23(3), 273–295. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00145017
Ting, S. R., Chan, R., & Lee, E. (2016). Involving students in residence halls in Hong Kong. Journal
of College Student Development, 57(3), 300–315. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2016.0035
Trigwell, K., & Prosser, M. (1991). Improving the quality of student learning: The influence of
learning context and student approaches to learning on learning outcomes. Higher Education,
22(3), 251–266. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00132290
Chapter 3
Residential Education in the US
Kevin Conn
Residential education in the United States provides an opportunity for students to

engage in learning and to connect with their peers in spaces outside of the traditional
classroom environment. Through a series of intentional and connected experiences,
students are able to participate in programmes and services, and access resources to
help enhance their experience while residing in on-campus housing. These services
are provided by live-in residence life staff and resident assistants. Activities are typi-
cally crafted with some level of structure and continuity throughout the residence
life department at each institution. Engagement with students can take place through
in-person, virtual, and self-guided experiences provided by their residence hall. This
can be enhanced through the direct engagement of faculty and living-learning envi-
ronments. All of these areas can be uniquely shaped and cultivated based on the
nature of the institution and the needs of the student population. The conclusion
of this chapter provides hands-on scenarios that allow an opportunity for personal
reflection and application, which can be tailored to any campus environment.
A focus on student success is paramount to any educational system across the
United States. This typically includes aspects that aid a student in feeling connected
to the university. Academic services and support programmes provide guidance and
connections for students to complement their in-classroom learning experiences.
Universities aim to provide holistic development for students through opportunities
for student involvement on campus, as well as learning through experiences beyond
the classroom, focusing on care for the entire person. Blimling (2010) describes the
critical necessity of creating a space for interactions among students in a residence
hall in order to facilitate the development of connections between students in such
an environment.
Learning outside the classroom, as a way in which students can form bonds
with their peers through both social and curricular engagement, helps to connect
K. Conn (B)
New York City, USA
e-mail: kc118@nyu.edu
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8906-2_3
26 K. Conn
students’ experiences throughout their time at an institution: ‘While universities may

choose to remain commuter institutions, once they decide to set up residences, their
responsibility extends to providing the most intellectually and socially rich environ-
ment possible’ (Parameswaran & Bowers, 2014, p. 58). It is critical to articulate the
importance of creating a solid foundation for an on-campus residential experience
and fashioning a strong foundation to create successful outcomes for students when
they enter and if they decide to reside in residential communities within a college or
university campus.
Learning Outside the Classroom and Connected Experiences
One aspect of students’ relationship to the university experience is the connections

they form while living in a residence hall or apartment community. Each institu-
tion is uniquely charged with crafting an atmosphere that best suits the surrounding
community, as well as with instilling the values of the university in the residence hall
environment through programmes, initiatives, and opportunities for student engage-
ment and learning: ‘A residence hall can either contribute to a student’s learning
experience or just be a place to live’ (Frazier & Eighmy, 2012, p. 25).
According to a research study conducted by Bronkema and Bowman (2017),
specific mixes or makeups of on-campus residential populations within a residence
hall may impact student outcomes, but they did not note a direct measurement at
this time. This could include first-year and upper-class students, or various mixed
populations, based on the campus design and structure in question. In addition, one
of the benefits of residential education is that it can exist across a variety of campus
types, regardless of location or design, whether it be an urban institution located in
the heart of a major metropolitan city or residence halls scattered across a single
campus environment.
A city-based residential environment juxtaposes a more traditional suburban
campus community in which the academic and campus residential facilities surround
common areas, such as campus quads, or areas that are owned solely by the university
or university-related properties; they are quite different from one another by design.
Students seek out living arrangements based in part on their desire to live in a specific
type of environment. This is where residential education systems can help to provide
enhancements and connections for students to aid in the refinement and development
of their experience while at the institution.
Residential learning communities should aid the creation of a sense of ownership
and connectedness for students while also helping students to develop opportunities
to contribute to or invest in the space, in order to create an environment that focuses
on the overall support of a student (Frazier & Eighmy, 2012). Students who live
in residence halls consisting of more traditional corridor style design elements tend
3 Residential Education in the US 27
to have higher GPAs than those in the more desired apartment-style residences, as
articulated in a recent study analysing several cohorts of first-year students (Brown
et al., 2019).
‘College and university leaders should consider how specific design structures
may need to be strategically coupled with processes to encourage student persistence
within student subpopulations’ (Brown et al., 2019, p. 278), indicating the strong
need to be intentional with residential design, as well as the importance of a focus on
residential education efforts as institutions. These efforts should work in tandem not
only with academic initiatives and programmes, but also with the structural approach
of the halls themselves.
Structured Support
Universities provide structure and support through academic and other services in
both in-office and virtual environments, in an effort to further provide a connec-
tion to ongoing learning, support, and guidance in both social and learning-based
approaches. When students enter their residence hall for the first time at the start of
an academic year, they receive greetings and warm smiles, shared agreements and
policies to review, and peers to connect with within their community. According
to Graham et al. (2018), those residing on campus have slightly higher results in a
few areas, including interactions between students and faculty, fostering conversa-
tions and dialogue with diverse groups, and increased involvement with collaborative
learning, over those who have to commute to campus from further distances.
The authors went on to note that, although these differences are slight, their
research does not directly indicate that there is a benefit to all aspects of living on
campus, and further studies are needed (Graham et al., 2018). Many residence hall
environments also offer a focus on residential education, with structured learning
environments within these halls that provide ongoing support and connections to
the students. This environment grants another layer of connection and support
for students, enhancing their connection to the university. These learning-focused
environments often include a first-year or upper-class curriculum or alternative
approaches using thematic areas, to focus on students’ experiences and education
throughout their time in halls of residence.
‘The residential college model provides a reconnection of faculty to the social
lives of students, thus significantly enhancing the education students receive’ (Penven
et al., 2013, p. 124); this approach is in part based on the overall hall environment,
while other approaches involve students opting into specific thematic or engaged
living-learning communities or residential colleges. This topic is further discussed
later in this chapter. Each of these methods aims to help make the university feel
smaller and more connected for the student, providing another means of outreach
and connection for them during their time at the institution.
28 K. Conn
Residence Hall Staffing Support
Within these residential experiences, staff members are critical in helping students
to connect and engage with others during their time in a university residence hall
or apartment complex. Promoting the advancement of student learning within the
residence halls and focusing on direct outcomes linked to this within their work is
a critical component of the work of residence life staff (Blimling, 2014). Live-in
staff members provide a presence not only for administrative functions that include
safety, security, and the overall operation of the building, but also for community-
building, connections, and the promotion of opportunities for holistic growth and
development within these halls. According to Frazier and Eighmy (2012), focused
or intentional involvement among hall staff or faculty within these environments
results in an overall higher level of student satisfaction, as compared to those same
areas when this type of support and involvement is not present.
Typically, staff in these facilities include a professional staff member who oversees
the operation of the building, as well as supervising the resident assistant (RA), who
serves as a paraprofessional student team member in the building. The terms for these
positions can vary from institution to institution, but this structure is common across
institutions throughout the United States. Professional staff can provide a strong
foundation for the building and operations in the halls of residence, and help to build
the necessary structural elements for a selected team, as well as guide the curricular
implementation that is necessary for a successful residential education experience.
RAs work directly with staff members to help connect students in the building
to these initiatives, fostering community development while helping to create an
environment that sparks both social and academic connections for students within
the community and the university at large. As current students, RAs also have direct
knowledge of what is happening on campus and a student’s academic experience,
helping them to enhance other students’ experiences and initiatives in the residence
halls through their direct input and influence in the planning process. An RA’s support
and direct influence in this process can also help to generate greater buy-in from
other members of the residence hall communities, including students and community
members, such as the hall council.
Engagement Opportunities and Outreach
Providing an opportunity for residential education and residential engagement also

allows for connections and check-ins with resident students. Creating space for
students to connect with peers, staff, and faculty in both direct and indirect struc-
tured and unstructured formats is important. In-person outreach during one-on-one
communication, programming, and holding defined office hours with professional
staff members, RAs, and faculty can provide opportunities for checking in and
grounding students through enabling them to connect with a member of the univer-
sity team. These office hours can also help to answer any questions, troubleshoot
issues, and further build bonds with individuals or teams in their building.
Students are now starting to gravitate less toward face-to-face interactions and
engagement and more toward virtual connections; it is therefore important to note
how this can impact how a community is built, how students solicit support, and how
interactions are formed in a virtual environment (Boone et al., 2016). As alternatives
when in-person connections are not possible, virtual methods of communication and
check-ins are also utilised to enhance bonds and connections with students. These
connections can come in many forms, including virtual newsletters, webinars, and
even virtual one-on-one meetings. Newsletters can provide specific engagement-
based content for students to connect with and learn during their own time. These
self-guided experiences can be pursued by students when they are ready and when
convenient for them.
Topics that may be related to a specific point in the year to engage students in
specific subject matters, such as financial literacy, civic engagement, conversations
about equity and inclusion, and many other facets, are further areas to explore in
future research. These topics are sometimes more accessible for students through
virtual methods than through in-person events, and can provide tools and resources
to be utilised by students whenever needed. Newsletters can also provide a space
to promote upcoming events and programmes, highlight student and team members
in the building, and further build a sense of community and continuity for students
within the hall.
Other methods within this strategy include webinars that can be hosted for a large
audience with scripted content and an opportunity for engaging in question-and-
answer-based discussions. Webinars or similar methods of engagement can help to
provide material in a more digestible way, allowing presenters to showcase content to
students and enabling individuals watching live to actively take part in the experience.
Often, presenters can record these sessions for later use and reference.
Finally, there are many other virtual forms of telecommunication, such as that
enabled by Zoom, Skype, Google Hangouts, and other similar online instruments.
All of these tools provide a digital platform for students, through which they can
connect with the residence life team at an institution and virtually attend programmes,
gather resources, and engage with other individuals. These formats can be a place to
share new information, create an open dialogue, or even to break students into smaller
groups to discuss a current hot topic or issue within a floor or community. Residential
education is ultimately focused on helping students learn and develop outside of
the typical classroom environment and can include fostering student development
through a variety of methods and means, to enhance the holistic growth of each
student.
30 K. Conn
Learning Outcomes and Goal-Driven Work
It is necessary when working within a residential education framework to create a

way to assess the level of student learning taking place as a result of the engagement
opportunities (both structured and unstructured) in residential halls. It is essential, that
university administrators and educators take on the challenge of working to prioritise
student learning through creating measurable educational outcomes, viewing this
area as a priority, and while being willing to take on the challenge to discover what
works best in this context of their specific student population (Penven et al., 2013).
Residential education focuses on student learning and development, intending to
help students achieve set benchmarks through predetermined learning outcomes that
are designed to measure students’ ability to learn and develop over time, as a result
of programmes and initiatives implemented within their residence hall.
These learning outcomes are crafted by residence hall professional staff in
conjunction with the design of the programmes and initiatives they are developing
for the academic year. It is essential for residential education to not only establish
defined policies but also systems of accountability, reporting measures, and ways in
which to assess each of these areas (Parameswaran & Bowers, 2014). These learning
outcomes are structured to provide a specific level of measurement as a result of
a student learning from an event or initiative. This learning should be something
precise and measurable, such as being able to articulate a new fact the student has
learned, articulating a new technique, or leaving having formed a new connection
or identified new resources, while also knowing how to utilise those resources for
future support.
In one example of additional resources, Strothmann and Antell (2010) described
a library support programme aimed at residence halls, to expand efforts and connec-
tions to support engagement services. This study elaborated on the importance of
finding the right mixture of timing, location, focused services, and the overall promo-
tion of what students can receive from these efforts (Strothmann & Antell, 2010).
This programme is no different from anything that can be offered within or in part-
nership with a residence hall community to expand student engagement and access
to support resources.
All of these factors are critical in helping ensure that everything aligns for the
student whom the university team is hoping will participate in these events and
offerings. At the same time, they provide targeted outreach and structured resources to
meet the needs of the student population in the residence hall environment. Residence
life professionals can help to provide opportunities for engagement with students,
ways in which they can strengthen connections within the residence hall environment,
venues for learning, and assessments of the learning and development that take place
along the way.
Faculty Support and Residential Colleges
Residential colleges further refine residential experiences, enhancing student learning

and development, while students live in the residence halls that exist in colleges and
universities across the country. These experiences are self-selected by the student and
may require an application process or other material to participate in such a commu-
nity. According to a study conducted by Ellett and Schmidt (2011), student learning
and development can be fostered through the creation of a consistent understanding
of community building among both the residence life team and faculty within the resi-
dence halls. These communities typically provide a variety of resources and support
to the students within their residence hall environment, which expands the standard
offerings that currently exist within a residence hall.
These connected communities can include structured faculty involvement,
completing shared courses as a cohort, thematic programming, and specific training
for RAs and professional staff. Faculty programmes help to provide a place with
a high level of commitment from all involved parties, including faculty, staff, and
students (Davenport & Pasque, 2014). This focused level of engagement can help
provide even more development for the participating students and a way to further
focus their efforts within their community and foster connections with their peers.
Faculty involvement in this is critical and can stem from classroom experiences,
after-hours programming, and other support mechanisms.
Within residential education models, faculty can exist in residential colleges and
through partnerships with residential environments. Furthermore, live-in roles as
faculty members may also be present in residence halls to engage in programmes,
events, ongoing support, and other areas. Faculty-based programmes in residence can
provide direct and intentional connections and opportunities for students to engage
in structured topics and outcomes, with a focus on connecting theory and practical
application (Davenport & Pasque, 2014). Engaging faculty within the residence hall
environment is critical to helping further enhance students’ experience and connect
students to faculty on campus. This enables students to connect to the faculty working
within the halls and helps them to feel more comfortable connecting with other faculty
throughout their college experience.
A version of faculty involvement or in-house support for this type of engagement
typically exists on college and university campuses across the country (Benjamin &
Vianden, 2011). Davenport and Pasque (2014) noted that widening the ability of
students to become involved on campus, expanding student development, furthering
connections between faculty and students, and cultivating an arena that can support
student development are all enhanced through the use of expanded and enhanced
faculty roles in residence programmes. These programmes can begin at any level
with bringing faculty into the residence hall environment for a programme or an
event, and expanding these partnerships further as time, resources, and structure
allow.
32 K. Conn
Concluding Thoughts and Questions to Consider
It is important for professionals in the field to work on refining and developing their
skillsets. The areas below illustrate residential education structures in the US that
could be applied in a college or university setting. For each of the areas listed below,
questions are provided to promote reflection, analyses, and how to incorporate good
practices as residence life professionals. These questions can be used as a point for
both individual, shared, and departmental level reflection and advancement.
Core I: Residential Education and Staff Development
1. What model or framework is used to guide ongoing staff development within

your department or division? Is it grounded in a mission or divisional
priorities? Is this framework or foundation understood by members of the
team/department?
2. When providing structure to your professional staff development, does the
department provide a place to track and outline plans and progress for individual
team members’ growth? Is this growth as a unit or division?
3. After articulating the professional development structure for the department or
division at your institution, establish an outline for the academic year in advance
for both the department at large and individual team members.
(a) What does this look like for the department (e.g., what are the areas of
collective focus and growth)?
(b) How will the department provide support to help individuals achieve
these set goals and objectives (i.e., ongoing training and development,
professional development funding, mentorship and support, etc.).
Core II: Residential Education and Curricular Enhancement

for Student Success
1. Does your residence life department follow a programming model or utilise a

residential curriculum? If not already using a curriculum, what could be the
potential benefits to switching to a system that has a curricular approach in
relation to guiding student engagement, outreach, and programmatic efforts?
2. When reflecting on the department’s focus and process for student engagement,
articulate the key areas that guide the work of the staff and campus partners
when working with the student population.
3. How will your department involve all members of the team in the process
of further developing and enhancing this work? How will your team focus
on student engagement to create support and buy-in on all levels? What
stakeholders need to be looped in and included in this process?
Conclusion
Residential education and the incorporation of learning and engagement outside the
classroom are certainly not new concepts in the US or around the globe. However,
how these ideas are integrated and refined can always be revisited and adjusted based
on the nature and demographics of our ever-evolving student populations. Student
needs in regard to learning and engagement change over time and it is necessary for
institutions to keep up with these dynamics to adapt and develop optimal programmes
and services.
Furthermore, developing a successful focus on residential education takes
commitment at all levels of an institution. With institutional support for learning
outside the classroom, it is important to also involve professional staff and RAs in
the process. Staff and students should connect and discuss how to plan and adapt to
meet the changing needs of the student population.
References
Benjamin, M., & Vianden, J. (2011). Stories of faculty in residence hall involvement. Journal of
College & University Student Housing, 38(1), 6–9.
Blimling, G. (2010). The resident assistant: Applications and strategies for working with college
students in residence halls (7th ed.). Kendall Hunt.
why. John.
Boone, K., Bauman, M., & Davidson, D. (2016). The evolution and increasing complexity of the
resident assistant role in the United States from colonial to modern times. Journal of College and
University Student Housing, 42(3), 38–51.
Bronkema, R., & Bowman, N. A. (2017). A residential paradox? Residence halls and student
outcomes. Journal of College Student Development, 28(4), 624–630.
Brown, J., Volk, F., & Spratto, E. M. (2019). The hidden structure: The influence of residence
hall design on academic outcomes. Journal of Student Affairs Research & Practice, 56(3),
267–283.
Davenport, A. M., & Pasque, P. A. (2014). Adding breadth and depth to college and university
residential communities: A phenomenological study of faculty-in-residence. Journal of College
& University Student Housing, 40(2), 46–65.
Ellett, T., & Schmidt, A. (2011). Faculty perspectives on creating community in residence halls.
Journal of College & University Student Housing, 38(1), 26–39.
Frazier, W., & Eighmy, M. (2012). Themed residential learning communities: The importance of
purposeful faculty and staff involvement and student engagement. Journal of College &
University Student Housing, 38(2), 10–31.
34 K. Conn
Graham, P. A., Hurtado, S. S., & Gonyea, R. M. (2018). The benefits of living on campus: Do resi-
dence halls provide distinctive environments of engagement? Journal of Student Affairs Research
& Practice, 55(3), 255–269.
Parameswaran, A., & Bowers, J. (2014). Student residences: From housing to education. Journal
of Further & Higher Education, 38(1), 57–74.
Penven, J., Stephens, R., Shushok, F., & Keith, C. (2013). The past, present and future of residential
colleges: Looking back at S. Stewart Gordon’s “Living and Learning in College.” Journal of
College and University Student Housing, 40(1), 114–126.
Strothmann, M., & Antell, K. (2010). The live-in librarian: Developing library outreach to university
residence halls. Reference & User Services Quarterly, 50(1), 48–58.
Part III
Current Programmes and Case Studies
Chapter 4
Optimising Students’ Learning
in Residential Halls: A Case Study
of How to Connect Hall Life Education
with Community Service
Elaine Suk Ching Liu
Abstract In this chapter, I will discuss my experience of merging my roles both as

a Residence Master to a Residential hall and a teacher in the Department of Social
and Behavioural Sciences for fifteen years in City University of Hong Kong. These
concurrent appointments had finally given me a challenge to create a youth volunteer
project which in turn has also helped my hall to build its hall culture. I will share
some of the background history on the inception, development and maturation of this
project, as well as the theoretical concepts I have used to give its implementation a
solid ground. From theory to practice in a hall environment, I called it a Humanistic-
Empowerment model through the practice of a youth volunteering project. Its impacts
on individual, hall, organization and community levels are also discussed.
Keywords Youth empowerment · Volunteering · Residential hall · Humanistic

approach · Community connection
Introduction
In this chapter, I will discuss my experience as a residence master in one of the

halls at the City University of Hong Kong. This role led me to implement a youth
empowerment and community involvement project, first for my own hall and then
for the entire university, aligning the goals of residential education and the university
in regard to social responsibility for students. Since I was the key person who created
this initiative by merging the two goals, I start with my own journey in education,
my training in social science/social work, and my passion for attempting to put into
practice a community involvement project for my hall students, who are mostly not
studying in these fields.
I became a teacher in the tertiary education sector for social work programmes
after working as a youth social worker in an NGO for almost 10 years. With no
E. S. C. Liu (B)
City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong
e-mail: Elaine.Au@cityu.edu.hk
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8906-2_4
38 E. S. C. Liu
previous experience in teaching, my first goal after joining CityU and its Depart-
ment of Applied Social Studies (renamed the Department of Social and Behavioural
Sciences in 2018) was to become an effective teacher. It took about 10 years to
achieve competence in my new role. After adapting to my new role, I found a small
space to enjoy classroom teaching, as well as some time to shift back to my expertise
of noticing many ‘social problems’ around me in the education sector. Very soon,
I began to actively engage in many student activities. My first endeavour was in
2000, when I became the convener of the ‘Maximizing Students’ Learning Group’
in my department. Here, I initiated a new co-curricular programme called the ‘Cross-
Cultural Learning Program’ (CCLP). Over the course of the following three years
(2001, 2002, and 2004; in 2003, the CCLP was cancelled due to the outbreak of
SARS in Hong Kong), the CCLP organised a total of 27 student groups with 328
participating students attached to universities or NGOs in different Asian countries or
different cities in mainland China for enhancing their cultural learning, participating
in community service, and studying or researching on different social problems in
those cities for three weeks. Each of the 27 groups was also coached and led by
a teacher from our department acting as an adviser; those leading teachers would
also accompany students in cross-the-border exchanges for at least seven to 10 days,
helping to negotiate and arrange with our overseas partnering organisations and
universities to offer different learning activities for our student groups. In these three
years, CCLP programmes were implemented in mainland China, Cambodia, Taiwan,
Singapore, and Japan.
In 2002, CityU began to offer residential halls for undergraduate students. It
planned to build 11 halls in four phases over the next 10 years. I applied to be one of
the very first three residence masters in the first phase and was offered a co-current
appointment as a residence master, in addition to being a faculty member in my
department. When we started to implement hall management in its first phase, all
those involved were new to hall management and we were faced with many student
problems. It was found that, for most students, the experience of moving from home
to residential halls was a challenge. For most of them, it was their first time living far
away from home and the transition involved a set of new relationships and behaviours.
On dyadic and group levels, co-existence among students and the issues arising from
a collective lifestyle are not easy for anyone. Communication between the students
and the university was also challenging. As a whole, we were confronted with how
and what to cultivate for a hall culture?
The vice president of CityU at the time was also involved with the manage-
ment of the student residence. One day, a group of colleagues, including the vice
president, were talking about strategies to help with students’ problems in the resi-
dence halls. Several methods were suggested in regard to helping students to benefit
more from hall life, besides just being living close to campus. One of the suggested
ideas was to offer meaningful social engagement programmes for students, so as to
combat the general feedback that students who were living in residential halls were
enjoying more free time. Engaging students in volunteer work was then identified
as one possible solution. Since I was a social worker, I followed up on the idea of
implementing a volunteer project in the student residence. Someone suggested that
4 Optimising Students’ Learning in Residential Halls … 39
I could contact local NGOs for volunteering work opportunities, and that students
could be matched with different NGOs to work as volunteers. However, I explained
that ‘matching individual students with NGOs to be volunteers’ is a very different
concept from ‘setting up a volunteer project by and in the hall’, and the latter idea
would be more impactful for building a hall culture involving community service. It
would not be an easy task, however. I offered to commit to launching a new project
that was supported and funded by the university. It was then agreed that I would draft
a proposal to suggest how to create a volunteer project for the student residence.
One week later, I prepared a two-page proposal, asking for two staff members, and
the City-Youth Empowerment Project (CYEP) was subsequently launched in 2005,
three years after I became a residence master at CityU.
The year 2005 was a very special converging point in my career. I had been
a teacher in social work programmes for 15 years. I had previous experience of
launching a series of cross-cultural learning programmes for students in my depart-
ment. This experience convinced all involved teachers and students that community
service and international exposure are useful transformational processes for univer-
sity students. I had put emphasis on youth empowerment as a guiding principal for
transforming university students and received very positive academic and commu-
nity support for this theme. Wearing several hats now (being a teacher and a residence
master, as well as a residence master who had launched the CYEP), I gained a more
holistic view of the generic ‘educational’ challenges of university students.
Developing a Humanistic Empowerment Model

of Education in Halls of Residence
1. Adopting a humanistic perspective and seeing university students as respectable

humans. When I first became a residence master, we were confronted with many
issues concerning hall residents failing to comply with some hall rules, which
were in fact new to them. In this early stage of implementing hall residen-
tial education in our university, I noticed that, when hall residents exhibited
some kinds of rebellious behaviour, they were judged as purposeful and anti-
authority. Alternatively, I advocated for seeing this group of students as ‘victims’
of their previous experiences when interacting with authorities. Their rebellious
responses were simply automatic responses to stressful environmental factors,
including all kinds of pressurising educational goals that they have experienced
in the past. A strong emphasis in my own management team then was to respect
students irrespective of how they might have behaved in the hall environment.
Instead of overreacting to their present exhibited behaviours, we also have to
understand that their past might have constraints on their present behaviour and
relationships with others. By connecting hall residents’ past to their present,
when they do not perform as is expected, the appropriate question we should
ask is ‘what have they experienced that they are not able to be responsible in hall
40 E. S. C. Liu
life?’ instead of ‘why are they doing that?" In this way, I guide my hall manage-
ment team (staff and hall tutors who are senior students) to adopt a humanistic
approach when relating to our hall residents, and to avoid our judgemental
attitudes.
2. Adopting a youth-centred empowerment approach to meeting the needs of
university students so that they will be coached and nurtured and so that they
will be coached and nurtured to benefit from hall and university education. Hall
residents are generally young university students. However, we are preoccupied
with seeing them only as ‘students’ that they always make mistakes. Therefore
another of my guidelines for my management team was to see our hallmates as
developing young people who are on their way to tackling many developmental
issues, including how to benefit from collective hall life and from a university
education, as well as how to help them to feel attached to the hall culture as
well to their outer community. We also have to be aware that some of their
previous experiences as students might have taken away from them motivation
and confidence in regard to being independent and responsible. Living in the hall
might therefore will be a good chance for them to unlearn some of their previous
experiences, to try new skills through their present hall life, and to finally regain
confidence in regard to self-development through new experiences in hall life.
3. A synthesised humanistic-empowerment model for students. After the City-
Youth Empowerment Project was first created by our hall, we defined it as a
model of youth empowerment, a process by which young people can gain self-
development through taking care of their own growth, while helping others
through volunteering. The synthesising of the concepts of humanistic and
empowerment together has generated a guiding model to systematically imple-
ment service learning in the hall. To implement this model, I chose to put it into
practice through youth volunteering. My previous experience as a youth worker
has given me a great deal of support in confirming youth volunteering is a mean-
ingful process of interconnecting young people to the outer community reality,
diverting them toward the understanding that there are many people out in the
community who need help, and that university students have lots of potential to
help them. On the other hand, the community outside of the hall environment
should also strive to play a role in creating opportunities for students to take
action through helping, serving, and becoming involved in social causes and
situations that they feel strongly about, thus facilitating a process of transfor-
mation in regard to students’ prevailing ‘weaknesses’, whereby they move from
their past constraints into new present strengths. The resultant emerging sense
of empowerment leads to a positively rewarding reinforcement cycle, which
provides students with a sense of motivation and confidence to involve them-
selves more and in better ways in their roles as volunteers. This is also a way to
emphasise ‘what they can do well’, rather than continuing to focus on ‘what they
are doing not so well’. The theoretical framework and rationale for choosing
youth volunteerism, and its benefits on hallmates are elaborated below.
4. Volunteerism enables a young person to participate in a personal process
of growth. Volunteerism involves a personal altruistic process supported by
evidence that it is very effective in showing one’s purity of altruism and deep
sincerity to help others. However, individuals, especially young people, need
many antecedents and supportive factors for them to make the decision to sign up
for, try, and sustain volunteering activities. So, if a volunteer project is created in
the hall environment, it will build a structural and managerial base through which
to motivate and encourage young hallmates who have no previous connections
with volunteerism to succeed and sustain in volunteering (Liu, 2019, p. 18).
5. Successful volunteering emphasises teamwork. Volunteering demands strong
teamwork in order to be successful. In the process of recruiting and training
a group of volunteers in order to accomplish a new volunteer project with a
planned schedule and clear goals, the hall environment plays a facilitating role.
Very often, it begins with a few hallmates who are motivated to join a newly
formed volunteer project, which then creates a snowball effect by which the
few motivated students (always as role models) convince others to participate in
order to form a proper team. This process is followed by training, the division of
labour for different tasks, the delivery of services, retraining, debriefing, and so
on. In such a process, teammates gain a sense of success and the friendships built
in the process are also enhanced. These elements greatly benefit the connections
among students living in a hall through a common social goal.
6. Volunteering is an organisational process. Volunteering is the most effective
way to facilitate a young person in understanding an organisation and its values
and goals in regard to the community. The CYEP worked closely with NGOs
and all kinds of volunteer services. Since most volunteering behaviours happen
in an organisational setting, the hurdles to joining an organisation must carry
many meanings for the individuals involved. This reflects the individual perspec-
tive of seeing the limitations of one’s efforts to create change in a society.
Instead, becoming attached to an organisation will facilitate new volunteers
in becoming more knowledgeable about how to contribute to a bigger social
goal. By identifying an organisation or a project, individuals experiment with
how to incorporate macro social values and goals into their personal values and
goals. This process also provides group dynamics, training, knowledge, and a
culture for volunteers to use to sustain their individual interest. An organisation
further provides a specific focus on a social problem, whether that is a specific
target group (the elderly, children, women, the disabled, etc.) or a specific cause
(the environment, poverty, peace, etc.). By engaging in a specific problem or
a target group through supporting an organisation, volunteers are connected to
the community as a whole (Liu, 2019, pp. 18–19).
7. Volunteerism is a community process. Volunteering is an effective way of
encouraging young people to get involved with community problems and goals.
We all need to feel that we are part of a community and to narrow the gap or
‘anomie’ we feel in our community. As such, ‘community as a process’ is under-
stood as a participatory process by which young people in a community can feel
a part of and a sense of belonging to the community. Volunteerism is said to
be the easiest community process by which people can become connected to
and involved in action to solve community problems. Those who volunteer will
42 E. S. C. Liu
Fig. 4.1 The humanistic-empowerment model
likely achieve a stronger sense of community and contribute more to social cohe-
siveness, harmony, and stability. The community also achieves social capital
that ties and binds individuals and society together. So, volunteering remains a
special kind of helping, not replacing professional help, but a community can
be recognised as caring if a society promotes and supports volunteering work.
It is even suggested that we should incorporate or evaluate a country’s volun-
teering policies to determine its level of development and modernisation, or
to distinguish developed countries from developing and under-developing ones
(Liu, 2019, pp. 19–20) (Fig. 4.1).
The Inception, Development, and Maturation of the CYEP

and Its Impact on Hall Management
In early 2005, the CYEP proposal was approved and a first sum of seed money was
received to formally launch the project. Originating from a teaching and learning
project with a mission to mobilise students in residential halls to volunteer in the
community, the CYEP was initially open only to hall residents from the hall where
I was acting as a residence master. It then became quite clear that other residence
masters also found it a meaningful project and invited us to open it to hallmates from
other halls. The project grew from around 150 volunteers in the first year to around
300 volunteers in the third year. The model was found to be facilitative for retaining
volunteers and receiving ongoing positive feedback from local NGOs. Volunteers
were also found to be participating enthusiastically, and there were overwhelming
requests for those who were not hall residents to join. In 2007, a meeting was held
between the head of the SS department, the vice president of student affairs, and
myself to discuss the future development of the CYEP. It was agreed that the project
would become a departmental project, funded jointly by the teaching and learning
fund of our university and the SS department. Since then, it has become an official
departmental project. It was opened to participants from all departments, and not just
hall residents. During the following six years (2008–2014), we were funded only by
the teaching and learning fund from CityU, until 2011, when we received our first
donation. From 2014 to 2018, the project slowly evolved until it was almost totally
funded by community donations in 2017. So, incrementally, we grew in numbers.
From initially being only staffed by two project officers, we gradually expanded to
five, then six, then, in 2016–2017, to six project officers and one project supervisor.
In the last eight years, we have worked closely with the Development Office and the
Alumni Relations Office at our university to involve community leaders, donors, and
alumni. We also learned during this process that the CYEP has become a popular
choice for groups of potential donors who want to contribute to the community
through a university platform serving the community. By donating to the CYEP, they
are also indirectly contributing to the community.
It quickly became evident that this form of student engagement with the commu-
nity was beneficial to the personal and academic development of participating
students, as well as to the community at large, especially those whose accessi-
bility to adequate resources was limited. In 2020, 15 years after its inception, the
CYEP is a university-wide service-learning project, under the Department of Social
and Behavioural Sciences, with the mission of mobilising and organising CityU
students to serve underprivileged communities through various volunteering services.
The project also aims to enhance students’ civic commitment and understanding of
social issues, and to integrate practice-oriented experience gained from serving the
community with academic knowledge.
The project’s objectives are:
1. To mobilise and organise students from the City University of Hong Kong to
participate in volunteer work in the community.
2. To serve underprivileged and marginalised groups as the project’s core mission.
The intended outcomes for university students are:
1. To facilitate students to gain more knowledge of the needs of people facing
social problems, thus enhancing their ability to help effectively.
2. To encourage students to take action toward community building on individual,
group, and/or organisational levels.
3. To facilitate students in identifying and applying the dynamics between personal
and social problems and values, from an ecological perspective.
4. To assist students in developing a deeper understanding of volunteerism as a
social, team, organisational, and community process.
5. To help students align personal values and commitments with community goals
through identification with the project and the serving agencies (Liu, 2019,
p. 58).
Sustaining the Connection Between the CYEP and Hall

Education
A brief glimpse of the development and maturation of the CYEP raises the following
question: ‘How does the CYEP’s development and maturation ultimately relate to
hall education?’ The CYEP originally stemmed from an idea related to the hall
environment and the promotion of hall culture and identity. When we found that the
model of the CYEP was effective in sustaining volunteers, we expanded and extended
44 E. S. C. Liu
it to a university-level project to serve all students. Nevertheless, the foundation of

the CYEP still lies in the hall where I was acting as a residence master, and I aim
to simultaneously benefit the students from the hall community, as well as other
students who are not.
1. Implementing a coaching system in the hall to promote volunteerism. The CYEP
has developed a coaching system for all student volunteers, which has two
major processes. First, the CYEP adopts a ‘group matching’ method to recruit
volunteers. We will not match an individual volunteer with an NGO to meet
their volunteer demands. Instead, we negotiate with an NGO for the length of
an entire project (or part of their larger projects), so that we can develop a plan
for longer commitment as a group to serve a community project. For each of
these projects, we plan how many volunteers are needed, for how long, and for
how many service recipients (so service recipients are also not individuals, but
a targeted group of people in need). When a group of volunteers is recruited
to reach the goal of such a project for a group of service recipients through
collaboration with an NGO, we then start our training process with a group of
designated volunteers. We also assign a project officer to start the training and
then oversee the service delivery process, from the beginning until the end of
the contracted service period. Overall, this simple and direct coaching system is
found to be effective in helping the volunteers to identify with the agency, feel
safe from being rejected and assessed by NGOs who do not really understand
each volunteer, and focus on learning how to volunteer. Most important of all,
they feel they are supported by staff and by their teammates. When the projects
that are under planning at the start of every academic year begin, we are aware
that we will identify some projects that are appropriate to be entirely owned
by our hall. The coaching model shown below, involving recruitment, training,
debriefing, and ongoing training, is found to be very successful in engaging and
sustaining young people’s volunteerism (Liu, 2019, p. 65) (Fig. 4.2).
2. Creating opportunities for the hall to play a role in our newly developed
community-based projects. Around six years after implementing the CYEP,
the project decided to diversify the service level from basically a group-based
service toward a more community-based service. We tried to mobilise some
interested volunteers to become engaged with some comparatively community-
based or macro-based work. Thus, the volunteers needed to understand the
needs/problems of our service recipients from a structural perspective, and not
confine their thinking to only individual problems. Our first attempt was to
Fig. 4.2 The CYEP coaching model for volunteering

prepare a group of volunteers to host a press and community conference to

help them to understand the needs and problems of the children that we were
serving. We named the conference ‘CityU Cares for Children’. At that time,
we served around 300 children through the CYEP. At the press conference,
we summarised the background, problems, and services involved, to let the
community know about the general problems/needs of children from the vulner-
able sector (namely, children with learning problems, emotional problems, and
family problems, etc.). We then also introduced to the public how we design
programmes for them. We found volunteers learned a lot from the different
perspectives of the work involved. Since then, we have created a line of work
involving ‘community-scale’ work or ‘advocacy work’. Examples of this work
include a press conference on the language barriers faced by ethnic minority
groups, raising money for the Guide Dogs Association, and the phenomenal
Homeless Outreach and Population Estimation (H.O.P.E.) project, carried out
across two years, 2013 and 2015, in which a city-count of the number of home-
less people in Hong Kong was conducted by more than 300 student volunteers
in one night. In all these endeavours, we seized the chance for the hall to partic-
ipate by owning part of such a big project. From another angle, we also found
that, without the support of the hall environment, big community projects could
not have delivered so successfully.
The H.O.P.E. project will be further described here so as to show the
importance of the role of the residential halls to those community projects.
The H.O.P.E. project was a borrowed idea from the New York H.O.P.E. project,
as an advocacy project for the homeless. Since the government could not carry
out a comprehensive city-count of the homeless population, the NY H.O.P.E.
project took the initiative to mobilise volunteers to carry out a city-count of the
homeless in one night, and we decided to replicate this project in Hong Kong.
It took us six months to prepare. We had to work with the NGOs in regard to
how to divide the whole of Hong Kong into areas so that we could estimate how
many volunteers would be needed. We then carried out recruitment, training,
designing the city-count routes, designing the data collection methods, and the
data collection methods themselves. Using the 2013 city-count as an example,
we finally mobilised over 300 volunteers, who were divided into 48 teams for
over 100 routes to be covered in one night. With such a magnitude of work,
we were challenged with the needs of lots of space for the storage of materials,
the return of statistics, counting statistics, etc. The project also needed a special
team of volunteers who would take care of the flow of statistics datasheets. In
the end, we realised that we needed an overnight administrative centre from
which to run the project. The hall was then found to be the most convenient
place to manage an administrative and logistic centre to support the city-count.
So, in a short amount of time, we created a temporary space and management
office for important tasks to be carried out inside our hall. Without the hall
as an overnight support centre, it was difficult to imagine how we would have
managed to pioneer and accomplish the city-count in Hong Kong. The data we
collected were shared with the public via press conferences and were sent to
46 E. S. C. Liu
the Legislative Council to advocate for the needs of homeless people in Hong
Kong.
3. Delivering community service within the hall and campus environment. We
have also designed several community services with the hall as the base of
services. They were found to be very encouraging in terms of building hall
identity and culture. The first example is the hall and campus tours for secondary
school students. We worked with secondary schools and youth centres to deliver
a one-day university campus tour for young people who were identified by
their teachers as being unfamiliar with university education or as having a very
low aspiration to enter universities. Within the hall, we then recruited a group
of hallmates as volunteers who would be the tour mentors for the group of
secondary students. Usually, the tour would start on the campus, to enable
visitors to see the operation of library, computer centre, lecturing rooms, and
student canteens. The final destination was always our hall environment, to show
these groups of teenagers the living environment and activities of the residential
halls. The young students were always excited to see the bedrooms and study
rooms. Our volunteers were also trained to build caring relationships with the
young students, to pass on advice and encouragement to them, and to answer
their questions about entering university. The whole programme appears to be
simple and brief; however, after years of organising it, it has been found to be very
impactful on young secondary school students. We also have evidence from our
hallmates that it was a very good way to increase their hall and university identity,
and thus create a culture for our hall in regard to serving the community. Besides
serving secondary school students, with the hall as a base, we also organised
short summer camps (one or two nights) for primary school students who were
receiving tuition services year-round from the CYEP. We worked with NGOs,
organising for their service recipients from low-income families to receive free
tuition classes from our volunteers on campus during the academic term. Over
the summer, we offered free summer camps to these children, whereby they
could stay for one or two nights in the hall residence, usually in a double room
with one university mentor paired as their roommate. After this programme was
designed and delivered, it became so popular that we installed it as a regular
programme later on.
Conclusion
The CYEP has been running for 15 years now, with its inception closely related to the
goal of enhancing hall education. Below are statistics from the project from 2006 to
2018. The project has been opened to all students to participate in since 2008 and, in
the subsequent five years (2008–2013), we have conducted an annual survey in order
to monitor how the move of the project from hall-based to university-based affects
the number of volunteers from the residential halls. The results show that, in these
five years, around one-third of the total number of volunteers steadily came from
the residential halls. We came to the conclusion that the project, as an original idea
from the residential halls, was probably quite rooted as a community service culture
in the hall environment, with some halls having a higher percentage of participation,
and some lower. In the hall where I acted as residence master, I witnessed how the
senior volunteers and hall tutors mentored freshmen in regard to becoming successful
volunteers, who later on continued to mentor others. Alongside these joint efforts
in the hall to deliver community services, these friendships are also found to be
enhancing the hall culture by encouraging hallmates to take pride in the fact that the
CYEP, as a bigger project later on, was originated from our hall. So, the project has
finally given our hall a very solid way to help individual students who are found to be
lacking a direction to develop themselves. It is also a motivation for many of them to
form a network with others as a team, and an effective process for them to understand
bigger organisational values and structures (when working in NGOs), and to realise
that society involves many macro issues that they are passionate in helping. From
hall to community, we found a meaningful present time with our hallmates during
their short stays in our hall, and we have given many of them a hopeful future by
enabling them to feel that they have achieved self-development while serving others.
To facilitate a young hall in developing a unique culture in a short period of time,
my experience as a residence master for 15 years (2002–2017) in the Jockey Club
Humanity Hall has a given a lot for me and our graduated hallmates to look back on,
and has helped us to realise the importance of humanity, the power of empowerment,
the magic of volunteerism, and the joy of working with young people (Liu, 2019,
p.78) (Table 4.1).
Table 4.1 The number of

Year No. of No. of service Service hours
volunteers, service recipients,
volunteers recipients
and service hours involved in
the CYEP 2006–2007 196 278 4815
2007–2008 312 480 4502
2008–2009 213 422 4896
2009–2010 477 708 7573
2010–2011 545 697 8141
2011–2012 418 570 9803
2012–2013 1436 1139 19,758
2013–2014 1762 2312 22,078
2014–2015 1977 2415 27,217
2015–2016 2019 2549 36,098
2016–2017 1630 2095 28,335
2017–2018 1110 2096 23,447
Total 12,095 15,761 196,663
48 E. S. C. Liu
Reference
Liu, E. S. C. (2019). Empowering Asian youth through volunteering: Examples of theory into
practice. Routledge.
Chapter 5
Care Across Borders Through Hall Life
Education Programmes: Case Studies
from Hong Kong Baptist University
Kevin Kin Man Yue
Abstract Student involvement in enhancing student learning and development is

playing an important role in the whole person education advocated by the Hong
Kong Baptist University, particularly in the undergraduate halls which aim to foster
a living-learning environment. Through the two programmes, namely the Community
Engagement Organisers and the Green Quest, it is demonstrated that there is a posi-
tive correlation between student involvement and the success of these programmes,
fostering a care towards the community by the students.
Introduction
‘To be a leading liberal arts university in Asia for the world, delivering academic
excellence in a caring, creative, and global culture’ is the vision statement of Hong
Kong Baptist University (HKBU).
The undergraduate halls (hereafter, halls) at Hong Kong Baptist University provide
a living-learning environment with a structural residential education, which is inte-
gral to the whole-person education at the university. The halls accommodate 1770
residents in two interconnected towers of 20 floors, with a mix of local and non-local
students. In line with the vision of the university, the halls aim to promote dynamic
intellectual exchanges, unleashing the creativity of the residents, and strengthening
the culture of care and proximity to one another at the university. ‘Care’ is the process
of protecting someone or something and providing what that person or thing needs,
according to the Cambridge Dictionary.
There is a strong culture of care and support among the student residents within and
beyond our halls. Within our halls, there is strong pastoral care from hall management,
including the residence masters, attentive support from hall student leaders, such as
hall tutors and mentors, and intimate peer bonding among hallmates across rooms,
units, floors, and halls. Beyond the halls, students participate in structured residential
K. K. M. Yue (B)
Office of Student Affairs and School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University,
Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong SAR, China
e-mail: kkmyue@hkbu.edu.hk
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8906-2_5
50 K. K. M. Yue
education programmes to promote care across borders of generations, time, and

space.
Background
Residential education programmes at HKBU focus on the academic, social, and

personal growth of residents across four development dimensions: ‘Personal Enrich-
ment’, ‘Residents’ Bonding’, ‘Community and U’, and ‘Green and Health Mind-
fulness’. This is in line with our university mission, in which ‘HKBU is committed
to academic excellence in teaching, research, and service, and to the development
of the whole person in all these endeavours, built upon the heritage of Christian
higher education’. We therefore strive to nurture our students based on a whole-
person education ethos, particularly students living in the halls, through residential
education established over the years. Residents participate in residential education
programmes organised by the residence master and student leaders of their own halls,
and joint hall programmes organised by the hall life education team.
Residential education programmes are often evaluated and revised to adapt to
students’ changing needs. One significant improvement that has been made is
the increasing involvement of students. Student involvement refers to the quan-
tity and quality of the physical and psychological energy that students invest in
the college experience (Astin, 1984). Involvement theory (Astin, 1999) states that
student involvement is one of the key factors enhancing student learning and devel-
opment. Various studies in different contexts validate the notion that the quantity
and quality of involvement are major factors in students’ learning outcomes (Astin,
1984; Ganser & Kennedy, 2012; Ting et al., 2016).
This paper illustrates how care across borders could be strengthened through
student involvement, with case studies of two residential education programmes:
Community Engagement Organisers, a programme promoting community care; and
Green Quest, a programme promoting care for the environment through the study of
sustainability.
Case Studies
Case 1: The Community Engagement Organisers (CEOs)

Programme
Design and Implementation The Community Engagement Organisers (CEOs)

programme was launched in the first semester of the 2016–2017 academic year.
CEOs across the four halls at HKBU were recruited to organise activities involving
engagement with the community on a social or cultural level, or themes that concern
5 Care Across Borders Through Hall Life Education Programmes … 51
the community. Within four years, the number of CEOs increased from four to
100 students. The evolution of the programme design and the changes in student
involvement are illustrated below.
Phase 1: Complete Student Initiation The objective of the CEOs programme is to

gather like-minded students to initiate activities addressing social issues that they find
interesting. Student involvement initially began with students passively participating
in the activities, forming an Organising Committee (OC), and designing programme
activities themselves.
In the pilot year of the CEOs programme, mainland and international exchange
students volunteered to form the OC. The OC brainstormed social issues in Hong
Kong and discussed how our resources could be contributed. They eventually chose
the study of street sleepers as a topic for further investigation. After visiting districts
with street sleepers and meeting with local NGOs, the OC proposed to arrange hot-
pot dinners for the street sleepers. Unfortunately, it was difficult to find an ideal venue
and a lack of rapport made it difficult to motivate the street sleepers to join the dinner.
Finally, the OC worked with a restaurant serving a vegetarian buffet, gathering its
leftovers and distributing them to street sleepers in the neighbourhood. The OC was
inactive after this service to prepare for examinations and it was dismissed as the
academic year came to an end.
The outcomes of the CEOs programme in 2016–2017 were unsatisfactory. We
evaluated the programme with our participants. Their reflections are summarised as
follows.
• Low participation rate: The programme was launched in the first semester of 2016
and received five local applicants who did not show up after learning the details
of the programme during their interviews. Another round of applications began in
the second semester, and two mainland students and two exchange students were
accepted. It seems that students, especially local ones, were not keen on forming
or organising activities related to social issues.
• Lack of sustainability: The food distribution project began in the beginning of
semester two and lasted for three months, until the examination period. There
was only one activity organised, due to the short programme period. Also, as half
of the OC were exchange students who left Hong Kong after their examinations,
there were no follow-up activities in the programme.
• Lack of differentiation: There were other similar programmes available on campus
and we had not fully utilised our advantages as a student hall to differentiate
ourselves from others. Our comparative advantage is that students are living
together and are affiliated with our neighbourhood.
• Demotivation: From our last experience, the street sleepers were from a place
far away from our university, so students found the location inconvenient for a
service that lasted for half an hour only; thus, it demotivated them in terms of
their participation.
52 K. K. M. Yue
Phase 2: Collaboration Between Students and Programme Facilitator Riding on

this experience in 2016–2017, we aimed to organise programmes that answer commu-
nity needs in our neighbourhood, utilise our unique position, and improve community
bonding. While we would remain open-minded about proposals initiated by students,
we would provide some guided topics, so that students interested in specific topics
could meet.
As we were preparing for recruitment for the CEOs programme in 2017–2018,

we were fortunate to receive a generous donation in order to arrange an elderly care
programme for three years. We invited one of the CEOs participants from 2016–2017
to be our student ambassador and worked to design an elderly care programme. The
objectives of the CEOs elderly care programme were as follows.
• To promote a healthy lifestyle and provide support and care to the elderly;
• To provide learning opportunities for students in regard to their development as
caring citizens and creative problem solvers;
• To connect students with stakeholders of HKBU, to strengthen their sense of
identity.
• During our discussion with the student ambassador, we brainstormed the reasons
behind and solutions to students not being able to commit to the commu-
nity engagement programme. The programme design of the CEOs elderly care
programme was confirmed as follows.
• Service target: Elderly people who are childless and living alone in locations near
our university.
• Programme outline:
• Rounded training is provided to students (including care skills training, experience
sharing from experts, and experiential learning experience);
• Students are teamed up and each team is grouped with a few elderly people.
• Students arrange regular visits with their own elderly buddies in their group.
• Some outings are organised for the students and the elderly by the hall life team.
This programme aims to provide a structured learning experience to the students.
It allows students to have the flexibility to discuss with their elderly buddies a suitable
visit schedule, especially with the service location conveniently located. Participants
can arrange their visits in between classes. When students are occupied with their
studies and are not able to make the arrangement, they can invite their elderly buddies
to join in with activities organised by the hall life team.
Instead of being a completely student-initiated programme, the involvement of the
hall life team ensures the smooth running of the programme without overburdening
the students. This programme enables the elderly to form connections with a few
students who can visit them regularly to build up a sustainable form of bonding. They
can also engage in different activities organised by the students and the programme
facilitator.
Analysis
The programme began to involve an increasing number of students and elderly partic-
ipants. In 2017–2018, the CEOs elderly care programme recruited around 40 students
and around 30 elderly people. In 2018–2019, there were around 100 students serving
80 elderly people, including around 50 elderly people grouped with our students
for regular visits. Up until the first semester of this year, there were 150 students
serving 60 elderly buddies. During these years, some of the students withdrew from
the programme as they graduated, or due to increased study loads, but there was a
steady intake of new participants. To expand our network of care, the programme
was also opened to HKBU students who are non-hall residents.
From the year-end evaluation surveys and debriefing sessions with the students,
we learned that the CEOs elderly care programme excels compared with other similar
elderly services in the following aspects.
• Duration: The programme lasted a year, rather than for only a single visit, which
allows students to build strong bonds with the elderly. Students are encouraged
to continue to stay in the programme during their entire study period at HKBU.
• Flexibility: Students could directly discuss with the elderly participants their visi-
tation schedule and communication methods. This makes the arrangement flexible
and improves the time management skills of the students.
• Dynamic: The programme is responsive to feedback. It is regularly evaluated and
improved through debriefing sessions with students. A few student ambassadors
are recruited each year to assist in the planning, promotion, and delivery of the
programme. The outings organised for the elderly and students are different every
year. Not only are there fresh experiences for the elderly and students, but the
activities help retain the participants.
• Support from the hall life team and teammates: The hall life team facilitates
and enriches the programme by providing support to students, including the
preparation of food packs for students to bring to the elderly, sending regular
reminders, arranging appropriate training, and organising outings. Visiting the
elderly in teams allows participants to support one another, especially during the
early stages of the programme when students are less confident about talking to
strangers. Some non-Cantonese speaking students were grateful for the help from
their teammates in regard to translating.
The elderly buddies, who are childless and living alone, enjoy the company of the
students. We do not have an accurate record of the total service hours of the students
because students do not have the habit of recording their visitation schedules, and
intangible communication, such as phone calls and text messages, cannot be counted.
However, we often receive appreciation in regard to the students from the elderly,
especially in terms of the number of messages they have received or the places they
visited with the students. In fact, the care and support is mutual. The students learn
and experience a lot from this intergenerational bonding. Drawing common words
from student feedback from the year-end evaluation (Fig. 5.1), 49% accounted for
54 K. K. M. Yue
Fig. 5.1 Keywords from a year-end evaluation of CEO participants 2017–2018 and 2018–2019
‘happy’, ‘care’, ‘love’, ‘warm’, and ‘friends’.

Through the CEOs programme, students learn to care for their elderly buddies,
which leads them to reflect upon their own relationships with their own family
members and to open themselves up to be caring for by others and by themselves:
‘Grandma reminded me to tighten my shoelaces, gave me candies for motion
sickness, reminded me to sleep well and keep warm, and held my hands in crowded
places… Every tiny bit of care made me feel warm. It reminded me of the importance
of saving time to support each other no matter how busy we are.’ Feedback from a
student after a two-day trip to Macau.
‘I love the bonding with my grandma, which breaks the generation gap and cultural
differences. There is humanity and recognition as an integrated member of the society,
which could not be taught by any lecturer with any PowerPoints or assignments. This
can only be acquired through hands-on experience.’ Feedback from a student after
a two-day trip to Macau.
‘I realised that volunteering is more than a thing on your CV. It is amazing to see
that I can bring happiness to others.’ Feedback from a student during a year-end
evaluation.
‘I find the meaning in doing volunteer work and the worth of myself. It is an
amazing feeling when you realise that you are capable of giving something.’ Feedback
from a student during a year-end evaluation.
‘My elderly buddy shared a lot about himself and his past, which reminded me of
my grandparents. I learned a lot from his sharing and I was touched and started to
reflect on myself.’ Feedback from a student during a year-end evaluation.
‘My elderly buddy kept asking if we had any questions for her. It seems like we are
not the ones taking care of her but vice versa. Maybe this is the essence of elderly care,
which is ‘the care is mutual.” Feedback from a student during a year-end evaluation.
Moving Forward
The CEOs elderly care programme is being extended for one more year until 2021.
It is hoped that the culture of care will continue to flourish in the halls and spread
across geographic and demographic borders.
Case 2: Green Quest
Design and Implementation
The undergraduate halls believe that ‘green’ is a living style that strives for balance
and aims for economic, social, and environmental sustainability. As a complement to
the green programmes at the undergraduate halls, Green Quest was launched in the
2014–2015 year and is run annually by the halls to enhance the green awareness of
HKBU students through local and overseas experiences. The programme is evaluated
annually to keep abreast of social changes and students’ interests.
Each year, there are around 10–15 participants. The programme is open for appli-
cations from all HKBU students, with a priority for hall residents. Though students
participating in Green Quest are from diverse academic backgrounds, they have one
common interest: the pursuit of green living. Green Quest includes three components:
‘Green Foundation’, ‘Green Journey’, and ‘Green Giving’. Based on this main struc-
ture, the programme has been improved over the years to enhance students’ learning.
One significant improvement is the increasing level of student involvement. The
structure and development of the programme are as follows.
Phase 1: Students as Active Learners
Stage 1: The Green Foundation (Local Preparation) To enhance students’ under-

standing of green development in Hong Kong, Green Quest starts off with a series
of seminars delivered by local experts on topics covering public spaces, urban plan-
ning, and green lifestyle, etc. After the seminars, students are required to submit an
56 K. K. M. Yue
individual research paper and present their findings in groups on the assigned topics
related to sustainability.
Stage 2: The Green Journey (Overseas Tour) Students visit two Scandinavian coun-
tries, Denmark and Sweden, where the pursuit of a green and sustainable society is
being taken seriously. In around two weeks, the participants walk through and experi-
ence most of the areas in Copenhagen municipality and Malmo city. Participants pay
a visit to local firms and meet with Scandinavian students and experts to exchange
ideas on green living in our respective countries. To better engage students, some are
assigned as student guides and are responsible for introducing the areas to the whole
group.
Through the Green Journey, the participants build up hands-on experience and
develop a new understanding of how green initiatives could be implemented and
promoted in their daily lives, their country’s infrastructure and system, city planning,
government policy, culture, and community engagement.
Stage 3: Green Giving (Sharing) After the Green Journey, students share their
experiences and insights from the tour and pass green messages forward a sharing
session.
Phase 2: Students as Collaborators in the Halls’ Green

and Health Mindfulness Promotion Campaign
Students from Green Quest have commented highly on the programme. The tour was
found to have a positive impact on their personal growth and future planning. Yet, the
learning was confined to individual participants. In order to extend the impact of the
programme to the wider halls community, Green Questers, the former Green Quest
participants, were invited to collaborate with the hall life team to arrange a series of
Green and Health Mindfulness workshops and to promote green messages to halls
residents. The best way of understanding students is through direct communication.
Feedback from Green Questers was very useful in the planning of Green and Health
Mindfulness workshops, which were well received by students. Green Questers also
assisted in the planning of a Green Exploration Trip to Singapore.
Phase 3: Students Are Empowered to Initiate the Promotion

of Green Messages in the Halls
Building on the positive feedback from the Green and Health Mindfulness work-
shops, two Green Questers from 2018–2019 were invited to actively initiate the
promotion of green messages to residents of the halls in the 2019–2020 academic
year. During the first semester of 2019–2020, the Green Questers arranged vegetarian
food workshops to promote healthy diets. They also held ‘zentangle’ workshops to
promote mindfulness through designing a series of promotional materials to raise
awareness of saving resources and caring for nature. There would be more work-
shops on upcycling and calling for green actions in coming months, all initiated and
organised by Green Questers.
Analysis
An analysis of the results of the evaluation surveys (Table 5.1) indicates that students
had positive experiences of Green Quest. Students rated highly the intended learning
outcomes, which include instilling the concepts of green and sustainability, and
enhancing personal growth. The two most outstanding outcomes were ‘I gained
new knowledge and insights on the topics of green living, sustainability, and urban
planning from the programme’ and ‘I was inspired by the programme to adopt a
healthy lifestyle’.
Table 5.1 Overall Means of Comments from 29 Green Quest Participants, 2017–2018 and 2018–
2019
Comments Overall means (scored on a five-point Likert
scale)
Learning outcomes related to major objectives
• I gained new knowledge and insights on the 4.69
topics of green living, sustainability, and urban
planning from the programme
• I was inspired by the programme to adopt a 4.62
healthy lifestyle
• I applied information/skills/experience from 4.31
the programme to my daily life or studies
Learning outcomes related to personal growth
• The programme strengthened my life and 4.45
transferable skills, such as self-confidence, the
ability to face uncertainty, and my
problem-solving abilities
• I experienced different cultures and interacted 4.52
with people from different cultural
backgrounds
• My oral communication skills were enhanced 4.31
Overall comments
• I would recommend the programme to my 4.69
classmates or friends
• Overall, the programme was well-structured 4.67
58 K. K. M. Yue
Table 5.2 T-test results of the self-assessments of 28 green quest participants, 2017–2018 and
2018–2019
Questions Post-training means Pre-training means Mean differences Significance
Making changes 3.86 3.61 0.25 0.23
Passion for 4.04 3.71 0.32 0.05
learninga
Subject 3.86 3.11 0.57 0.01
knowledgea
Intercultural 3.64 2.96 0.68 0.00
knowledgea
Motivation and 3.93 3.57 0.36 0.04
active involvement
in groupa
Health awarenessa 4.11 3.71 0.39 0.02
Self-reflection 3.89 3.75 0.14 0.42
Presentation 3.64 3.21 0.43 0.01
skillsa
Team-building 3.93 3.71 0.21 0.18
abilities
Intercultural 4.00 3.50 0.50 0.00
skillsa
a Denotes that the improvement (mean score difference) is statistically significant at the 0.05 level)
Comparing the self-assessment of students before and after the programme,

students significantly improved in regard to their ‘passion for learning’, ‘subject
knowledge’, ‘intercultural knowledge’, ‘motivation and active involvement in group’,
‘health awareness’, ‘presentation skills’, and ‘intercultural skills’ (Table 5.2).
From their training in Hong Kong and personal experiences overseas, the Green
Questers learned to care for the earth. The seed of caring for the environment was
planted in Hong Kong, nurtured during overseas experience, and travelled across
continents to flourish back in Hong Kong. This seed of care also journeyed across
time when students applied it to their daily lives, which changed their lifestyles and
enhanced their personal growth. Green Questers from 2014 to 2018 were interviewed
in 2019 in regard to their personal development relating to their experiences during
the programme:
‘It’s cliché but it was really eye-opening. The green quest tour marks my first
time travelling to European countries. My friends and I treasure the memories we
had in Sweden and Denmark. It also changed my lifestyle a lot: I now walk a lot, I
don’t purchase any bottled drinks, I don’t use straws, and so on. I’ve become more
confident in speaking my mind and respecting different cultures. I would not have
become who I am today if I hadn’t met the nicest people from the tour (really)!’
Feedback from a 2017 Green Quester who was involved in the planning of green
workshops and the tour to Singapore in 2018.
‘To me, Green Quest is the turning point of my life. When I was in Year 1, I was
insecure about choosing geography as my major. Green Quest cleared my doubts
and guided me to pursue urban planning for my postgraduate studies. Currently a
teaching assistant, I often share my experience in Scandinavia with my students.
Without Green Quest, I believe I would be an aimless graduate.’ Feedback from a
2015 Green Quester.
‘I have made some significant changes to my life. I am more devoted to the discus-
sion of environmental protection and often compare policies in Hong Kong with
those in Scandinavia. I have a stronger determination to recycle, to reduce waste,
and to promote these messages to my friends. Green Quest changed my mindset
and lifestyle. Seriously, I am considering taking up jobs related to environmental
protection.’ Feedback from a 2018 Green Quester.
Moving Forward
To further strengthen students’ care for the local environment, in the sixth year
of Green Quest, it was proposed that the project collaborate with a local NGO to
provide training and supervision in regard to a local project internship concerning
environmental issues. It is hoped that engaging students in local projects will advance
students’ learning in regard to green living and sustainability.
Discussion
Community Engagement Organisers (CEOs) and Green Quest are two programmes
organised by the halls with the aims of promoting care in the community and in regard
to the environment. Although the structures of the two programmes are different,
one common factor is the high degree of student involvement, which echoes Astin’s
involvement theory. The level of student involvement and the results seen during the
development of the programmes in the past few years are summarised in Table 5.3.
Summarising the experiences from the two programmes, a model of student
involvement during different stages of a programme is proposed. This could serve as
an example of good practice to other residential education programmes (Table 5.4).
Conclusion
A culture of care is visible in the halls. It crosses the borders of the halls to reach the
wider community and bridge generations, time, and space.
The two programmes from the halls’ Life Education Team that promote care were
studied in this paper. Although there are no statistical figures directly relating student
60 K. K. M. Yue
Table 5.3 A summary of student involvement during the development of the two programmes
Phase Level of involvement Result
Community engagement organisers (CEOs) programme
Phase 1 Programme was 100% Although students were given
Complete student initiation initiated and run by students complete freedom in regard to
the design of the programme,
this ambiguity led to low levels
participation and failure to
involve (recruit) students during
the first step
Phase 2 Students were recruited to Students were involved in the
Collaboration of students and work on a specific topic; planning, delivery, and
programme facilitator student ambassadors were evaluation of the programme.
involved in the planning; Collaboration with the hall life
students worked under a team allows students to receive
designed framework and with guidance and support and, at the
supervision from the hall life same time, preserve flexibility
team; students were given during the delivery of
flexibility during the programme
programme; regular
evaluations and debriefing
were carried out to collect
students’ feedback
Green quest
Phase 1 Students were actively Students acting as active
Students as active learners involved as learners in the learners strengthened their
training and overseas tour, engagement and sense of
which included individual and ownership in regard to the
group research work, programme, which enhanced
interactive sessions with the learning outcomes
representatives from
Scandinavia, and acting as
tour guides for some parts of
the tour;
students shared their
programme experience
through sharing sessions
Phase 2 Apart from being active Workshops and promotions that
Students as collaborators of learners, after the tour, involved students’ input
the halls’ Green and Health students contributed their appealed to students and
Mindfulness promotion learning through assisting in attracted participation
campaign the preparation of Green and
Health Mindfulness
workshops in the halls
(continued)
Table 5.3 (continued)

Phase Level of involvement Result
Phase 3 Apart from being active Green Questers shared their
Students are empowered to learners, after the tour, learning and experiences in
initiate the promotion of students initiated their own creative ways that appealed to
Green Messages in the halls campaign to promote green students. Organising workshops
messages in the halls, which enabled Green Questers to
included designing directly promote green
promotional materials and messages to other students
organising workshops
Table 5.4 Proposed model of student involvement during different stages of the programme
Stage Level of student involvement
Planning Brainstorm with students in regard to the design of the programme.
The programme facilitator needs to strike a balance between students’
interests and the intended learning outcomes
Early stage of delivery Students take the initiative to promote and deliver the programme. The
programme facilitator acts as a supervisor to provide guidelines and
support to students
Later stage of delivery Higher flexibility is given to students in regard to the delivery of the
programme, in line with the intended learning goals. The programme
facilitator acts as the supervisor/observer of the progress
Evaluation The timely collection of students’ comments enables the evaluation of
their feedback, with the aim of making improvements during and after
the programme
involvement to the success of the programmes, qualitative analysis of students’ feed-

back indicates a positive relationship between these two elements. A model of student
involvement during different stages of the programme is proposed in this paper, which
could serve as an example of good practice for other hall life education programmes.
References
of College Student Development, 40(5), 518–529.
of College Student Personnel, 25, 297–308.
Ganser, S. R., & Kennedy, T. L. (2012). Where it all began: Peer education and leadership in student
services. New Directions for Higher Education, 157, 17–29. https://doi.org/10.1002/he.20003
Chapter 6
Deeper Experiential Engagement
Projects (DEEP) in Residential Halls:
Equipping for the Future
Chun Chau Sze
Abstract In Asian societies, such as that of Singapore, bringing about creative and
innovative thinking while fostering inquiring minds with a taste for interdisciplinary
learning is complex and challenging. A first step toward tackling this is to target
the ‘in classroom’ mentality. Taking advantage of the informality of residential hall
activities, which are driven by students’ personal interests, has great potential to bring
about such learning outcomes that are critical to equipping students for the future.
We describe the development and pilot runs of an experiential learning scaffold –
the Deeper Experiential Engagement Project (DEEP) – at Nanyang Technological
University Singapore, which can be overlaid on residential hall activities for such
purposes.
Introduction
Education has to keep up with the shifting demands of society over time, e.g. to be
relevant to the globally connected twenty-first century and the Artificial Intelligence
(AI)/Machine Learning (ML)-driven “Industry 4.0” (Ministry of Education, 2020).
Nanyang Technological University Singapore (NTU) tackled the latter by addressing
the need for conceptual awareness in an increasingly AI/ML-reliant society by intro-
ducing courses on Digital Literacy/Computational Thinking, while strengthening
“human” attributes that AI/ML cannot substitute for, e.g. empathy, creativity, ethical
decision-making.
However, as one goes through years of teaching, one eventually comes to the real-
ization that it is not exactly possible to “teach” students how to be creative or have
enquiring minds—the attributes that elevates human capability above that of the AI.
We may design learning activities of task/problem-based nature that require innova-
tive/creative thinking and the process of enquiry in order to complete the assignment.
C. C. Sze (B)
Experiential and Collaborative Learning Office, Institute for Pedagogical Innovation, Research
and Excellence, School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University Singapore,
Singapore, Singapore
e-mail: ccsze@ntu.edu.sg
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8906-2_6
64 C. C. Sze
However, what we ultimately assess is the externally visible outcome, and not the
students’ internal cognitive restructuring that we hope to stimulate. Students may be
able to produce the outcome in a variety of ways that involve very little of their own
creative thinking, for example, by putting together bits and pieces of other people’s
solutions—which they deem to be applicable to their specific assignment’s context—
sourced from the internet. Alternatively, they may simply follow the steps prescribed
in a “template method” for going about such assignments dutifully, provided by
conscientious teachers wanting to provide guidance to students who appear to be at
a loss. Taking on such means of completing assignments falls short of fulfilling the
desired learning outcomes, as it involves no self-driven cognitive restructuring on
the part of the students. The students are essentially treading paths that will get the
assignment completed, which they know will be assessed. The challenge in relation
to this group of students is to coach them out of the comfort zones of relying on the
thinking of others and to motivate them to want to build constructs from their own
seeds of thoughts.
Of course, with adequate guidance, a proportion of the students do manage to be
stimulated to exercise innovation and creativity as intended by the designed learning
activities. Among Singapore undergraduates, we have observed that some students
develop the ability to derive creative solutions within their discipline of study through
activities that encourage the process of enquiry and synthesis of information, but the
application somehow remains boxed within the classroom. It is almost as if the mental
exercise of creativity and inquiry has been compartmentalized as “curriculum” by
these students and they become at a loss when faced with cross-disciplinary or real-
life tasks. Unboxing them from the confines of the discipline thus becomes the
challenge we face in relation to this second group of students.
Bringing Learning Out of the Classroom
After agonizing over this phenomenon in the Singapore undergraduate scene for some
years, it eventually dawned upon us that both problems might have similar roots. We
call this root the “awed by the classroom” mind-set. Due to the importance placed on
academic performance by Singapore parents (as those from Asian societies tend to
do), twelve years of solid pre-university education have given learning a status akin
to a battle arena in the minds of most students, held fort by “respectable teachers”
(Ee & Tan, 2008; Fang & Gopinathan, 2009). What happens within the classroom
is a focused activity of survival confined within the arena. For the former group
of students, learning activities designed for creative thinking are just another battle
(brought about by the teachers) to fight for survival—“just let us use anything that can
get us through this!” The latter group of students may have acquired the necessary
innovative thinking skills, but they again perceived them to be just a part of the
done-in-the-arena task—walled within the classroom—and the thought to apply the
process beyond the walls does not come intuitively.
6 Deeper Experiential Engagement Projects (DEEP) in Residential Halls … 65
How then do we remove this sense of awe and intimidation brought about by
the classroom setting? One possible way is to provide a platform for students to go
beyond the classroom and curriculum to bring disciplinary knowledge into their daily
lives in order to solve problems or accomplish practical tasks. The link with personal
interests in a daily-life context may motivate the former group of students to think on
their feet, while allowing the latter group to experience the potential of applying their
learning beyond the classroom. On our campus of Nanyang Technological University
(NTU), Singapore, twenty-two Halls of Residence for undergraduates exist, housing
approximately twelve thousand students (slightly more than half of our undergraduate
population). The thought then arose that if we can introduce appropriate learning
activities into the Halls of Residence to serve as such a platform, we may be able to
break the mental walls associated with classroom learning (Sze, 2017). Considering
the size of the in-residence undergraduate population, the coverage will be significant.
The activities within Halls are a subset of what we refer to as “co-curricular activities”
(CCAs) and it was hoped that with the development of a suitable model to drive
creativity through residential hall settings, we can further adopt this in other CCAs.
Co-curricular Activities in Singapore – Experience Only, Not

Experiential Learning?
Education in Singapore is mapped through a set of developmental outcomes in stages,

translated from the Desired Outcomes of Education (DOE) articulated through the
Ministry of Education (2020). The current DOE, for example, describes a person
who is schooled in the Singapore Education system to be confident with a sound
moral compass, who is adaptable and resilient, thinks independently and critically,
communicates effectively, is a self-directed learner who takes responsibility for her
own learning, an active contributor who is able to work effectively in teams, and a
concerned citizen who has a strong civic consciousness.
CCAs, often chosen based on students’ personal interests and hobbies, are
presented in Singapore education policies as a necessary component because they
potentially allow acquisition of many of these attributes through informal learning.
“Informal learning” is defined by Rogoff et al. (2016) as a pedagogical model that
“is non-didactic, is embedded in meaningful activity, builds on the learner’s initiative
or interest or choice (rather than resulting from external demands or requirements),
and does not involve assessment external to the activity”.
Although CCAs are acknowledged to be a valuable platform for such informal
learning, the perceived intangibility of benefits from CCAs tend to discourage
students from putting in the effort to derive learning. Cognitive exercises necessary to
drive the “experiences” from CCAs to close the Experiential Learning cycle—Reflec-
tive Observation, Abstract Conceptualization and Active Experimentation (Kolb &
Fry, 1974; Schenck & Cruickshank, 2015)—may be suggested but are often not taken
up by students, diminishing their involvement in CCAs to mere “experiences”.
66 C. C. Sze
This is a lamentable state because authentic experiential learning through CCAs,

particularly at the tertiary education level, is a valuable channel for students to develop
innovative, creative or enquiring minds in a cross-disciplinary context. A setting of
CCA inherently releases students from these “classroom confines” as it is driven
by personal interests embedded in everyday life, i.e. out of the classroom, and the
problem-solving and practical task-based nature of the activities necessitates students
to draw materials from multiple disciplines.
The NTU Residential Education Setting
How then might we leverage this advantage and maximize informal learning
opportunities offered in CCAs more effectively? In NTU, we attempted to do
this through a structure overlaid on CCAs that could propel experiential learning.
CCAs within the Residence Halls of NTU contribute to the campus vibrancy (Pang
et al., 2016). In 2014, two Halls—Crescent and Pioneer (jointly, “CresPion”)—were
earmarked to pilot Residential Education (RE) activities to develop such experi-
ential learning scaffolds. Informal experiential and collaborative learning spaces
across several disciplines were established in CresPion for exploration of creative
activities based on students’ personal interests. For instance, one learning space—
The Studio@CresPion—promoted exploration of artistic expression, documentation
and communication using various media (Pang et al., 2016). Another space—The
Kitchen@CresPion—allowed “good eating experience” to be looked into from the
biology/chemistry perspective.
In 2016, CresPion adopted a two-tiered RE approach to engage residents and
encourage experiential learning: firstly by conducting one-off hands-on workshops to
stimulate interests and curiosity, followed by offering opportunities to take up creative
projects (team-based) related to, but not necessarily limited to the subject(s) of the
workshop(s). The latter was structured to require collaborative work and utilization of
cross-discipline knowledge and skills, and would be expected to require commitment
of time and effort across one and a half semester, as opposed to the mere few hours
one needs to spend through participation of the former. To incentivize the uptake
and completion of such projects, we generated a framework for students’ efforts to
be channelled to offset a one-course-equivalent in General Education Requirement
(GER) of their formal academic requirement. Students may take on creative team-
based projects by registering for the GER course, “Exploring the Science of Good
Eating Experience” based on their own interests, as long as the project themes straddle
“eating experience”, such as recipe development, fermentation, food culture/heritage
and food art/visuals. We purposefully scaffolded the project process with deliverables
(to be graded) to bring about the cognitive activities of the “Experiential Learning”
cycle (Kolb & Fry, 1974; Schenck & Cruickshank, 2015).
Key Design Elements of the Experiential Learning Scaffold
Key elements of course design principles adopted, that address the challenges
discussed earlier, are presented:
1. The sequence of deliverables we expect from students (as part of what they
are assessed) throughout the project are simply documentations that are meant
to capture their thoughts naturally generated in a creative process, in order
not to reduce the students’ degree of “hobby/interest-based” motivation. These
include ideation by individual students, synthesis of proposal as a team, progress
journaling and reflection, presentation of products and sharing of experience.
2. The scope of “eating experience” is encompassing enough to require cross-
disciplinary application and problem solving. Indeed, students have to consider
the chemistry of taste and aroma molecules, the biology of the raw material, the
physics of heat transfer and consider engineering principles to make their own
tools necessary for certain cooking methods, e.g. in the “Smoked Food” project,
team members constructed their own hot and cold smokers using household
items, and proceeded to investigate how the type of wood used and the duration
of smoking affected or enhanced taste in a variety of local dishes.
3. The involvement of the faculty is limited to two or three critical touchpoints, so
that students’ sense of ownership of the project is reinforced. Instead, facilitation
of some necessary discussions is assisted by graduate students who are closer
to the undergraduates’ age.
4. The course is classified as General Elective Requirements (GER), which does
not limit subscription to only a restricted programme. A team is made up of
students organically drawn together because they were interested in the same
hobby and creative theme, and yet may come from different disciplines.
5. One key intervention by the faculty is included in the process—a one-on-
one coaching to individual members after the team has done a few rounds
of experimentation without interference. The faculty draws input from the
student’s progress journal. The coaching only addresses the approaches taken
by the student, e.g. the faculty may suggest alternative approaches or query the
decisions made, but strictly do not instruct on “what and how to do”.
6. The project process starts with the process of “ideation” and concludes with
presentation of their learning journey, allowing the comparison of their initial to
the final state through monitoring of the submission of ideation, team proposal,
progress journal and final report. The rubrics were designed to assess aspects
of logical thoughts and creativity, as well as to acknowledge an individual’s
“growth” (see Table 6.1). In many cases, “growth” is an important aspect of
such courses intended to promote creativity and innovation.
Table 6.1 Grading rubric for progress journal aligned to manifestation of deep learning
68
Deep learning manifestation Graded category Categories High Moderate Low

Score ranges 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Creativity and mastery Competence Logic and execution There is a clear There is limited logical There is no logical
logical flow of flow of ideas, concepts flow of ideas,
ideas, concepts and and presentation of concepts and
presentation of material presentation of
material material
Purpose and Passion Communication Clarity and organization Proper formatting Somewhat messy Very messy
with logical layout formatting formatting (lack of
No (few) Acceptable levels of consistence in use
grammatical or grammatical and of fonts, spacing,
spelling errors spelling errors margins)
Grammatical and
spelling errors are
rampant
Creativity and mastery Growth level assignment 1 Limited kitchen experience; limited confidence; limited ability to
(For science disciplines) relate scientific thinking principles; limited lateral thinking
*A person is assigned to one (including fluency and expression)
of these categories if he/she 2 Some kitchen experience; somewhat confident; some attempts to
fulfils at least 2 of these relate scientific thinking principles; observable but limited lateral
thinking
3 Good kitchen experience; confident; clear ability to relate scientific
thinking principles; observable lateral thinking
(continued)
C. C. Sze
Deep learning manifestation Graded category Categories High Moderate Low
Score ranges 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Purpose and passion Growth level assignment 1 Limited kitchen experience; Limited confidence; limited ability to
(For non-science disciplines) relate scientific concepts; limited vertical/organized thinking
*A person is assigned to one (including the ability to present and organize scientific experiment
of these categories if he/she design and data)
fulfils at least 2 of these 2 Some kitchen experience; somewhat confident; some ability to
relate scientific concepts; observable but limited vertical/organized
thinking
3 Good kitchen experience; confident; clear ability to relate scientific
thinking principles; observable vertical/organized thinking
Purpose and passion Growth achieved 1 Clear improvement Some improvement in No improvement
(For science and non-science in any 1 of out 4 any 1 of out 4 traits
disciplines) traits
2 Clear improvement Clear improvement in Insufficient
in any 2 of out 4 any 2 of out 4 traits improvement
traits (implying a lack of
effort)
3 Clear improvement Clear improvement in Insufficient
in 3 out of 4 traits 3 out of 4 traits improvement
(implying a lack of
effort)
6 Deeper Experiential Engagement Projects (DEEP) in Residential Halls …
69
70 C. C. Sze
Expansion of the Deeper Experiential Engagement Project

Scaffold
Over the course of the four runs within the period of Oct 2016 to May 2019, eighty-
two students spanning nine Schools from disciplines of Science, Engineering, Busi-
ness, Humanities and Arts completed seventeen projects. All teams (ranging from
three to seven students per team) consisted of students from at least two different
Schools, and often a good mix of science/engineering vs humanities/business back-
grounds. Students reported a positive experience (more than 90% responded with
greater than 4.2/5 score for teaching and learning experience feedback) and exhib-
ited creative initiatives and independent behaviours not often observed in a classroom
setting.
With the preliminary round of success using this experiential learning model to
enhance benefit from CCAs, we are looking to expand this to a wider variety of
activities and disciplines across NTU, i.e. linking other CCAs to relevant academic
disciplines. Project work adopting this scaffold is now referred to as Deeper Expe-
riential Engagement Project (DEEP), and National Institute of Education, School
of Humanities, and School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering in NTU are
currently developing their own version of DEEP-GERs while the Experiential and
Collaborative Learning Office brokers CCAs with faculty advisors in related disci-
plines. An overall design of the prototype DEEP course (on which all others are
based) is shown in Fig. 6.1.
Reflections
Despite the recognition (across all education levels) that CCAs are important for
holistic education, the reality in Singapore is that competing demands for time/effort
from “formal” programme curricula work against deriving maximum learning from
CCAs. Students perceive CCAs as an investment with far fewer tangible benefits
when weighed against those from academic programmes. However, we considered
CCAs to be too valuable a setting to remain as mere “experiences” especially in
tertiary institutions, and chose to see how we could take advantage of it to address a
common issue encountered in classroom learning—the perceived supremacy of the
teachers working against students’ sense of initiative. This perception has its root in
the Confucian heritage underlying most Asian-Chinese culture which places a strong
emphasis on the instructional status of teachers (Ee & Tan, 2008; Fang & Gopinathan,
2009). The attitude will permeate as long as the setting is “in the classroom” but a
CCA-setting naturally removes this. What we need then is a structure overlaid on
CCAs that could propel experiential learning effectively while preventing students
from taking learning through CCA overly lightly.
When we first introduced the two-tiered approach in CresPion’s RE activities, we
observed that because of the students’ expected tendency to prioritize their formal
Fig. 6.1 The structural design of NTU DEEP-GER courses for inspiring learning in students
academic workload over CCAs, attendance of workshops (one-off attendance of a few

hours) were high but the take-up/completion rate of project work (commitment over
one and a half semesters) was low. To address this issue, we adopted the pragmatic
approach of offering project work in the form of a credit-bearing experiential learning
GER course. However, offering academic credit necessitates introducing assessments
which may reduce the “informality” of learning from CCA. Indeed, we agonized
greatly over this and worked hard to avoid introducing assessment components that
are “…external to the activity”—as qualified by Rogoff et al. (2016) in the definition
of informal learning—that students are expected to go through in such project work.
For example, creative projects will naturally carry an ideation phase, and so that
becomes an assessment component. We took the trouble to communicate the rationale
of the assessment structure so that the students understood them as such and kept their
documentation authentic. The strategy of reduced faculty touchpoint also helped in
retaining the informality. Students’ post-project comments such as “We had so much
fun ….” and “It was an amazing and wild journey…”, underscore our success at
maintaining their “out of classroom” mentality.
We were encouraged to see that this student perception that they are “out of class-
room” significantly minimized the students’ reliance on teachers for instructions—
students did not constantly seek “advice” from the faculty on what they should do and
made decisions on their own more readily. Even during the few touchpoints, interac-
tion was discussion-rich (exchange of opinions), and not advise-seeking. We noticed
72 C. C. Sze
that many students were willing to sign up for the course despite not having much
prior knowledge. This meant that not only were the domain concepts foreign to them,
they also lacked practical experience. At the start of the project, very few students
were “comfortable” with the open-ended nature of experimentation, where they had
to create their own protocols or solve problems unique to their project. As the projects
progressed, however, the comfort level clearly increased. In one instance, Business
students in a “transformed ice-cream project” sought to test if certain additives had
pronounced effects in slowing melting. They devised a “melt test” to evaluate how far
the melted ice-cream spreads over a fixed time period (Fig. 6.2). Due to the minimal
intervention by the faculty, team members are exposed to each other’s differences
in approach to the problem as they work through the project. This brings a consid-
erable level of cross-disciplinarity to their development that we seldom see in the
“classroom confine”.
Even though faculty involvement was kept to the minimum, we noted that the one
key intervention of one-on-one coaching had a dramatic effect on the progress of
the project post-coaching. Preliminary factor-based text analysis of student progress
journals revealed that there are strong dispersal effects associated with pre- and post-
coaching phases (unpublished). Anecdotally, we noticed students becoming more
motivated, more reflective, more organized, and more willing to learn independently
following the intervention.
As we now work on introducing the DEEP model to other disciplines and CCAs,
providing the necessary guidance to the faculty advisors who recently come on board
is important. Currently, a few faculty advisors from the disciplines of Humanities,
Engineering and Education have been engaged, offering projects involving graphic
novel production, gadget inventions and student leadership (people development)
respectively, mostly within the residential hall context. When we communicated
the pedagogical principles of this model to them, it soon became apparent that a
Fig. 6.2 A melt test created by students to evaluate rate of ice-cream melting following addition
of additives to impede melting
few of them needed to be coached into the practice of being “hands-off” and at the
same time identifying the “key advice” (that is, interventions) to provide to students
during one-on-one coaching. These are therefore potential bottlenecks to the scale up
process. However, the positive feedback of students taking up these DEEP-GER, and
their demonstration of clearly observable desired outcomes of self-driven inquiry and
cross-disciplinary application, suggest to us that the Return on Investment is high
from the pedagogical perspective. To benefit more students, the challenges of the
lack of manpower who are capable of doing effective one-on-one coaching and the
need for constant surveillance of students’ deep learning based on their progress
journals are currently being explored with a notable solution based on development
of AI-based learning analytics and pre-coaching platforms.
Conclusion
In Asian societies such as that of Singapore, bringing about creative and innovative
thinking, while fostering inquiring minds with a taste for interdisciplinary learning is
a complex and challenging problem. A first step towards tackling this is to target the
“in classroom” mentality. Taking advantage of the informality of CCAs, which are
driven by students’ personal interests, has great potential of improving such learning
outcomes if an effective scaffold such as that of DEEP can be applied.
We advocate that unboxing students from the confines of relying on teachers is
best achieved when the activities are initiated from what students are personally
interested in and associated with their lives “outside the classroom”.
Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge the EdeX and ACE Grants from Nanyang
Technological University, Singapore for support of this work.
References
Ee, J., & Tan, O. (2008). Cultural influences of the East & West: Implications on the educational
reforms in the Singapore context. KEDI Journal of Educational Policy, 5(1), 49–62.
Fang, Y., & Gopinathan, S. (2009). Teachers and teaching in Eastern and Western schools: A critical
review of cross-cultural comparative studies. In L. J. Saha & A. G. Dworkin (Eds.), International
handbook of research on teachers and teaching (pp. 557–572). Springer. Review of Cross-Cultural
Comparative Studies. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-73317-3_36
Kolb, D. A., & Fry, R. E. (1974). Toward an applied theory of experiential learning. M.I.T. Alfred
P. Sloan School of Management.
Ministry of Education. (2020, 25 June). Desired outcomes of education. https://beta.moe.gov.sg/
education-in-SG/desired-outcomes/
Pang, N., Sze, C. C., Tan, O. K., Lwin, M., & Kwok, K. W. (2016, August 30–31). Making connec-
tions: Fieldwork and visual arts at the studio @ CresPion halls of residence at Nanyang Tech-
nological University (Conference session). International Conference on Residential Education:
Beyond the Formal Curriculum in Universities 2016, Hong Kong, China.
74 C. C. Sze
Rogoff, B., Callanan, M., Gutiérrez, K. D., & Erickson, F. (2016). The organization of informal
learning. Review of Research in Education, 40(1), 356–401. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732x1
6680994
Schenck, J., & Cruickshank, J. (2015). Evolving Kolb: Experiential education in the age of
neuroscience. Journal of Experiential Education, 38(1), 73–95.
Sze, C.C. (2017, August). Stimulating innovative thinking through campus life. Association of
Commonwealth Universities Bulletin No. 191, 4–5. https://www.acu.ac.uk/publications/
Part IV
Students’ Voices
Chapter 7
Attaining Graduate Attributes Through
Hall Life Education: Perspectives
of Local and Non-local Residents
Kevin Kin Man Yue
Abstract Whole-person education at Hong Kong Baptist University (HKBU) is

manifested in the seven graduate attributes (GA) our graduates will have attained
after their studies at HKBU. The seven GA are: citizenship, knowledge, learning,
skills, creativity, communication, and teamwork. Hall life education is an integral part
of whole-person education. The undergraduate halls serve as a living and learning
platform for residents to equip themselves with the GA, which are essential to their
current studies and future careers. This paper illustrates the fostering of the GA
through hall life experience from the first-person narration of two hall residents who
are local and non-local students, respectively. Their hall lives may be quite different,
yet their both experiences stimulated their personal growth and development. We
believe that acknowledging differences and being determined to seek common goals
could facilitate the better integration of residents.
Introduction
Hong Kong Baptist University (HKBU) aims to foster students’ whole-person devel-
opment and aid them in becoming global citizens. The seven graduate attributes (GA)
of HKBU students are: citizenship, knowledge, learning, skills, creativity, commu-
nication, and teamwork. Apart from students’ formal academic curricula, hall life
education is another platform that promotes the development of GA.
The undergraduate halls (hereafter, halls) at HKBU accommodate 1770 local
and non-local residents under two interconnected towers. In line with the education
goals of HKBU, the halls provide a living and learning platform through hall life
education programmes that strengthen students’ development across social, personal,
and academic aspects. The benefits of residential life are cited in many studies. In
particular, the residence halls form a platform that brings about the closer integration
of the student’s living environment with his or her academic or learning environment
K. K. M. Yue (B)
Office of Student Affairs and School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University,
Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong SAR, China
e-mail: kkmyue@hkbu.edu.hk
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8906-2_7
78 K. K. M. Yue
(Pascarella et al., 1994). They also provide opportunities to incorporate and influence
students both academically and socially (Marchese, 1994; Mayhew et al., 2016).
Two of the authors of this paper are student residents with three years of hall life
experiences. From their own narratives, we can understand the meaning of learning
through hall life. Miss Tam, a final-year local student, and Miss Sun, a third-year
non-local student, were both active in hall life during their studies at HKBU. Both
of them have taken up leadership roles in the halls.
Experiences Shared by Student Residents
Part a: The Meaning of Halls and Hall Life
Miss Sun:
‘HKBU provides hall places for non-local undergraduate students during their
first year of study. Thus, all non-local students share the same experience of starting
our four years of life in Hong Kong living in the halls.
Our own circle of communication and culture begin in the halls. Take my own
experience as an example: The hall was the first building I entered at HKBU. Bonding
with my hallmates began when I saw a welcoming postcard on my door from my non-
local mentor and received the first greetings from my roommate. Although language
was a hurdle to overcome, both local and non-local students took the initiative to
learn to get along. We often discuss our cultural differences with respect and, when
we know more about other cultures, we start to understand each other and begin to
unite.
I am attached to the halls and considered it as my home away from home. On my
first visit to mainland China, I thought I would feel at home. Instead, I felt homesick.
I could calm down only when I saw the streetscape flashing backward on the MTR
on my way back to Hong Kong. By the time I saw the hall building, I said to myself,
‘I am home at last’.
The halls are a place to exchange ideas and to support my exploration of the
community within and outside hall, and around the world. I totally agree with the
saying that children explore more when they feel safe at home. Feeling safe and secure
at the halls, I participated in many hall life education programmes and gained a lot
from them. For example, I toured Hong Kong with elderly buddies in the elderly care
programme. The experience expanded my comfort zone and led me to explore Hong
Kong. From the large variety of hall activities, ranging from arts, sports, and social
sciences, I gained new experiences and returned to the halls to share my experiences
with others.
To conclude, the meaning of the halls transformed across time; it changed from
being a shared form of accommodation to an energy that supports residents’ further
exploration.’
7 Attaining Graduate Attributes Through Hall Life Education: Perspectives … 79
Miss Tam:
‘The meaning of the halls is very personal. I am not staying in the halls this year,
but I would summarise my three-year experience with a quotation: ‘carpe diem’. I
can still remember how ignorant I was on the first day. Luckily, I met a caring Hall
Tutor, who patiently guided me to expand my comfort zone and adapt to changes.
From then on, I gained many precious memories. I remember we once stayed up all
night to practice for our performance in a singing contest. One may argue that it was
a waste of time because it had no actual benefit to our academic profile or livelihood.
But these memories of joint effort spent on achieving a common goal are precious
and non-replicable.
I believe team spirit is the essence of hall life and one’s relationships with hallmates
is the key to a fulfilling hall life. Looking back, I wish I could have spent more effort
on creating memories with my floormates, because memories belong to yourself and
you can own them forever. It is always touching to listen to former residents sharing
their feelings about hall life because, no matter how different the experiences are, the
emotions are always positive and students always say that they would love to stay in
the halls again. Isn’t it amazing that such a simple building can uphold the memories
of generations of students?
All in all, the hall could just be a place for people to live together, but the way each
of the residents give and take helps to shape hall life and build a hall community. I
strongly recommend that one should make the most out of hall life while one can.
Carpe diem.’
Part B: The Contribution of Hall Life to Personal Growth

and Future Planning
Miss Sun:
‘Living in halls has changed me a lot and contributed positively to my personal
growth. I grew from being an ordinary resident to taking up leadership roles and
being a non-local mentor in my third year of residency. Through the people I have
met, the environment I live in and the change in my duties and roles, I have strength-
ened my attributes in regard to citizenship, knowledge, learning, skills, creativity,
communication, and teamwork.
First, the activities organised by the halls have expanded my horizons. The experi-
ence reminded me to be open-minded to new thoughts and knowledge. For example,
the elderly care programme taught me to immerse myself in the local community
and the short experiential trips during semester breaks exposed me to other cultures
around the world. These are very important experiences because, being a student
studying film, every story I hear could be a valuable resource for script writing; for
instance, I learned about how the elderly buddies viewed the protests concerning the
anti-extradition bill, and how local affairs related to global culture and history. These
80 K. K. M. Yue
are the things we can only learn through conversation instead of books, and these are
the experiences that could be brought into learning outside the classroom offered by
the halls.
Second, my communication skills have hugely improved through the communal
living experience in the halls. We have four or five people sharing one bathroom in
a two-bedroom unit, which is quite different from other living experiences prior to
university. In addition, for many of us, it is our first time living on our own. Thus,
we need to learn how to plan our own schedules, and, at the same time, coordinate
with the lifestyles of other hallmates. For example, some local students often make
noise when they stay up late. Other students use different ways to cope with the
situation: Some choose to endure it and use earplugs, some choose to send reminders
in WhatsApp groups to keep the noise down at night, and some bring up the issue
for discussion. It is always true that only those who are willing to communicate and
believe in team effort can settle issues and overcome cultural clashes. Many issues
in the halls require close communication between floormates, from coordinating
the schedule for tidying and using the bathroom and kitchen, to maintaining the
public areas to ensure they are comfortable for all residents. This kind of discussion
improves the communication skills of all residents involved.
Third, my leadership skills have improved a lot since I became a non-local mentor.
We have a lot of international students on our floor. As a mentor, I was obliged to
talk to residents from different cultures and introduce our hall in different languages.
At the beginning, I was scared because of the uncertainties involved. People from
different cultures, for instance, would name facilities differently and it was hard
to translate and react to different responses properly. However, by repeating the
instructions various times, not only did my listening and speaking skills improve,
but I also mastered the skills necessary to communicate with and motivate different
residents. Gradually, I found it enjoyable to see freshmen’s reactions when they
arrived at their new rooms and felt welcomed in their new life in the halls. I also
started to make new friends from France, America, Korea, and Gambia.
Fourth, after exchanging ideas with residents from other cultures, I cared more
about local and global issues, which improved my sense of citizenship and broadened
my international mindset. On my floor, we often talk about the different cultures
in our hometowns and how social and educational experiences shape our views
and development. Having discussions in a relaxed and informal environment can
facilitate effective and respectful conversation. Take our discussion regarding the
protests concerning the anti-extradition bill as an example; we learned that many
countries had had similar experiences throughout history. This allowed me to not
limit my understanding to appreciating current events, but also extend it to events
that happened in the past. It calmed me down and enabled me to think with a clearer
mind, all thanks to my hallmates from other countries.
Finally, hall activities build up teamwork and stimulate the creativity of residents.
A hall decoration competition encourages residents to decorate their floor with a
theme. On my floor, we chose HKBU International Airport as our theme because we
were from different parts of the world. Each of us contributed creative ideas and, as
a team, we worked together to make our ideas a reality. It was exciting to see that we
could decorate our floor with our own collective idea.’
Miss Tam:
‘My experience in the hall was not always positive because I encountered many
obstacles while trying to get along with others. But, with help from my hallmates, I
overcame those obstacles and taught myself to live out the seven graduate attributes,
especially communication and learning. I am grateful that I was equipped with
these qualities from my hall life, which contributed to my personal growth and
development.
One of the experiences I had in the halls began with a big argument with my room-
mate and I felt stressed. My Hall Tutor suggested that I talk to my roommate openly
about my feelings and expectations to reduce the chances of misunderstanding.
It proved that being open-minded and willing to communicate were important in
reaching agreements. The traits I developed helped me fix broken relationships.
After this incident, I understood myself more in terms of my own preferences and
ways to express myself and, in my later years of residency, through countless inter-
actions and discussions with different people, I learned appropriate ways of building
and maintaining relationships. They include being polite and humble while raising
concerns, making compromises about personal habits, and setting reasonable expec-
tations. All these elements helped me reduce potential conflicts with my roommates
and improve my readiness in handling disagreements and getting along well with
my co-workers during my internship.
Yet, being able to speak up was not enough. Once, I was deeply disturbed by
someone breaking hall rules. I believed that someone should be reprimanded. I tried
very hard not to judge the wrong-doing of others but I could not handle the negative
feelings of grievance and disappointment. It proved that critically judging others
was not helpful in problem solving, as too much energy was wasted on emotional
fluctuations and negative thoughts. Fortunately, one of the merits of living in a big
community was that I could observe and learn from others. This critical lesson
reminded me of the importance of self-reflection and the possible ways of solving
problems, which are also important reminders in regard to my further development.
To conclude, my experiences of hall life contributed positively to my development.
I used to have low levels of resilience and was easily affected by negative experiences.
However, through the continuous learning processes involved in living in the halls, I
learned to handle my emotions and solve problems in creative ways. Hall residents
also form connections with Hall Tutors, alumni networks, committee members, and
staff and professors, who are always helpful and encouraging. I have made use of
the resources and experiences available to equip myself to solve future problems.’
82 K. K. M. Yue
Applications
The experiences and feelings shared by the two students are personal, but they lend
gravity to what hall life means to many students. To the two students authoring
this chapter, hall life carries different meanings. As a non-local student, Miss Sun
considered the halls as her home away from home, which supported her further
exploration and development. Miss Tam, as a local student, treasured the bonding
and team spirit built up with her floormates, which could not have been replicated
elsewhere.
Summarising their three years of hall experiences, hall life helped shape both
students positively in regard to their personal growth and future development. For
Miss Sun, her participation in different hall life programmes and her role as a non-
local mentor broadened her horizons, and strengthened her communication and lead-
ership skills. Similarly, Miss Tam improved her communication, problem-solving,
and other crucial soft skills through her close interactions with different residents.
All these hall life experiences contributed to the attainment of graduate attributes for
the two students.
In addition, both students agreed that the halls is a place to seek harmony among
differences and where the integration of people with different backgrounds, values,
or lifestyles happens. Based on their experiences, the two student authors shared
their views on how integration could be promoted in the halls.
Miss Sun:
‘As each individual student has his or her own personality and living habits, only
by sharing some common goals could we make integration among residents better.
First of all, it is very important that students agree that the halls are a place to rest
so that we do not deprive such needs from any students. Yet, simply taking the halls
as a place to sleep could not integrate students, as there is no communication and
learning involved.
When residents have some shared goals, communication and teamwork begins
and can develop the halls into an environment that embraces differences in harmony.
For non-local students, curiosity about their new life without parents and old friends,
and the belief that the halls are a place of freedom to discuss and explore together
make hall life attractive. Exploring new life in our halls becomes our common goal,
which enables the interaction and integration of residents come naturally.
Another common goal is avoiding and coping with negativity, such as pressure
from studying and examinations. I remembered that I was working on my movie
script one night and I found that my classmate was working on the same piece of
work. She appeared to be as stressed as I was, so we decided to discuss and share our
ideas. We even told each other about our dreams. This discussion made both of us
less stressed and we completed our work much more easily than we would have done
alone. By supporting each other, we bonded. This bond was even stronger compared
to that formed when we were having fun. Working together to overcome obstacles
and growing up together forged stronger bonds and kinship.
In fact, residents share many common goals in our halls, which focus mostly on
the living part of hall life experience. We could promote the halls as an academic
learning space where hallmates can learn and study together. Currently, we have
study rooms in the halls, but we could make improvements. For example, it would be
fun if there were areas in the halls where students could write study tips for different
disciplines during examination periods. This could integrate students from different
majors and cultural backgrounds. After all, everyone needs to take exams.’
Miss Tam:
‘Local and non-local residents, with their cultural differences, seem to be rival
stakeholders of the halls, but the truth is different if we understand one another more
deeply. To achieve integration and promote mutual respect in the halls, acknowl-
edging differences in our lifestyles is a difficult but essential first step. Then, through
a lengthy process of resolving endless conflicts about values, and negotiations of
boundaries among residents, agreement and integration can be achieved. This is a
learning process for all residents.
Creativity may be the key to pushing forward integration for a better tomorrow.
Being imaginative and persistent in seeking ways to build up a harmonic co-living
environment through trial and error is essential. Apart from giving space and time
for residents to try to build up their own harmony, the hall office could also provide
some assistance in searching for common goals and proposing reforms. One way
to collect information could be through in-depth interviews or questionnaires with
the residents. The proposals and ideas received could then be further discussed with
resident representatives to collect further feedback. It is crucial that any idea adopted
should be relevant to the current residents.’
Conclusion
This article has provided some personal experiences and observations from two
undergraduate students who resided in the halls for three years. Their experiences
align with existing literature reviews, which suggest that residence halls are more than
living spaces. They are also places that benefit the learning experience of students.
This paper is not intended to be an analytical study, nor does it represent the expe-
riences and views of all students. Yet, it gave us some insights into the students’
perspectives of the meaning of hall life and its impacts on students in terms of
personal growth and future development. Further studies could be conducted to
explore the meanings and impacts of hall life education from the perspectives of
different stakeholders. In addition, to further strengthen the design and implementa-
tion of hall life education, studies on the alignment of students’ learning experiences
and the intended learning outcomes could also be conducted.
Furthermore, this chapter has included some suggestions from the two student
authors on promoting integration and seeking harmony among differences. Further
84 K. K. M. Yue
studies could focus on how to encourage continuous communication and search for
common goals in the halls in creative ways that would be suitable to students today.
References
Mayhew, M. J., Rockenbach, A. N., Bowman, N. A., Seifert, T. A., & Wolniak, G. C. (2016). How
college affects students: 21st century evidence that higher education works. Wiley.
Marchese, T. J. (1994). Foreword. In C. C. Schroeder & P. Mable (Eds.), Realizing the educational
potential of residence halls (1st ed., pp. i–xiii). Jossey-Bass.
Pascarella, E. T., & Terenzini, P. T. (1991). How college affects students: Findings and insights from
twenty years of research. Jossey-Bass.
Pascarella, E. T., Terenzini, P. T., & Blimling, G. S. (1994). The impact of residence life on students.
In C. C. Schroeder & P. Mable (Eds.), Realizing the educational potential of residence halls (1st
ed.). Jossey-Bass.
Chapter 8
ASK: An Undergraduate’s Growth
Through International Residential
Education Experience
Rosetta Wai-Chung Law and Christina Wai-Mui Yu
Abstract This chapter, from a student’s perspective, reports on a descriptive and

exploratory analysis of a Hong Kong (HK) undergraduate’s transformative growth
through her 4-year residential experience in the United Kingdom, Canada and HK
respectively, using the “Attitude-Skills-Knowledge (ASK)” educational model which
proposes that a person’s ability is the synergy among the three domains. The chapter
will first highlight the undergraduate’s use of the ASK model in decomposing her
experience into three learning categories. Then, it will include her personal reflection
on how her learning synergistically equips her with transferable learning outcomes.
In conclusion, plans for how stakeholders at different levels can help promote the
ASK model to facilitate student residents’ growth will be presented.
Keywords Undergraduate Residential Experience · International Residential

Education Learning · Attidute-Skills-Knowledge (ASK) Model · Experiential
Learning
Introduction
Residential education (RE) provides a very specific learning context to undergrad-

uate students, and can have significant impacts on their learning experience and
growth, especially for those who have had international residential experience. As
Kolb (1984) states, ‘learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through
the transformation of experience’ (p. 38). This definition includes a process of adap-
tation and learning, an understanding that knowledge is continuously created, and
that learning then transforms experience (Kolb, 1984).
Present Address:
R. W.-C. Law
Graduate, The Education University of Hong Kong, Tai Po, Hong Kong
e-mail: resettalaw0203@gmail.com
C. W.-M. Yu (B)
Department of Social Sciences, The Education University of Hong Kong, Tai Po, Hong Kong
e-mail: cyu@eduhk.hk
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8906-2_8
86 R. W.-C Law and C. W.-M. Yu
Mezirow (1996) further emphasised that ‘learning is understood as the process

of using a prior interpretation to construct a new or revised interpretation of the
meaning of one’s experience in order to guide future action’ (Mezirow, 1996, p. 162).
Mezirow (1997, p. 7) described four processes of learning: (1) elaborating on an
existing point of view; (2) establishing new points of view; (3) transforming a point
of view; and (4) transforming thinking habits by critically reflecting on generalised
biases regarding others. In fact, it is the process of creating change through which we
understand experiences and move toward a frame of reference that is more inclusive,
discriminating, self-reflective, and integrative of different experiences (Mezirow,
p. 5).
Therefore, knowledge is created through initial experiences, followed by reflec-
tions, thoughtful development, and eventually alterations of experiences. Hence,
embedding ‘reflection’ within experiential learning in residential education is rather
important. In fact, what learning has taken place through international RE and how
does it impact one’s growth? With the use of the attitude, skills, and knowledge
(ASK) learning model in a reflection of experiential learning, this chapter uses an
undergraduate case to illustrate how international RE learning can be achieved. The
chapter first introduces the ASK model and the use of it in deconstructing the under-
graduate’s international RE experience. Then, it shows the undergraduate’s personal
reflection on how her learning synergistically equipped her with transferable learning
outcomes. In conclusion, plans for how stakeholders at different levels can help
promote the ASK model to facilitate student residents’ growth in international RE
are presented.
The Use of the Attitude, Skills, and Knowledge (ASK)

Learning Model in RE
In architectural education, Bakarman (2005) found that the design of education has
three main components (attitude, skills, and knowledge), which are expressed in
the model’s acronym, ‘ASK’. Each component of the ASK model is devoted to the
specific purpose of enabling students to acquire and obtain different characters as
means to becoming professional designers (Yang et al., 2005). Hence, ASK, as an
educational model, aims to identify the professional attitude, skills, and knowledge
at hand by deconstructing the relevant discipline into manageable elements that
reflect the main ingredients needed to form a new perspective of the professional
through reflection (Bakarman, 2005). In the context of RE, the ASK model does
not only serve as a tool with which to deconstruct one’s residential experience into
manageable chunks, it also constitutes key aspects of RE and categorises them into
the three domains: attitude, skills, and knowledge.
Learning does not seem to be considered a term that is worth defining in the field
of education. However, Kpolovie (2012) sees its multi-dimensionality and unfolds
it as follows:
8 ASK: An Undergraduate’s Growth Through International … 87
Learning is […] the complex synergy of cognitive, affective, psychomotor and envi-
ronmental experiences and other influences for the acquisition, maintenance, orga-
nization, reorganization and enhancement of changes in an individual’s behaviour,
knowledge, skills, values, personality and world views for better resolution of
problems. (p. 186).
Bloom and Krathwohl (1956) further identified that the notion of learning
can be summarised as consisting of three domains: attitudes (affective), skills
(psychomotor), and knowledge (cognitive). Though the three domains share equal
importance when evaluating one’s learning, Kuusinen and Leskinen (1988) suggested
that individuals who are without the appropriate attitudes tend to lack the readiness
for the acquisition of new knowledge and skills, which is crucial to one’s adaptability
to changing circumstances. The affective domain takes into account how individuals
deal with things emotionally, such as in terms of their feelings and attitudes (Krath-
wohl et al., 1964). Attitudes significantly affect the way individuals think and their
responses to specific experiences (Fazio & Roskes, 1994).
With such significant influence on one’s behaviours, attitudes are not static.
A famous social psychologist, Festinger (1957), recognised their dynamic nature
and proposed cognitive dissonance theory, which states that we have a tendency
to harmonise our attitudes, understanding of a particular topic (or beliefs), and
behaviours. In other words, our inner drive follows the principle of cognitive consis-
tency. The theory also suggests that we tend to avoid dissonance. When there is
disharmony between attitudes and behaviours, attempts will be made to reduce disso-
nance, to minimise self-reported negative affect (Harmon-Jones & Harmon-Jones,
2008). Therefore, the consequences of cognitive dissonance involve attitudinal (or
behavioural) alteration.
Daily life experiences do not only shift our attitudes, but also equip us with new
skills and/or leverage existing skills. Skills are generally classified into technical
abilities (or hard skills), which are related to skills that are learned through training,
such as proficiency in a language, and non-technical abilities (or soft skills), which
may be influenced by personality traits, such as communication skills (Hsin & Xie,
2012). In recent years, an increasing amount of literature shows that soft skills have
equal importance as hard skills when predicting success in life, including academic
achievement (Duncan & Magnuson, 2011) and career development (Hall & Farkas,
2011). Having considered that hard skills are similar to the knowledge component
in the ASK model, this paper refers to ‘skills’ as soft skills. Soft skills are viewed as
‘generic skills which include cognitive elements related to non-academic abilities,
such as positive values, leadership, teamwork, communication and lifelong learning’
(MOHE, 2006, p. 5).
The K in the ASK model stands for knowledge, which is defined as ‘justified true
belief’ (Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995, p. 87). According to Neta and Pritchard’s (2009)
‘justification true belief (JTB)’ theory of knowledge, three requirements of knowl-
edge must be met to claim that a person knows something. They offer an explanation
of the three requirements. The justification requirement demands the claim to be
supported by logic and there should be no contradictory evidence. The truth require-
ment expects the propositional claim to be true, and this differentiates opinions from
knowledge. The belief requirement demands the person to know the knowledge claim
and he or she believes it. Ayer (2009, p. 13) reorganises the order of the requirements:
‘The necessary and sufficient conditions for knowing that something is the case are
first that what one is said to know be true, secondly that one be sure of it, and thirdly
that one should have the right to be sure’. After building a conceptual understanding
of what knowledge is, Waheed and Kaur (2016) point out that quality knowledge
should be adaptable, applicable, expandable, true, innovative, and justified.
The three components of ASK are not isolated, but fulfil complementary needs that
are the prerequisite of developing the core competencies of a person. The following
shows the inextricably intertwined relationships of the three dimensions, as illustrated
by Kwan (2019) for school managers and simplified by the undergraduate in the study
(Fig. 8.1).
As with all models in the academic world, the ASK model is not without limita-
tions. First, attributes identified by individuals who do not have an extensive under-
standing of the ASK model may be generic and casually applied in learning, instead
of being context-specific and carefully used in certain specific learning areas. Second,
Fig. 8.1 The simplified intertwined relationships among attitude, skills, and knowledge (Kwan,
2019)
people may either have a tendency to view the model as three separate domains or
combine the three categories as a full representation of the model. However, to utilise
the model, integrating all three ingredients is key, as they fulfil separate but comple-
mentary needs. In short, the framework of the model should be highly transferable
to many contexts under the condition that an effective application of it depends on
the accurate identification of the attributes under each of the three categories.
Research on the application of the ASK model has been mostly restricted to limited
contexts, such as: (1) vocational education and training, where learners’ competen-
cies, including their ability to handle difficult situations and self-directedness, will
be improved (Nagendra et al., 2013); (2) design education, where teachers in the
field will direct their efforts to the three well-defined domains to nurture profes-
sional designers (Bakarman, 2005); (3) family-centred empowerment, where care-
givers will be able to offer more efficient care to patients (Masoudi et al., 2010);
and (4) geropsychology training, where practices related to the three components
are suggested to professionalise practitioners (Karel et al., 2010). No research has
been found that investigates the ASK model in the context of RE. To fill this research
gap, this chapter looks at how the three components (attitude, skills, and knowledge)
of the ASK model can be used to dissect an undergraduate’s residential experience.
The chapter includes a reflection on how her learning equipped her with transferable
learning outcomes.
An Undergraduate Case of Four Years of Residential

Experience in the United Kingdom, Canada, and Hong Kong
In the following sections, an in-depth case study of an undergraduate’s residential

experience is presented, to explore her personal growth over her four years of residen-
tial life in different places, including in a college dormitory in the United Kingdom,
a home-stay family in Canada, and a university hall in Hong Kong, based on the
ASK learning model. To streamline the extensive learning experiences, an in-depth
analysis and discussion are conducted in regard to the undergraduate’s growth in the
specific competencies acquired across the three learning components of ASK in RE
experiences. These specific competencies are open-minded attitude, communication
skills, and language-related knowledge.
Attitude
Attitude toward Cooperation and Perseverance. The undergraduate’s transfor-

mative learning in regard to ASK in the three places is addressed by starting a resi-
dential experience journal in the United Kingdom, which enabled her to experience
attitudinal alteration and develop increasing open-mindedness.
In Oxford in the UK, she travelled alone to attend a summer course in Somerville
College and was assigned to live in one of the halls. She co-organised hall activities
with a group of foreign hallmates who were from many different countries, such as
Sweden, Switzerland, the Philippines, Indonesia, and China. She took the initiative to
invite them to form a social group, where everyone took turns planning after-school
and/or weekend activities; they attended these social engagements together. In the
course of planning, she had to handle both her schoolwork and the arrangement of
the activities, which was challenging and sometimes frustrating. Later, the smooth
running of the activities allowed the students to promote their plans and invite other
hallmates to participate.
She developed an attitude of cooperation during her stay. During the peak period
for assignment deadlines, she planned trips with a relatively lower level of cooperative
attitude and tended to minimise her contributions to it. Though with reluctance, she
was fully aware of the fact that she had to plan trips; otherwise, she would no longer
be a ‘member’ of the social group. As their friendships developed, the driving force of
taking turns to plan the group activities gradually shifted from the ‘binding force’ of a
promise among classmates to expectations from friends. The enjoyment and relaxed
nature of joining pre-planned day trips organised by her hallmates and feeling the
joy of her friends during their participation in activities planned by her reinforced her
determination to continue to be more cooperative and persevering in a group setting,
as the students’ collaborative efforts paid off.
Attitude toward Herself. She valued personal touches of communication as well.
In Canada, where she participated in a language immersion programme and lived with
a host family who were all native speakers of English, the undergraduate initially
lacked confidence in her English proficiency level, especially among English-as-
first-language speakers. Her host mother, who was an English teacher, evaluated her
English ability on the spot using the three assessors: the accuracy of the meanings
conveyed by the message sender, the effectiveness of the use of language, and the
appropriacy of the form chosen in grammar teaching. The host mother revealed why
she spent time discussing her English level with the undergraduate; she believed that
it was the host family’s responsibility to help student residents learn as much English
as possible. Moreover, the host mother thought that her English language education
degree gave her an advantage when doing so.
The host mother objectively evaluated the student’s strengths and weaknesses,
which gave the student a sense of recognition. Healthy recognition allowed her to
understand her abilities and limitations. The host mother is thereby similar to a ‘more
knowledgeable other’ to a person with a low level of confidence.
Attitude toward Differences. In Hong Kong, a personal story taught her a hard
lesson when there was a huge gap in the room temperature preferences between
the student’s roommate and herself. She gave up ‘cosy nights’, where there was no
air conditioning, but she took away an impactful lesson with her: She developed a
positive attitude toward differences.
The student was living in one of her university’s halls. One of her roommates
insisted on leaving the room’s door wide open and not turning on the air conditioning
in summer. At first, the undergraduate was downhearted, as she focused on her own
uneasiness and considered her roommate an unreasonable person. Later, she realised
that, if she insisted on turning on the air conditioning, her roommate would suffer and
think she was unreasonable. With this in mind, the undergraduate tried to negotiate
with her roommate to turn on the air conditioning and adjust it to a temperature that
did not cause too much uneasiness in either of the parties.
The undergraduate started to realise that she and her roommate were on the two
opposite ends of the continuum in terms of room temperature preference. Though
the negotiation was in vain, she no longer thought about who was right or wrong;
she instead started to think of improving her communication skills.
Skills
Oral Communication Skills. Since the undergraduate’s classmates were from

different countries, many of them had different first languages. English became
the only medium of communication. Everyone was using English as their second
language and, throughout their studies, they learned to get used to each other’s
accents. For instance, one of the observations was that a Filipino classmate seemed
to tend to stress the non-first syllables of words, as in ‘/se. rI.mђ.ni/’ instead of
‘/ ser.I.mђ.ni/’ (‘ceremony’) and ‘/ђ.dA /’ instead of ‘/eI.dђ/’ (‘Ada’). This was not an

indicator of her English proficiency level or intellectual level; she was knowledgeable
and talked about Hong Kong politics with the undergraduate.
The undergraduate also paid attention to her own pronunciation. Take ‘/dZOIn/’
(‘join’) as an illustration; when in a hurry, she involuntarily reduced the diphthong
‘i.e./OI/’ into a short vowel ‘/A/’, which caused confusion for her peers from foreign
countries. It was considered a precious learning opportunity as the undergraduate
always believed that a person who is truly good at English is able to express himself
or herself clearly and communicate with people with different accents without too
much difficulty.
‘Do not judge a book by its cover’ may be a cliché, but this is probably best
learned when two people spend enough time together to gain a deep understanding
of each other. Residential education provides student residents with this opportunity.
With an awareness of phonological variations in mind, the undergraduate understood
that one’s accent does not represent their ability level. This reminded her of some
mainland China student residents who may speak English with an accent, but who
are outstanding in other areas. In fact, everyone has a specific accent when speaking
a language.
Language Use in Oral Communication Skills. Having been reminded to be
polite and respectful to her host family, the undergraduate always started sentences
with, for example, ‘I am sorry to interrupt. May I ask…’ and ‘I am sorry to trouble
you. Would you please…’, which were completely fine when communicating with
her host parents in Canada. One day when they were out, however, she wanted ask
the children of the host parents a question. She realised that they did not seem to
understand what she had said. The communication breakdown may have been due to
her prolix style and indirect manner, which increased the children’s processing load
when listening to her.
This reminded her of hall life. When residents encounter difficulties and need
assistance, they can only seek help from their hallmates. Areas such as how to
operate the washing machines and how to settle the air-conditioning fees can cause
confusion to new exchange residents. What may complicate the situation is that
exchange student residents are usually non-Cantonese speakers. In other words, they
need to talk to their local roommates in either English or Mandarin, which is a
common second language in Hong Kong. Having said that, the language barriers to
communication still exist to some extent.
As she experienced a communication breakdown herself, the undergraduate
learned to adjust her language use according to the intended message receiver, in
order to achieve her communicative purposes. Applying these communication skills
in context is believed to be able to facilitate a caring hall life for residents.
Effective Communication Skills. After attending a course related to communica-
tion ethics in her second year of studying, the undergraduate learned a ‘hard lesson’
that took place in her Hong Kong residence, which can be analysed in a system-
atic way. When there is a quarrel, there is no absolute right or wrong. It is believed
that there is instead miscommunication between the two parties. None of the parties
deserves special privileges to the extent that the freedom and rights of others are put
aside. For instance, requests to turn on the air conditioning were sometimes made in
an indirect way, which posed the possibility that the receiver of the message did not
understand the requests. The undergraduate’s replies to the roommate’s justification
for not turning on the air-conditioning often devalued her own needs, which may
have sent the wrong message to the roommate. This explains why the undergraduate
could not achieve her communicative purpose. With this lesson learned, she commu-
nicated with her new roommates in the following years more directly and explicitly,
which brought her a harmonious hall life. More importantly, the skills she acquired
made her a more communicative person.
Knowledge
The undergraduate experienced recursive processes of knowledge transfer and acqui-

sition. In the UK, she learned about a more natural use of the English language
through transferring her linguistics knowledge acquired in Hong Kong. In her Cana-
dian homestay family, she experienced the process of knowledge transfer and the
extension of knowledge acquisition as she was exposed to colloquial English, such
as the word ‘loonies’, which refers to Canadian one-dollar coins. In Hong Kong, her
knowledge was further extended in the workplace, where she learned the concept of
‘expectations management’, which was transferred to the context of hall life, such
as in regard to roommate selection and the negotiation of common ground.
Knowledge of Everyday English. Before her trip to Oxford, the undergraduate

was aware of the fact that she had learned academic English at university and ‘text-
book’ English in her primary and secondary school life, such as ‘I’m fine, thank
you’ being the (only and standard) answer to ‘How are you?’ She noticed that there
was a knowledge gap between her everyday English and her academic English. She
talked with her foreign hallmates as much as she could. Through her interactions
with them, she found out that none of them used ‘How are you?’ in everyday conver-
sation; they preferred ‘How’s it going?’, ‘How ya doin’?’, and ‘How’s life?’ As a
result, in Hong Kong, she tried to communicate with Mandarin-speaking hallmates
more and learned to use Mandarin in authentic contexts and in a more natural way
than textbooks teach.
Knowledge of Colloquial English. Even though she learned some everyday
English in Oxford, the undergraduate still encountered difficulties understanding
colloquial English. For instance, the undergraduate took the TTC, which was the
only public transport provider in Toronto, with her host family, but she forgot to load
her presto card. She borrowed five Canadian dollars from the family, and they said
she could either give them a five-dollar banknote or five ‘loonies’, which refers to
one-dollar Canadian coins, as the bird printed on the coins is a ‘loon’. Colloquial
English is probably only learnable in authentic contexts.
In Hong Kong, the international tutors who live in the halls of the university
organise cultural activities, such as sharing colloquial words or phrases in their own
languages with student residents. This not only broadens residents’ horizons, but
also enhances their relationships with other participating residents and the tutors.
Applying Knowledge in Context. In Hong Kong, after completing a summer
internship before being promoted to her third year of study, the undergraduate
could view the issue of different lifestyles among roommates from a new perspec-
tive: Expectations management is another key to solving problems. According to
Brown et al. (1998), expectations management is similar to sincere disclosure; when
managing expectations, one will have a higher tendency to deliver upon expecta-
tions to reach the desired outcomes. In reality, if the two parties (the undergraduate
and her roommate) could have the chance to start over, they could tell each other in
advance about their expectations of their lifestyles in their shared space. With psycho-
logical preparedness, they could compromise on the shared common ground—the
expectations mentioned to each other before living together.
After her first year of hall life, the undergraduate learned to directly tell her
potential new roommates about her expectations the first time they met. She also
asked about their own expectations before deciding to live together for the rest of the
academic year. This kind of truthful dialogue allowed them to contribute to the desired
living environment collaboratively. The undergraduate has been living a harmonious
hall life with her roommates ever since, as she pays attention to communication ethics
and expectations management. Through different sensory experiences, individuals
can gain ownership of shared knowledge.
Transformative Learning as Personal Change
Open Attitude toward Otherness. The undergraduate learned to acknowledge the

importance of ‘otherness’ in her residential journey. For example, the collaborative
activities with foreign hallmates resulted in a fruitful hall life, the intervention of the
host mother who recognised her strengths and helped her identify her weaknesses
boosted her confidence, and the appearance of the roommate whose lifestyle was
different from that of the undergraduate’s all challenged her tolerance and resilience
levels. All of these other people fostered the undergraduate’s ability to move one step
closer to maturity, teaching her to develop open-mindedness in the process.
Interpersonal Skills. Throughout her four years of residential life, undergrad-
uate developed her communication skills, including her understanding of English
speakers with different accents, her ability to adjust her language use and informa-
tion load according to the receiver of the message, and her capabilities in terms of
incorporating appropriate directness when conveying messages. It is believed that
utilising these skills led to the facilitation of successful interpersonal relationships
for the undergraduate.
Extensive Knowledge. The gained knowledge mentioned in previous sections,
such as everyday and colloquial English, may seem trivial to others but, to an indi-
vidual learning English as a second language, this kind of knowledge cannot be
learned through schools or textbooks, which only teach students ‘standard’ and
‘formal’ language. It is also meaningful that the knowledge gained from the course
the undergraduate took at the University, which was about communication ethics,
and the internship she was involved in, which taught her expectations management,
have been applicable to real-life contexts. In other words, learning outcomes from
formal curricula and extracurricular activities contributed to the undergraduate’s
transcendence of her hall life experience.
In the years to come, it is believed that the attitudinal change, skills acquired, and
knowledge gained from her residential life throughout her years of undergraduate
study and from different countries will have a wider application to other aspects of
her life. More importantly, it is her pleasure to share her personal reflections on her
transformative learning in regard to ASK in the RE context. In the past, she was
truly embarrassed to let others know how much room was left for improvement and
was reluctant to recount not-so-happy experiences. However, now, she is amazed to
see her transformative growth and treasures every minute of learning. In the future,
she looks forward to seeing how her learning in regard to ASK can continue to help
her grow. She intends to be more open toward reflective dialogue and aims to strive
to work toward the following ideal representation of a student resident (Fig. 8.2),
adapted from Kwan (2019).
As mentioned in a previous section, the ASK model suggested by Kwan (2019)
offers a very generic overview of the intertwining relationships between the three
components. Hence, Fig. 8.2 is created to enrich the content of the model and increase
its applicability to the RE context. As a student resident, the undergraduate has consid-
ered the attributes of the expected learning outcomes of various experiences that one
Fig. 8.2 A visual representation of some expected qualities of a socially caring, professionally
trained, and intellectually rigorous student resident, Adapted from Kwan (2019)
may encounter during their stay. Halls are not merely a physical location for residents
to rest, but a place for them to grow. Hall life offers numerous learning opportunities
outside classrooms, ranging from mingling with hallmates with diverse backgrounds
and communicating with roommates to managing one’s personal life. To facilitate
their growth, residents are expected to gradually develop attitudes, acquire skills, and
obtain knowledge through hall life experiences. All these learning experiences can
be conceptualised as various sub-attitudes (e.g., entrepreneurial spirit, cultural diver-
sity appreciation, global perspectives, etc.), sub-skills (e.g., mental wellness skills,
interpersonal skills, life and career skills, etc.), and sub-knowledge (e.g., academic
pursuits, language, etc.). For example, residents may develop their global perspec-
tives, interpersonal skills, innovative thinking, and language competence when they
persuade their roommates in regard to how to divide the chores or overcome the
language barrier when communicating with a foreign roommate. In short, the figure
is context-specific.
Some also misunderstand the three components when viewed separately. In fact,
the three components also intertwine; combining them not only allows for a thorough
synergy of growth analysis, but also enables us to reflect on how different components
overlap and effect each other. For example, a university is a place where hall residents
can meet people from diverse backgrounds. ‘Cultural diversity appreciation’ can be
one of the attributes developed—it is arguable if one needs to have an open attitude
toward difficult cultures in order to learn more about them or if acquiring background
knowledge is sufficient to learn to be open-minded.
Suggestions for International Residents
Moreover, in order to help student residents prepare for ASK, different stakeholders
across institutions can facilitate residents’ attitudinal growth, skills, and knowledge
acquisition through various methods. Below are some possible ways of facilitating
the development of ASK for student residents at different levels, for easy reference
(Table 8.1).
To summarise, stakeholders across different roles within the university are facili-
tators helping student residents to achieve whole-person development by supporting
the suggested measures designed to foster residents’ growth in attitude, skills, and
knowledge.
Conclusion
This chapter deconstructs an undergraduate’s international residential experience

according to the three elements (attitude, skills, and knowledge) of the ASK
model, conceptualises the experiences that equipped her with transferable learning
outcomes, and proposes plans for promoting the ASK model to other student resi-
dents. It is sincerely hoped that readers in the field of RE education will be encouraged
to use the ASK framework to nurture residents.
Table 8.1 Suggested measures that can be taken by stakeholders at different levels (or of expanding
spheres of influence) to facilitate residents’ learning under the ASK framework
Attitude (e.g., Skills (e.g., Knowledge (e.g.,
open-minded) communication skills) language and culture)
Individuals Opt for living with Learn from successful Set goals for
Roles: be willing to exchange students, communicators (e.g., knowledge transfer
learn and proactive in join exchange TED talk speakers) and/or acquisition
participating in programmes, take the (e.g., teach roommates
different activities initiative to offer help Cantonese, learn the
to new arrivals, etc. basics of a foreign
language)
Hall tutorial teams Foster the mingling of Public speaking, Co-operate with
Roles: organise non-locals with locals: drama performances, members from the
activities and watch Cantonese resident-led talk student residents
workshops to help Operas, visit Hong shows, resident-led association (or floor
facilitate the Kong’s cha chaan teng theatrical committee) to
all-roundedness of cafés, etc. performances, etc. decorate the floor
residents Foster the mingling of Encourage corridors and boards
locals with non-locals: local-non-local with a thematic (e.g.,
make Mexican tacos, student groupings delicious food from
hold a French high tea during activities, different countries) or
party, etc. co-organise activities country-specific (e.g.,
with local and British month)
non-local students to approach, etc.
maximise
engagement, etc.
Hall management Recruit tutors with a Invite returning Offer budgets and
teams global perspective students or residents support to tutorial
Roles: offer support and/or from culturally living with non-local teams to help them get
and training to hall diverse backgrounds, roommates to share festive during holidays
tutors hold orientation camps their experiences, etc. (e.g., movie nights or
for tutors to build face-painting, etc.), to
teams with friendship immerse residents in
bonding activities, etc. various customs or
cultures
University Accept international Encourage pen pal Offer
Roles: formulate students and teaching schemes between non-credit-bearing
policies, provide staff to increase the locals and non-locals, foreign language
resources, and offer a cultural diversity level launch buddy courses, organise a
supportive of the campus, ask the schemes to pair up culture week during
living-learning school canteens to local and non-local which international
environment offer food for student to offer tutors/students
customers with support to each other, showcase and promote
different religious etc. their cultures at booths
dietary requirements, to all students and
etc. staff, etc.
References
Bakarman, A. A. (2005, June 18–20). Attitude, skills, and knowledge (ASK): A new model for
design education. In Proceedings of the Canadian Engineering Education Association (CEEA).
Kaninaskis, Alberta. https://doi.org/10.24908/pceea.v0i0.3894
Bloom, B. S., Engelhart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., & Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy
of educational objectives: The classification of educational objectives. Handbook I: Cognitive
domain. David McKay.
Duncan, G. J., & Magnuson, K. (2011). The nature and impact of early achievement skills, attention
skills, and behavior problems. In G. J. Duncan & R. J. Murnane (Eds.), Wither opportunity? Rising
inequality, schools, and children’s life chances (pp. 48–69). Russell Sage Foundation.
Fazio, R. H., & Roskes, D. (1994). Acting as we feel: When and how attitudes guide. In S. Shavitt &
T. C. Brock (Eds.), Persuasion: Psychological insights and perspectives (pp. 71–147). Allyn &
Bacon.
Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford University Press.
Hall, M., & Farkas, G. (2011). Adolescent cognitive skills, attitudinal/behavioral traits and career
wages. Social Forces, 89(4), 1261–1285.
Harmon-Jones, E., & Harmon-Jones, C. (2008). Cognitive dissonance theory: An update with a
focus on the action-based model. In J. Y. Shah & W. L. Gardner (Eds.), Handbook of motivation
science (pp. 71–83). The Guilford Press.
Hsin, A., & Xie, Y. (2012, February). Hard skills, soft skills: The relative roles of cognitive and
non-cognitive skills in intergenerational social mobility (Report No. 12-775). Population Studies
Center.
Karel, M. J., Knight, B. G., Duffy, M., Hinrichsen, G. A., & Zeiss, A. M. (2010). Attitude, knowledge,
and skill competencies for practice in professional geropsychology: Implications for training and
building a geropsychology workforce. Training and Education in Professional Psychology, 4(2),
75.
Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development.
Prentice Hall.
Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S., & Masia, B. B. (1964). Taxonomy of educational objectives, the
classification of educational goals. Affective domain. David McKay Company Inc.
Kuusinen, J., & Leskinen, E. (1988). Latent structure analysis of longitudinal data on relations
between intellectual abilities and school achievement. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 23(1),
103–118.
Kwan, P. (2019). Foundation learning for school managers (I): ASK model. Education
Bureau. www.edb.gov.hk/en/sch-admin/sbm/handy-tips/learning-journey-for-school-managers/
ask-model/index.html
Masoudi, R., Alhani, F., Moghadassi, J., & Ghorbani, M. (2010). The effect of family-centered
empowerment model on skill, attitude, and knowledge of multiple sclerosis caregivers. Journal
of Birjand University of Medical Sciences, 17(2), 87–97.
Mezirow, J. (1996). Contemporary paradigms of learning. Adult Education Quarterly, 46(3), 158–
172.
Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE), Malaysia. (2006). Development of soft skills for institutions
of higher learning. University Putra Malaysia.
Nagendra, K. M., Radha, S., & Naidu, C. G. (2013). Enhanced industrial employability through
new vocational training framework with attitude-skill-knowledge (ASK) model. IUP Journal of
Management Research, 12(3), 45–54.
Neta, R., & Pritchard, D. (Eds.). (2009). Arguing about knowledge. Routledge.
Nonaka, I., & Takeuchi, H. (1995). The knowledge-creating company: How Japanese companies
create the dynamics of innovation. Oxford University Press.
Waheed, M., & Kaur, K. (2016). Knowledge quality: A review and a revised conceptual model.
Information Development, 32(3), 271–284.
Yang, M., You, M., & Chen, F. (2005). Competencies and qualifications for industrial design jobs:
Implications for design practice, education, and student career guidance. Design Studies, 26,
155–189.
Chapter 9
A Comparison Between HKU Residential
Life and Residential Life in the US
Kevin Conn and Katie Ling
Keywords Resident assistant · RA · Mentor · Student engagement and support ·

Hall culture · Residence hall · Hall residency · Residence education · Residence
life
Residential halls have long been an important component of university education.

They are more than just a place to sleep; they form part of a long university tradition
and provide students with opportunities to be independent, explore their potential,
and interact with different people, thus fostering well-rounded personal develop-
ment. In fact, these residential hall experiences appear in various formats at colleges
and universities that span countries across the globe. In this chapter, we compare
the residential systems among a university in Hong Kong and a number of universi-
ties in the US, focusing on the number of residents, students’ hall association data,
committees and clubs, and hall functions (e.g., orientation camps, high table dinners,
sports and cultural teams, floor units and culture, etc.). We then discuss the reasons
for the visible differences between the HK and US residential life systems and any
associated rationales behind those differences.
Residential halls have long been an important component of the tradition of univer-
sities around the world. Apart from offering accommodation, they serve as a place
for education, where students learn to be independent and interact actively with
people from different backgrounds under the same roof. Thus, it is an extremely
effective and meaningful way to help students integrate and strike a balance between
their intellectual and social lives, thereby providing them with a great opportunity
for well-rounded personal development. In light of this, a research team led by The
K. Conn
New York City, USA
e-mail: kc118@nyu.edu
K. Ling (B)
The University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8906-2_9
102 K. Conn and K. Ling
University of Hong Kong visited four universities in the US in 2020, to conduct

cultural and knowledge exchanges in regard to hall education, and to bring back new
ideas to tackle problems inside the hall community.
Residential Halls at the University of Hong Kong (UHK)
Hall Education
The importance of hall education at UHK has been acknowledged by the HKSAR
Government and the university itself over the years. According to the Education
Commission (1999), three strategies, including ‘enhancing residential experiences’,
‘enhancing the cultural dimensions in hall lives’, and ‘re-designing the living envi-
ronments in students’ halls of residence’ were stated in the Consultation Document
on the Aims of Education under training leadership skills and promoting the physical
and cultural abilities of undergraduates.
The residential halls at UHK contribute to the all-round development of their
members. Students are encouraged to actively participate in a variety of hall activities
in order to explore their personal abilities, such as leadership skills, adaptability, moti-
vation and problem-solving skills, development, communication and social skills,
and intellectual ability. For instance, students can develop their interests in a sport
or cultural team, facilitate their leadership skills by becoming a committee member
and organising events, or improve their communication skills through daily inter-
actions and language exchanges with other members from different backgrounds.
Here, every student has the opportunity to engage in various experiences and receive
education from fellow hall members, who may eventually become lifelong friends.
Halls and Their Own Distinctive Cultures
There are 13 residential halls, four residential colleges, and four non-residential halls
at UHK. In regard to the residential halls, 11 of them are directly administered by the
university, while two of them are run by outside religious bodies and are financially
and administratively independent. Additionally, there are two non-residential halls,
where students are encouraged to take part in various hall activities, but without the
provision of accommodation.
Apart from halls, there are four residential colleges in Jockey Club Student Village
III on Lung Wah Street, Kennedy Town. They are the largest and latest addition to the
university, and can accommodate 1,800 students, with half of these quotas assigned
to undergraduates. Members of the residential colleges are expected to participate
in intellectual functions and community projects. Each hall has either a steward or a
manager to assist the warden with daily operations and administration.
9 A Comparison Between HKU Residential Life and Residential Life … 103
Residential Halls at UHK are renowned for their strong, individual spirit. Each
hall has its own traditions, history, culture, and special characteristics. As the future
pioneers of society, through building up a sense of belonging and commitment to
their hall, students are able to grow into vibrant, responsible, and diverse individuals,
thus helping them to develop a sense of commitment to society. Therefore, it is very
important for students to choose the hall that best suits them.
Hall Residency
Hall residency was once compulsory for every student at UHK. Today, however,
membership in UHK’s residential and non-residential halls and residential colleges
has become voluntary. Applications for admission to residential halls must be
submitted via the university’s online information system, with a registered student
user account. Students can first select and rank a maximum of three choices from all of
the residential halls available, according to their own preferences (e.g., culture, loca-
tion, and hall activities). Then, applicants will be invited for an interview conducted
by the respective hall interview board(s). They will receive their application results
via the online information system afterward. Successful applicants must indicate
their acceptance of their offer through the online system by a specified deadline.
Otherwise, the university will regard it as declined and thus withdraw the offer.
The fees for membership for university-administered residential halls are payable
in advance, separated into two instalments (one instalment per semester). Other than
the basic lodging fee, there is an additional special function fee that covers high table
dinners, a tradition at UHK where students congregate in formal dress and green
gowns, and other meals or banquets for the residential year.
Students’ Participation in Residential Halls
Students are normally required to join at least one or two sports and/or cultural teams
from their first year in residential halls. There are a wide variety of sports and cultural
teams available to join, from hockey and lacrosse, to debate and religious fellowships,
just to name a few. Through participating in a sport or cultural team, students are
given the opportunity to explore their potential and play to their strengths; through
joining inter-hall competitions with their teams, they are able to further cultivate a
sense of belonging and commitment to the hall, thus enhancing their own personal
development.
Residential Halls at Universities in the US
A research team led by The University of Hong Kong visited four universities in
Boston and New York: Harvard University, the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology (MIT), Columbia University, and New York University. We were exposed
to different environments and cultures through meeting the hall directors, staff, and
students. They offered us tours around the campuses and various hall buildings. This
provided the team with opportunities to share and exchange ideas about residen-
tial hall experiences, and hall management and education practices. For instance,
we were able to further our knowledge around guaranteed housing practices for
all undergraduates, how the hall administration and residence life staff select and
distribute their students across different halls, the percentage of hall residents among
all students (including freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors), as well as the
room, roommate allocation, and selection processes. The visits to these universities
also increased our understanding of the successful practices implemented there to
help hall residents achieve their residential educational aims, and how the institutions
align their residential educational aims with their university educational aims. In the
following sections, we discuss some differences and examples of good practices in
the residential halls across the universities we visited.
Harvard University
Unlike the residential halls at UHK, where students from different years live together,
first-year students at Harvard are separated from upper-class students and are assigned
suites with other first-year students. They live in dorms in Harvard Yard and eat most
of their meals in Annenberg Hall. Through eating and engaging in conversations in
the dining hall and participating in a variety of activities that are specially designed
for them, first-year students have a number of opportunities to interact, socialise, and
bond with each other.
Apart from having suitemates, every first-year student is a member of a group,
an ‘Entryway’, which involves around 20 to 40 students who live on the same floor
or section in their dorms. There is a first-year proctor in each ‘Entryway’, who
is responsible for providing academic, personal, and social guidance, as well as
planning activities and events. With each ‘Entryway’ being part of one of the four
Yards, they create a strong community and network for first-year students, thus
helping them to adapt to university life more easily.
The house system is one of the most famous traditions at Harvard. From their
sophomore year onward, students are assigned to one of Harvard’s 12 houses. Before
the allocation of houses, students are required to fill in an extensive questionnaire
about their personalities, hobbies, and the kind of residential life they are hoping for.
They can even form their own blocking and linking groups with some of their friends
or classmates. A lottery will then place each group into one of the 12 houses, which
ensures that students and their friends live in the same neighbourhood. This method of
house allocation is student-oriented and beneficial, as it ensures that every student’s
needs and wants are satisfied, and avoids conflicts between students, thus enhancing
their personal growth and the development of their interpersonal relationships.
Each house provides specific learning, social, and recreational opportunities for its
student residents. The differences in personalities and traditions allow all houses to
create a distinctive sense of community. Students take up some of the responsibility
for operating their houses. For instance, there is a student council in each house,
which organises and sponsors different house activities. Unlike the residential halls
at UHK, where there are limited space and facilities, the houses at Harvard offer
students large spaces and various facilities, including their own dining halls, lounges,
fitness facilities, study areas, and libraries. Students can do almost everything in their
own houses without having to go out for public facilities. As a result, this provides
more chances for students to bond with each other and develop a sustainable hall
community.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
At MIT, there are 18 residential halls, each with its own distinctive character and
community. Most of the undergraduates live in one of the 10 houses on campus, or
in one of the 37 MIT-affiliated fraternities, sororities, and living groups off-campus.
Unlike UHK, where first-year students are not guaranteed housing, all unmarried
first-year students at MIT are required to live in one of the Institute’s residential
halls. There is a live-in head of house in each residential hall, who is usually a senior
faculty member. After their first year, students can choose to stay on campus or
move to a fraternity, sorority, or independent living group. According to statistics,
3,334 undergraduates are currently living on campus (Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, 2019).
More than 2,000 graduate students are currently living in one of the six campus
houses. In addition, there are two campus apartment complexes, which accommodate
over 400 graduate and undergraduate students with families (e.g., students who are
married and/or have children). Approximately 90 graduates are living in undergrad-
uate halls as graduate resident tutors. Meanwhile, there is also a residential student
advisor programme in some residential halls at UHK, through which students with
high GPAs are selected to advise freshmen on hall matters and about balancing
academic and hall activities. Similar to those at UHK, resident tutors at MIT help
foster a safe and supportive living environment and establish a community atmo-
sphere among undergraduates in the halls by encouraging personal growth, providing
outlets for managing stress, and facilitating positive interpersonal relationships. The
current resident tutor-to-students ratio is around 1:40. All tutors must receive 16 h
of training on mental health conditions before the start of each school year. This
helps to increase their capability in regard to handling the mental health of student
residents.
New York University
The residential halls of New York University have been working hard to develop
a community on a campus that is decentralised, spread across two boroughs of
New York City, including Manhattan and Brooklyn. NYU residential life and
housing services are committed to providing quality services and programmes that
enhance residential student success in safe and inclusive living-learning communi-
ties. Through their hall allocation process, every first-year student is required to rank
their first three house priorities and answer general lifestyle questions. This helps the
staff to better understand the personality and needs of every student, thus facilitating
the allocation of houses and the pairing up of roommates.
After students meet their roommates, they have to complete an agreement with
each other (i.e., making their own living rules and forming agreements about sleeping
times and cleaning duties). In this way, students are reminded to live responsibly
and considerately, which helps to reduce conflicts between students living together.
Students are guaranteed housing for all years of their undergraduate experience as
long as they apply on time each year and meet all assigned deadlines and tasks,
beginning with their first year in residence and at NYU.
Apart from the introduction of the student agreement, NYU has been imple-
menting a resident assistant programme for a number of years. The resident assistant
(RA) is ‘a paraprofessional who lives on a floor in an undergraduate or graduate resi-
dence hall and serves as a role model, peer counsellor, resource and referral person,
advocate, policy enforcer, programmer and leader for residents of the assigned
floor(s)’. They report to the residence hall assistant director and/or the residence
hall director (New York University, 2020).
RAs are usually full-time students with a junior or higher class standing who carry
a minimum of 12, but no more than 16, credit hours per semester (for undergrad-
uates), and must hold a cumulative 3.0 grade point average at NYU. The standard
period for RAs is one academic year, from August to May. All RAs are required
to participate in a training session prior to residential hall check-ins for both fall
and spring semesters, to ensure they can perform their duties. They are responsible
for managing conflicts between residents, programmatic engagement, connecting
and engaging with residents, and supporting on-call rotation within their respective
halls. In the first semester, they are required to have a one-on-one meeting with every
student within their assigned portion of the community. The RAs will ask questions,
including if there are any concerns about residential life, mental health conditions,
or other targeted questions for that semester. The student also has a chance to ask
questions of or articulate their needs to their RA.
Columbia University
At Columbia University, all first-year students are expected to live on campus, as

the residential experience is a paramount component of their university education.
Students are guaranteed housing for a maximum of four years, according to their
guaranteed housing status and admission standing. They are allowed to indicate
their preference for a particular hall, a single or double room, a single-sex floor, or
to request a particular roommate. There are a variety of housing options, including
singles or suites, halls or brownstones, which students are assigned to based on class
year and availability.
Columbia University works hard to take care of the housing needs of special
communities. Upper-class students are able to apply for special housing options,
such as living in fraternities or sororities, or special interest community housing.
In particular, special accommodation is provided for students with disabilities. This
ensures that everyone gets a chance to experience residential hall life on campus.
Columbia University also employs students as RAs to work as leaders within
the community. To apply for an RA position, students must be a current full-time
undergraduate at the college, with guaranteed housing, and with sufficient academic
standing, with a minimum GPA of 2.5 (Columbia University, 2020). They serve as
strong team players and great listeners, who focus on the growth and development of
each individual in their halls. They further work to promote a healthy environment
conducive to the overall wellness needs of residents.
Comparison of Residential Hall Life Among UHK

and Universities in the US
Residential hall experiences do vary across countries and universities, with different
administrations, programmes, and activities. Following the exchange of ideas about
residential hall experiences, and hall management and education practices, there are a
few practices that stand out among the residential hall systems of the US universities.
In terms of the admission of residents, the universities in the US mostly require
their first-year students to live on campus or in any of the university’s residential halls,
and provide all students with guaranteed housing. Despite the segregation of first-year
students in their own separate hall of residence, the fact that all Harvard undergradu-
ates have guaranteed housing, where they are given the opportunity to bond with one
another and can do almost everything without having to go out for public facilities,
provides students with a great deal of support and frequent opportunities to make
connections. This is quite different from UHK, where residing in a campus residen-
tial hall is completely voluntary and students do not receive guaranteed housing, as
the space and facilities are far too limited to accommodate all of them, including non-
local students who desperately require accommodation. According to a Legislative
Council paper, in the 2014–2015 academic year, only the Chinese University and
the Education University of Hong Kong successfully housed all non-local students
who applied for hall residences. The most serious housing shortage was recorded at
HKU, where only 44% of non-local students and 47% of local students received a
hall residence (Wong, 2017).
Thus, it is not hard to find a student on campus who has never lived in a resi-
dential hall at UHK and knows nothing about the hall experiences offered. The idea
of providing guaranteed housing and even compulsory hall residence for first-year
students is great, as it encourages students to interact and bond with people from
different faculties and classes through group activities, rather than merely focusing
on their academic studies. With compulsory or guaranteed residence in halls, all
students can gain a fruitful experience by exploring their potential and developing
interpersonal relationships, hence making lifelong friends who can grow together
throughout their university life.
In terms of hall programmes and support, most universities in the US utilise
some version of an RA or a mentor position to help students adapt to university
life more easily. For instance, at MIT, all tutors must receive 16 h of training on
mental health conditions before the start of each school year. This helps to increase
their capability in regard to handling the mental health of student residents. NYU
has implemented a resident assistant programme, in which selected students are
responsible for maintaining the daily operation of residential halls, helping students
with their residential lives, mental health, and relationship problems, and improving
communication between students and the school.
As mentioned above, a residential student advisor programme has also been intro-
duced in some residential halls at UHK, in which students with high GPAs are selected
to advise first-year students on hall matters and about balancing academic and hall
activities. However, when compared to universities in the US, the student advisors at
UHK play a rather passive role in offering help to students. It is always the student
residents who must take the initiative to seek help from the advisors. Yet, in reality,
students seldom seek help when they are in need. Sadly, mental health conditions,
including depression and anxiety, are not uncommon among university students in
Hong Kong. Therefore, modifications could be made to improve the communication
between student residents and advisors. Advisors could take the initiative by, for
example, organising orientation events and regular meetings, to ensure that students
are able to reach their advisors when needed.
Speaking of the cultural differences between universities in the US and Hong
Kong, the liberty and freedom provided by US universities to their students was very
visible throughout our tour. However, there is a larger context to consider, and it is
up to the management teams in university residential systems to decide how much
freedom students should possess. For instance, there are gender-neutral bathrooms
in the Maseeh hall of MIT on some floors, which is a common occurrence in the
US but would be remarkable for Hong Kong students and teachers. The culture
surrounding sex and gender is remarkably different in the US compared to that in
Hong Kong. While residential halls in Hong Kong universities are mainly single-
gender, delineated by buildings or by floors, there are no such restrictions in the US.
The culture is more liberal there, and it is often possible to talk openly about gender-
related matters; they have mainly co-ed halls and floors, and some even allow for
mixed-gender rooms. Furthermore, they do not impose restrictions on visitors based
on gender, thus creating a more open environment for students to discuss with their
roommates and floormates about having visitors over, rather than there simply being
written restrictions; students are adults and they have to make their own decisions.
There are, however, policies and guidelines in place to help set some standards and
practices for students to follow at these US institutions. In reality, most students in
Hong Kong do not agree with visitor restrictions and it is likely that many of them
have broken the rules throughout their residence life experience.
There is an LGBTQ+ centre at NYU, where they have free safe sex supplies (e.g.,
condoms) and other resources available to students (these supplies are also available
in all NYU residential halls). Instead of restricting students, US universities work
hard to educate their students on the importance of sexual health and having safe sex.
This culture is not visible in Hong Kong at the moment. Only when the management
teams in the residential halls in Hong Kong are ready for and open to change in
regard to gender, freedom (e.g., in regard to visitors), and sex, can this culture be
progressively transformed.
Conclusion
This chapter compares and contrasts students’ residential lives among a university
in Hong Kong and universities in the US (Harvard University, the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, New York University, and Columbia University), in terms
of the number of residents, the allocation of hall residents, students’ hall associations,
committees and clubs, and hall functions and culture. By discussing examples of good
practices in these residential halls, it is hoped that readers in the field of residential
education will be encouraged to learn from the shared practices and implement better
systems to help hall residents achieve their residential educational aims. This will
further help students to align their residential educational aims with their university
educational objectives in the near future.
References
Columbia University. (2020). Undergraduate student life. https://www.cc-seas.columbia.edu/node/

442234.
Commission, E. (1999). Review of academic system: Aims of education (consultation document).
Education Commission.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. (2019). Housing at MIT. https://mitadmissions.org/discover/
life-culture/reslife/.
New York University. (2020). Resident assistant role profile. https://www.nyu.edu/content/

dam/nyu/resLifeHousServ/documents/PositionDescriptions/RA%20Role%20Profile%202020-
2021%20(7_14_2020).pdf.
Wong, S. K. (2017, October 15). Non-local students in subdivided flats highlight Hong Kong’s
university hostel shortage. South China Morning Post. https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/
community/article/2115344/non-local-students-subdivided-flats-highlight-hong-kongs.
Chapter 10
Introducing Financial Literacy
to Residential Colleges’ General
Education: A Systematic Review
Jingyuan Fu, Shida Hou, and Christina Wai-Mui Yu
Abstract Nowadays, the economy is becoming more complex and social processes
are increasingly requiring students to become capable producers or consumers.
Hence, it is widely regarded that a person must possess financial literacy as an
economic entity. In addition to certain financial institutions, numerous educational
institutions have made personal financial literacy education a priority. Obviously,
residential colleges play an outsized role in students’ daily lives and should provide an
environment in which resident students can learn the skills needed for financial inde-
pendence. This chapter therefore reviews the extent to which financial literacy activi-
ties are embedded in residential colleges through a systematic review method. It also
provides practical guidelines on how financial literacy education can be conducted
in residential education.
Keywords Financial literacy · Residential education · Financial socialisation ·

Learning community · Systematic review
Background and Introduction
Financial Socialisation and Citizenship
Socialisation is the internalisation of social norms and ideologies. It includes learning

and teaching, and is a means of achieving cohesive social and cultural continuity.
J. Fu
Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, Hong Kong
e-mail: u3004769@connect.hku.hk
S. Hou (B)
Guanghua School of Stomatology, Hospital of Stomatology, Guangdong Provincial Key
Laboratory of Stomatology, Sun Yat-Sen University, 74 Zhongshan Second Road, 510030
Guangzhou, China
e-mail: houshida@mail2.sysu.edu.cn
C. W.-M. Yu
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8906-2_10
112 J. Fu et al.
Financial socialisation is a subset of general socialisation (Gudmunson et al., 2016).

Danes (1994) defined financial socialisation as ‘the process of acquiring and devel-
oping values, attitudes, standards, norms, knowledge, and behaviours that contribute
to the financial viability and well-being of the individuals’. The general socialisation
of everyone in society starts in childhood but, to some extent, the process of social-
isation continues throughout the individual’s entire life (McNeal, 1987; Moschis,
1985, 1987). As an example of financial socialisation, Danes and Dunrud (2014)
and McNeal (1987) found that children can learn financial management behaviours
through observation and participation, as well as through intentional guidance by
social agents such as families.
Financial knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours acquired during childhood and
adolescence will continuously affect all aspects of people’s future lives, including
their financial and economic outcomes, and their relationships with family, friends,
and colleagues. In a sense, financial habits established during childhood and adoles-
cence can persist throughout adulthood. Incidental learning plays an important part
in financial socialisation; students can learn financial knowledge in contexts without
plans or intentions (Shim et al., 2010). Although this method of socialisation is
not a formalised system, it is not entirely random and usually includes a consid-
erable amount of deliberate guidance. For example, children can learn financial
knowledge from shopping with their parents (Danes, 1994). Different social groups
provide different environments for financial socialisation. Moreover, these groups
are not limited to families, peers, educational institutions, workplaces, and ethnic
and religious groups.
Conover and Searing (2000) posited that adolescents have a tendency to acquire
attitudes toward their own citizenship through practice and they will combine their
emerging attitudes toward citizenship to develop ‘a sense of citizenship’ in regard to
political and social participation. In addition, Feldman and Elliott (1990) proposed
that students in high school experience complicated physical, psychological, and
social changes; thus, this period is a new opportunity for young people to become
immersed in the socialisation process. Marks and Kuss (2001) further associated
socialisation with citizenship. They found that there are different levels at which
the principles of democracy and participation in social activities can be instilled
by both public and private educational institutions, so as to help students to gain a
foothold in the economy. Against this background, financial literacy education is not
only a designed form of education that helps citizens make responsible financial and
consumptive decisions, but is also a tool that can be used to promote their citizenship,
civic equality, and political participation (Arthur et al., 2012).
Citizenship means independence, freedom, and accountability. For the economic
well-being of society, individuals, and nations, economic citizenship is critically
important (Sherraden & Ansong, 2013). According to Amagir et al. (2018),
‘economic citizenship’, as an important aspect of citizenship, requires various insti-
tutions to pay attention to financial education, since only financially empowered and
qualified children and teenagers are likely to realise their full potential as citizens
(Sherraden & Ansong, 2013). Amagir et al. (2018) provided several reasons as to why
10 Introducing Financial Literacy to Residential Colleges’ … 113
financial education, social education, and inclusive finance serve as core elements of
young people’s economic citizenship.
The Importance of Financial Literacy
In defining financial literacy, Jorgensen and Savla (2010) argued that financial literacy
is the relationship between three concepts: financial knowledge, financial behaviours,
and financial attitudes. Amagir et al. (2018) extended these three concepts to define
financial literacy; regarding an understanding of financial issues, people should
understand the areas related to expected behaviour, to enable them to decide how to
participate in the right financial behaviour. Due to the relatively limited impact of
knowledge on behaviour change (Hilgert et al., 2003; Perry & Morris, 2005), two
additional aspects should be considered: (1) financial skills and behaviour, as individ-
uals need operational skills in the field, such as how to manage a budget, in order to
improve their financial conduct; and (2) attitude and confidence, since people usually
require a sense of self-agency and necessary motivation to make financial decisions
to implement what has been learned outside the background (Bandura, 1997, 2006).
Imparting financial literacy also requires financial education. Members of the
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) endorsed the
definition of financial education (Atkinson & Messy, 2012; Grifoni & Messy, 2012;
OECD, 2012b) as follows:
‘The process by which financial consumers/investors improve their understanding
of financial products, concepts and risks and, through information, instruction and/or
objective advice, develop the skills and confidence to become more aware of financial
risks and opportunities, to make informed choices, to know where to go for help, and
to take other effective actions to improve their financial well-being’ (OECD, 2005).
Atkinson and Messy (2012) later refined the OECD’s definition of financial educa-
tion and developed a globally recognised definition of financial literacy as ‘a combi-
nation of awareness, knowledge, skill, attitude, and behavior necessary to make sound
financial decisions and ultimately achieve individual financial wellbeing’ (OECD,
2014a). In short, financial literacy is about an individual’s competency in terms of
managing money (Remund, 2010); that is, understanding the value of money and
knowing how to maximise the benefits of money utilisation (Kadoya & Khan, 2020),
such as through the ability to ‘process economic information and make informed deci-
sions about financial planning, wealth accumulation, debt, and pensions’ (Lusardi &
Mitchell, 2014, p. 6). In all cases, a comprehensive definition of financial literacy
should reflect the idea that it is more than just knowledge and information (Jump$tart,
2015). The outcome of financial well-being is broadly defined as long-term financial
security and the avoidance of a suboptimal financial status (Kasman et al., 2018), as
well as having positive credit to maintain financial security (Cull & Whitton, 2011).
In some countries, many children and young people today will be the first genera-
tion to be exposed to financial products. Faced with the current complexity of financial
114 J. Fu et al.
products and services, as well as the ever-changing social environment, the finan-
cial choices that young people have to make today may be more challenging than
in the past. Moreover, young people have to face economic risks as social welfare
decreases because of the ageing population (Atkinson & Messy, 2012; Grifoni &
Messy, 2012; OECD, 2014b). Acknowledging the value of financial knowledge, an
increasing number of countries have developed and introduced domestic policies
for financial education, such as a five-year national project the Russian govern-
ment launched in 2011 to support the financial education and consumer protection
of students in schools and universities (Grifoni & Messy, 2012; OECD, 2013a). In
reality, the Russian government is increasingly focusing on the younger generation’s
key role in enhancing the nation’s financial literacy.
Financial Literacy in Residential Colleges
Danes and Hira (1987) pointed out that the college students surveyed in their study
only possessed basic financial knowledge and lacked the specific financial literacy
needed to deal with practical matters, such as insurance purchases and credit card
applications. As a result, researchers have begun to question families’ role in dissemi-
nating money management knowledge and financial management attitudes. Although
the latest literature on financial socialisation has mostly focused on families, such
as the main relational processes and dynamics between parents and children, there
is now a more interesting perspective to consider, which involves collecting retro-
spective data from the college student population (Gudmunson et al., 2016; Kalil
et al., 2005; Kim & Chatterjee, 2013). For example, Chen and Volpe (1998) found
that college students lacking financial knowledge had more negative views toward
financial issues and, according to the questionnaires, those young people tended to
make more poor or biased choices.
In addition, Bodvarsson and Walker (2004) noticed that poor financial literacy
restricted the willingness of college students to make informed decisions, which
may also impact their college performance, mental or physical health, and even their
employment outcomes (Cude et al., 2006). Cude et al. (2006) used several methods to
evaluate college students’ financial management strategies and proposed that educa-
tional institutions such as colleges could include courses on personal finance or finan-
cial life skills as a graduation requirement for general education programmes. The
possibility of successfully learning financial literacy would be dramatically enhanced
if universities were to maximise their use of a location where a majority of incoming
freshmen spend most of their time: residence halls (Astin, 1985; Minor, 1997). One
example of this is the Freshman Interest Groups programme that the University of
Missouri applied to residential colleges (Minor, 1997). Likewise, Bobilya and Akey
(2002) mentioned the use of residential learning communities to integrate living
and learning in a community, which would help students build academic and social
support networks inside and outside the classroom, and also bridge the gap between
classroom learning and extracurricular living (Shapiro & Levine, 1999).
College is a particularly significant transitional stage in students’ overall devel-

opment. Although most college students are not financially independent, after high
school, they begin to live independently, especially in residential colleges. Faced
with this situation, universities should use a more comprehensive approach to enable
various departments, such as financial aid offices, student affairs administration
sectors, student health services centres, career centres, residential colleges, and
student business service centres, to engage in the financial socialisation process
(Cude et al., 2006). Thus, institutions such as residential colleges will also become
aware of the importance of developing activities to meet the demand for students’
financial literacy.
This study addresses the following question: To what extent can educational activi-
ties improve financial literacy as it is integrated with residential colleges? The objec-
tives of this review are two-fold: (1) to describe any designed learning activities
in the literature to promote financial literacy education in residential colleges, and
to describe to what extent these activities are embedded in residential education if
there are any; (2) to interpret whether or not these studies contribute to the further
educational programmes application by defining relevant guidelines for embedding
financial literacy in residential education.
At present, a review of educational activities intended to improve financial literacy
in residential colleges is lacking. To fill this gap, the goal of our study was to review
the literature on activities related to financial literacy in residential colleges, with a
particular focus on designed learning activities.
Methodology
This research was conducted using a systematic review (Kitchenham, 2004;

Kitchenham et al., 2009). In order to report our systematic review more comprehen-
sively, we adopted the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-
analyses (PRISMA) flow chart and checklist The PRISMA model was summarised
and updated by Moher et al. (2009) from the quality of reporting of meta-analyses
(QUOROM) guide, aiming to provide researchers with a critical appraisal process
through which to improve systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Furthermore,
considering the review’s transparency and clarity, we also adopted guidance from the
Centre for Reviews and Dissemination (CRD) to evaluate each article in this study by
designing four quality assessment (QA) questions (Centre for Reviews & Dissemina-
tion, 2009). The literature on financial knowledge, financial literacy, and educational
projects or activities related to residential education was identified through a thorough
search. The search steps are documented below.
116 J. Fu et al.
Search Strategy
Databases and Study Period. In this study, we searched the following relevant
databases from the year 2000 to December 2019: ERIC (educational literature),
PsycINFO (psychology and psychiatry literature, via Proquest), and Google Scholar.
We used the following terms in various combinations: financial literacy, residential
college, financial education in residence halls, financial socialisation, and residential
education. All of the included articles were manually searched and the reference lists
of these articles were also searched to identify additional studies related to financial
literacy in residential education.
Procedures. Two researchers selected each article or conference paper in an inde-
pendent review. Papers involving any keywords during the preliminary search were
determined as potentially relevant. One researcher was responsible for applying
detailed inclusion and exclusion criteria in the preliminary screening process and
for selecting articles for another researcher’s further screening based on the same
criteria. It was expected that the searching accuracy would be increased through this
double layer of searching. All three researchers reached a consensus by discussion
if there were disagreements.
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria. In this review, our emphasis is on the relation-
ship between student financial literacy and residential colleges, as well as the effec-
tiveness of educational programmes in terms of improving student financial literacy.
We covered studies published between 2000 and 2019, as articles on improving
financial literacy implementation in residential education are relatively limited and
preliminary, and most studies on financial literacy education in colleges have been
published in the last 19 years.
Hence, our inclusion criteria include:
• Journal and conference articles published in English.
• Educational improvement programmes or assessment reports with general educa-
tion or liberal learning delivered at residential halls or to undergraduate students
living at college.
• Experimental, descriptive, or qualitative primary studies.
• Financial literacy and economic development embedded in the contexts of
residential colleges or residential learning communities.
Duplicate articles, research studies undertaken in primary educational level
settings, and texts not published between 2000 and 2019 were excluded according
to our exclusion criteria.
Data Extraction and Analysis. The content we decided to extract from each
study was: (1) main topic; (2) research question(s); (3) research design; (4)
summary/discussion; (5) whether or not the study had further guidelines; (6) refer-
ences. After deciding what to extract, the first reviewer extracted the data and the
second reviewer checked the data accordingly. When there was a disagreement over
the data extraction process, all researchers discussed the details of the data until a
consensus was reached. We prioritised our focus on the following data to analyse in
Fig. 10.1 Checklist of the

QA
order to address our research question: (1) main topic; (2) research question(s); (3)
research design; (4) whether or not the study had further guidelines.
Quality Assessment Guidelines. Since there is no formal scale for financial
literacy in education in previous studies, we listed four QA questions, shown in
Fig. 10.1, as a new scale and checklist with which to assess each study through a reli-
able approach to the critical appraisal (Centre for Reviews & Dissemination, 2009).
The reasons for putting forward the following QA questions are: (1) the accuracy
of research topics represent the quality of the selected study and details of educa-
tional activities; and (2) guidelines are important for financial literacy developments
in residential colleges. Two researchers independently provided an overall score for
each study to ensure the quality of the assessment.
The scoring scale for each question of the checklist is illustrated below.
• QA1: Y (yes), the authors of the study have explicitly described their study topic;
P (partly), the study topic is implicit; N (no), the study topic is not described
properly and cannot be inferred.
• QA2: Y (yes), there are designed learning activities in the study; P (partly), the
study includes some learning activities, but they are not designed by the authors;
N (no), there are no designed learning activities in the study.
• QA3: Y (yes), the authors of the study have explicitly pointed out the importance
of financial literacy education in general education; P (partly), the importance
of financial literacy education in the study is implicit; N (no), the importance of
financial literacy education in the study is not defined and cannot be inferred.
118 J. Fu et al.
• QA4: Y (yes), the related guidelines for further applications are defined specif-
ically in the study; P (partly), the related guidelines for further applications are
implicit; N (no), the related guidelines for further applications are not defined and
cannot be inferred.
These were scored accordingly: Y = 1, P = 0.5, and N = 0. The first and
second researcher independently evaluated each paper. In case of disagreements,
we discussed the issue until a score was decided.
Results
Search Results
The items in the flow chart in Fig. 10.2 provide clear instruction and guidance on
how we conducted the search process (Gopalakrishnan & Ganeshkumar, 2013; Panic
et al., 2013). Across the databases, 5820 results were initially identified. After limiting
the timeframe from 2000 to 2019 and the removal of duplicate studies occurred in
the initial layer, the first researcher applied the process to identify the relevance of
each article according to its title and abstract, which excluded 1926 and 1037 articles,
respectively. We added two additional relevant studies (Jariah et al., 2004; Sabri et al.,
2010) after reviewing the remaining articles’ reference lists or bibliographies because
of their relevance to the current review. We excluded 976 articles after screening the
titles and abstracts. Finally, the application of the inclusion and exclusion criteria
resulted in the exclusion of 52 out of the 63 studies, leaving 11 studies for appraisal.
Data Analysis and Quality Assessment Results
The analysis data were tabulated in Table 10.1 based on our identification of 11 studies
in total from the search results, including one literature review (Ahsan, 2013), one
research report (Coben et al., 2005), one technical report (Mayhew et al., 2018),
and eight journal articles (Chase et al., 2007; Goetz et al., 2005; Jariah et al., 2004;
Maurer & Lee, 2011; Sabri et al., 2010, 2012; Shim et al., 2010; Strothmann &
Antell, 2010).
Meanwhile, we evaluated each study based on three aspects (activities related
to financial literacy, learning designed for residential students, and included further
guidelines), focusing on practical information. The QA results are shown in Table
10.2, which also depicts the quality assessment score for each study. All studies
scored 2 or more on the QA scale; more specifically, five studies scored 3 (Ahsan,
2013; Chase et al., 2007; Sabri et al., 2012; Shim et al., 2010; Strothmann & Antell,
2010), two studies scored 4 (Maurer & Lee, 2011; Mayhew et al., 2018), and one
study scored 3.5 (Goetz et al., 2005). As the Centre for Reviews and Dissemination
Fig. 10.2 Systematic review flow chart

120 J. Fu et al.
Table 10.1 Literature data analysis

Study Author Date Activities related to Learning designed Included further
financial literacy for residential guidelines
students
SI Ahsan 2013 No No Yes
S2 Chase et al. 2007 Yes No Yes
S3 Coben et al. 2005 Yes No Yes
S4 Goetz et al. 2005 Yes Yes Yes
S5 Jariah et al. 2004 Yes No Yes
S6 Maurer and Lee 2011 Yes Yes Yes
S7 Mayhew et al. 2018 Yes No Yes
S8 Sabri et al. 2010 Yes No Yes
S9 Sabri et al. 2012 Yes No Yes
S10 Shim et al. 2010 No No Yes
Sll Strothmann and 2010 No Yes Yes
Antell
Table 10.2 Literature quality evaluation

Study QAl QA2 QA3 QA4 Total score
SI Y N Y Y 3
S2 Y N Y Y 3
S3 P N Y P 2
S4 Y Y P Y 3.5
S5 P N Y P 2
S6 Y Y Y Y 4
S7 Y Y Y Y 4
S8 P N Y P 2
S9 Y P P Y 3
SIO Y N Y Y 3
S11 Y Y N Y 3
(2009) states, it is not recommended that the scales of assessing quality are used as
the standard to distinguish the overall quality of a study, due to the way in which very
few scales are built on standard techniques without bias. Under our QA scale, the
high or low scores of selected papers are not evidence that can be used to distinguish
a high-quality or low-quality study. Yet, the higher scores mean that the studies
in question are more valuable in supporting financial literacy development in the
residential education domain.
Discussion
Among these identified studies, S4 scored 3.5 in the quality evaluation because Goetz
et al. (2005) put forward curriculum design suggestions for setting up financial coun-
selling sessions in residence halls, college classrooms, and surrounding communi-
ties. Supported by college organisations, individuals or groups can offer free financial
counselling to students in need, including peer education programmes or community
presentations. Due to the rising debt level of college students and the comparatively
low level of financial knowledge, there is a great demand for financial services among
college students. Therefore, this kind of program could not only meet the financial
consulting needs of non-financial students, but could also promote the professional
skills of service providers in the financial planning profession. Similarly, as a more
specific study, we scored S6 with full marks. Maurer and Lee (2011) designed a
peer financial counselling (PFC) program that, compared to traditional classroom
instruction, was structured to provide students with budgets, credit, and other finan-
cial knowledge extensions. Therefore, the authors applied the PFC courses to the
student groups of residence halls and student organisations. The control group was
the traditional course group, in which some students were taking a second-year intro-
ductory course in family economics taught by Maurer. The differences between the
learning outcomes of the two types of financial literacy teaching show that the PFC
programme can assist students in residential halls or student organisations in gaining
financial knowledge. It is also suggested that this financial literacy programme is
perhaps the most effective instruction programme intended to equip students with
basic financial knowledge skills.
A few studies have compared the differences in financial literacy between students
living on and off campus. Jariah et al. (2004) investigated students’ financial situations
and assessed the reasons underlying each of them. They found that students living
on and off campus had different levels of financial problems, and some even had a
degree of debt. Students living off campus spent more money on items that students
living on campus do not pay for, such as commuting costs, and they tended to eat
meals such as instant noodles to save money. Students living on campus were short
of money because of frequent consumption, and a higher percentage of them skipped
meals to save money. Most students have a shortage of money because they lack the
expertise and skills to address their financial problems, which contributes to impulsive
consumption after seeing advertisements and discounts, or excessive spending on
entertainment and celebration. Since there are almost no designed learning activities
in S5, the topic and further guidelines are briefly described; thus, we scored it as 2.
Sabri et al. (2010) surveyed college students’ financial literacy and found that students
not living on campus have greater financial literacy, as they must manage their own
money to pay bills and liabilities. Moreover, the analysis of data collected by Sabri
et al. (2012) indicates that college students living on campus are more satisfied with
their perceived financial well-being than others living off campus. Evidence has also
shown that students living off campus experience more financial problems. Sabri
et al. (2012) concluded that this is because students living off campus may have
122 J. Fu et al.
more financial responsibilities than students living on campus. The importance of

financial literacy education in S9 is implicit, and the authors did not design learning
activities. Thus, we evaluated it as 3.
In fact, a variety of extracurricular activities are proposed or applied in several
financial education programmes. For example, Chase et al. (2007) believed that
students may enter early adulthood without adequate education about consumption
behaviour, and often excessively spend on recreational activities on campus as a
result. Therefore, residence halls should plan and provide students with extracurric-
ular activities that can develop their financial socialisation and reduce their recre-
ational shopping. Similarly, based on a survey, Coben et al. (2005) noticed that
several universities have conducted events that have contributed to financial educa-
tion and have supported students studying in the community through non-campus
activities. An example from the study is Northumberland County Council, which
provides local residents with basic skills courses, such as in financial literacy. There-
fore, the authors believed that financial knowledge education can be provided in
off-campus locations, such as community centres and residential sectors. Another
type of program is mentioned by Strothmann et al. (2010), as they received many
financial-related questions from students in a residential hall during their first-year
implementation of their Faculty-in-Residence (FIR) programme. FIR is a programme
for librarians to support student learning and provide educational services to other
educational institutions; they believe the residential hall is an ideal and underutilised
place for library outreach services.
Some studies mentioned the connection between residential education and finan-
cial literacy from various perspectives. Ahsan (2013) reviewed four papers, arguing
that a lack of financial knowledge and literacy is a current global phenomenon;
he suggested that undergraduates need to acquire financial knowledge during their
studies, including in residence halls. Mayhew et al. (2018) stated that funded experi-
ences in residential halls could improve students’ financial literacy. However, Shim
et al. (2010) found that financial knowledge or financial habits that students learned
from their parents will continue into their college years, even though most students
would already be living in residence halls at this point.
Conclusion and Recommendations
In our review, each of the 11 selected articles included relevant guidelines for further
implications, most of which involved financial activities, but only a few articles
included the design of residential education activities (e.g., Goetz et al., 2005;
Maurer & Lee, 2011; Strothmann & Antell, 2010). This indicates that a fair number of
educational programmes are related to financial literacy, but fewer financial literacy
programmes and activities are embedded in residential education, and there are fewer
experimental studies related to this area. The current review is part of an ongoing
research project; as more studies in this area increase, the quality of relevant literature
will continue to be reviewed.
Effective financial literacy programmes and activities can equip young people
at university with the skills to take advantage of the available financial services
and to better assess the financial risks they face, which is critical to restoring
public trust and confidence in the financial system, promoting financial stability, and
providing the necessary public backing for financial reforms. Incorporating teaching
and learning about finance in school curricula (OECD, 2013a) and beyond by devel-
oping additional financial literacy programmes has become popular in many coun-
tries. To upscale the financial literacy programmes in university residential educa-
tion, institutions can refer to the national financial competency framework, which is a
national strategy and developmental tool used to recognise the importance of financial
literacy education by: (1) establishing the meaning and scope of financial education
at different levels through the cooperation of different stakeholders; (2) forming a
roadmap to help policymakers and the general public to achieve specific and prede-
termined objectives within a specified timeframe; and (3) providing guidance to be
applied by individual programmes to efficiently and appropriately contribute to the
overall strategy at work (OECD, 2012a, 2013b, 2015). Hence, a financial competency
framework is a construct that can be used to provide useful summaries of a diverse
set of financial elements, in order to affect people’s financial behaviour, knowledge,
skills, attitudes, and motivations, in the form of learnable financial competencies in
regard to implementation and assessment. They can be put to good use in residential
education at university colleges.
Overall, the majority of the selected studies show that many contemporary univer-
sity students lack financial literacy, despite the fact that financial literacy is important
for their socialisation and daily lives. Besides, the general level of financial literacy of
residential students among student groups is relatively lower, which means students
should be encouraged to learn actively about financial literacy through programmes
or activities in residential colleges. In reviewing the literature on financial literacy,
we suggest that the support related to financial literacy offered by residential colleges
can improve students’ financial knowledge and skills.
One proposal for future research is to identify suitable residential education
programmes to encourage students to increase their interest in financial literacy while
participating in activities in a diverse residential environment. These activities may
include information sessions or seminars for financial aid and various scholarships,
or courses that allow students to learn how to use credit cards and manage money. For
example, the studies that this article reviewed involving either PFC sessions or FIR
programmes, can be used as a reference for future practice. Another recommendation
for future studies is that experimental research is needed to explore the short-term or
long-term effects of specifically designed financial literacy education programmes
applied in residential colleges. With the analysis of first-hand data, the evaluation of
various instructional approaches will become accessible.
124 J. Fu et al.
References
Ahsan, M. H. (2013). Financial literacy research on undergraduate students in Malaysia: Current

literature and research opportunities. International Journal of Education and Research, 1(11),
1–12.
Amagir, A., Groot, W., Maassen van den Brink, H., & Wilschut, A. (2018). A review of financial-
literacy education programs for children and adolescents. Citizenship, Social and Economics
Education, 17(1), 56–80. https:/doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/2047173417719555
Arthur, J., Waring, M., Coe, R., & Hedges, L. V. (2012). Research methods and methodologies in
education. SAGE Publications. https://doi.org/10.1080/02667363.2012.759425
Astin, A. W. (1985). Involvement is the cornerstone of excellence. Change: The Magazine of Higher
Learning, 17(4), 35–39. https://doi.org/10.1080/00091383.1985.9940532
Atkinson, A., & Messy, F. A. (2012). Measuring financial literacy: Results of the OECD Inter-
national Network on Financial Education (INFE) pilot study (Report No. 15). OECD Working
Papers on Finance, Insurance and Private Pensions, OECD Publishing. https:/doi.org/https://doi.
org/10.1787/20797117
Bandura, A. (1997). The anatomy of stages of change. American Journal of Health Promotion,
12(1), 8–10. https:/doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resuscitation.2013.03.017
Bandura, A. (2006). Guide for constructing self-efficacy scales. Self-Efficacy Beliefs of Adolescents,
5(1), 307–337. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004
Bobilya, A. J., & Akey, L. D. (2002). An evaluation of adventure education components in a
residential learning community. Journal of Experiential Education, 25(2), 296–304. https://doi.
org/10.1177/105382590202500208
Bodvarsson, Ö. B., & Walker, R. L. (2004). Do parental cash transfers weaken performance in
college? Economics of Education Review, 23(5), 483–495. https:/doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.econedurev.2003.11.009
Centre for Reviews and Dissemination. (2009). Systematic reviews: CRD’s guidance for
undertaking reviews in health care. Centre for Reviews and Dissemination, University of
York. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/file?type=supplementary&id=info:doi/https://doi.
org/10.1371/journal.pone.0201887.s005
Chase, M. W., Driscoll, L. G., Stewart, D. L., Hayhoe, C. R., & Leech, I. (2007). Exploring the
relationship of first-year, first semester college students’ mind styles and their consumer decision-
making styles. Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences Education, 25(1), 10–23.
Chen, H., & Volpe, R. P. (1998). An analysis of personal financial literacy among college students.
Financial Services Review, 7(2), 107–128. https:/doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/S1057-081
0(99)80006-7
Coben, D., Dawes, M., & Lee, N. (2005). Financial literacy education and skills for life: National
research and development centre for adult literacy and numeracy annual report. Institute of
Education, NRDC Publications. https:/doi.org/ https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6091-918-3_1
Conover, P. J., & Searing, D. D. (2000). A political socialization perspective. In L. M. McDonnell,
P. M. Timpane, & R. Benjamin (Eds.), Rediscovering the democratic purposes of education:
Studies in government and public policy (pp. 91–124). University Press of Kansas.
Cude, B., Lawrence, F., Lyons, A., Metzger, K., LeJeune, E., Marks, L., & Machtmes, K. (2006).
College students and financial literacy: What they know and what we need to learn. Proceedings
of the Eastern Family Economics and Resource Management Association, 102(9), 106–109.
Cull, M., & Whitton, D. (2011). University students’ financial literacy levels: Obstacles and aids.
The Economic and Labour Relations Review, 22(1), 99–114. https://doi.org/10.1177/103530461
102200106
Danes, S. M. (1994). Parental perceptions of children’s financial socialization. Financial Coun-
selling and Planning, 5(1), 127–149.
Danes, S. M., & Dunrud, T. (2014). Children and money: Teaching children money habits for
life. St. Paul, MN: Minnesota Extension Service Publication. https://www.semanticscholar.org/
paper/Children-and-Money-Teaching-Children-Money-Habits-Danes/03510cf9615c281ee134e
8471ed97e41aacb8bc3
Danes, S. M., & Hira, T. K. (1987). Money management knowledge of college students. Journal of
Student Financial Aid, 17(1), 4–16.
Feldman, S. S., & Elliott, G. R. (1990). At the threshold: The developing adolescent. Harvard
University Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01215990
Goetz, J. W., Tombs, J. W., & Hampton, V. L. (2005). Easing college students’ transition into the
financial planning profession. Financial Services Review, 14(3), 231.
Gopalakrishnan, S., & Ganeshkumar, P. (2013). Systematic reviews and meta-analysis: Under-
standing the best evidence in primary healthcare. Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care,
2(1), 9–14. https:/doi.org/https://doi.org/10.4103/2249-4863.109934
Grifoni, A., & Messy, F. A. (2012). Current status of national strategies for financial education: A
comparative analysis and relevant practices (Report No. 16). OECD Working Papers on Finance,
Insurance and Private Pensions, OECD Publishing. https:/doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1088/0031-
8949/86/01/015603
Gudmunson, C. G., Ray, S. K., & Xiao, J. J. (2016). Financial socialization. In J. J. Xiao, (Ed.),
Handbook of consumer finance research (pp. 61–72). Springer. https:/doi.org/https://doi.org/10.
1007/978-3-319-28887-1_5
Hilgert, M. A., Hogarth, J. M., & Beverly, S. G. (2003). Household financial management: The
connection between knowledge and behavior. Federal Reserve Bulletin, 89, 309–322.
Jariah, M., Husniyah, A. R., Laily, P., & Britt, S. (2004). Financial behavior and problems among
university students: Need for financial education. Journal of Personal Finance, 3(1), 82–96.
Jorgensen, B. L., & Savla, J. (2010). Financial literacy of young adults: The importance of parental
socialization. Family Relations, 59(4), 465–478. https:/doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-
3729.2010.00616.x
Jump$tart. (2015). National standards in K-12 personal finance education (4th ed.). Jump$tart
Coalition for Personal Financial Literacy. https://www.jumpstart.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/
01/2017_NationalStandardsBook.pdf.
Kadoya, Y., & Khan, M. S. R. (2020). What determines financial literacy in Japan? Journal of Pension
Economics & Finance, 19(3), 353–371. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1474747218000379
Kalil, A., Ziol-Guest, K. M., & Coley, R. L. (2005). Perceptions of father involvement patterns
in teenage-mother families: Predictors and links to mothers’ psychological adjustment. Family
Relations, 54(2), 197–211. https:/doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0197-6664.2005.00016.x
Kasman, M., Heuberger, B., & Hammond, R. A. (2018). A review of large-scale youth financial
literacy education policies and programs. The Brookings Institution. https://www.brookings.edu/
wp-content/uploads/2018/10/ES_20181001_Financial-Literacy-Review.pdf.
Kim, J., & Chatterjee, S. (2013). Childhood financial socialization and young adults’ financial
management. Journal of Financial Counselling & Planning, 24(1), 61–79. https:/doi.org/https://
doi.org/10.1891/1052-3073.30.2.213
Kitchenham, B. (2004). Procedures for performing systematic reviews: Joint technical report.
Keele University and National ICT Australia Ltd. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Pro
cedures-for-Performing-Systematic-Reviews-Kitchenham/29890a936639862f45cb9a987dd599
dce9759bf5
Kitchenham, B., Brereton, O. P., Budgen, D., Turner, M., Bailey, J., & Linkman, S. (2009). System-
atic literature reviews in software engineering: A systematic literature review. Information and
Software Technology, 51(1), 7–15. https:/doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infsof.2008.09.009
Lusardi, A., & Mitchell, O. S. (2014). The economic importance of financial literacy: Theory and
evidence. Journal of Economic Literature, 52(1), 5–44. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.52.1.5
Marks, H. M., & Kuss, P. (2001). Socialization for citizenship through community service: Dispar-
ities in participation among US high school students. Sociological Focus, 34(4), 377–398.
https:/doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/00380237.2001.10571209
126 J. Fu et al.
Maurer, T. W., & Lee, S. A. (2011). Financial education with college students: Comparing peer-led
and traditional classroom instruction. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 32(4), 680–689.
https:/doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s10834-011-9266-z
Mayhew, M., Dahl, L., Hooten, Z., Duran, A., Stipeck, C., & Youngerman, E. (2018). Assessment of
collegiate residential environments & outcomes: ACREO annual report. Assessment of Collegiate
Residential Environments & Outcomes, College Impact Laboratory (CIL).
McNeal, J. V. (1987). Children as consumers: Insights and implications. Lexington Books. https://
books.google.com.hk/books/about/Children_as_Consumers.html?id=Zz-4AAAAIAAJ&redir_
esc=y
Minor, F. D. (1997). Bringing it home: Integrating classroom and residential experiences. About
Campus, 2(1), 21–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/108648229700200106
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., & Altman, D. G. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic
reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. Annals of Internal Medicine, 151(4), 264–
269. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000097
Moschis, G. P. (1985). The role of family communication in consumer socialization of children
and adolescents. Journal of Consumer Research, 11(4), 898–913. https:/doi.org/https://doi.org/
10.1086/209025
Moschis, G. P. (1987). Consumer socialization: A life cycle perspective. Lexington Books. https://
doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jors.2601549
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2005). OECD health data
2005: Statistics and indicators for 30 countries. OECD Publishing. http://www.oecd.org/trade/
about/
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2012a). OECD/INFE
high-level principles on national strategies for financial education. OECD Publishing. https://
www.oecd.org/daf/fin/financial-education/OECD-INFE-Principles-National-Strategies-Financ
ial-Education.pdf
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2012b). PISA 2012 financial
literacy assessment framework. OECD Publishing. https://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisaproducts/469
62580.pdf
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2013a). PISA 2012 assess-
ment and analytical framework: Mathematics, reading, science, problem solving and financial
literacy. OECD Publishing. https:/doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264190511-en
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2013b). Advancing national
strategies for financial education: A joint publication by Russia’s G20 presidency and the OECD.
OECD Publishing. https://www.oecd.org/finance/financial-education/advancing-national-strate
gies-for-financial-education.htm
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2014a). Global value chains:
Challenges, opportunities, and implications for policy. OECD Publishing. https://www.sem
anticscholar.org/paper/GLOBAL-VALUE-CHAINS%3A-CHALLENGES%2C-OPPORTUNI
TIES%2C-AND/f48208032b3e6f9c981497dcf88a2d57d1f7cc75
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2014b). PISA 2012 results:
Students and money: Financial literacy skills for the 21st century (Vol. 6). OECD Publishing.
http://www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/pisa-2012-results-volume-vi.pdf
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2015). OECD/INFE core
competencies framework on financial literacy for youth. OECD Publishing.
Panic, N., Leoncini, E., De Belvis, G., Ricciardi, W., & Boccia, S. (2013). Evaluation of the endorse-
ment of the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analysis (PRISMA) state-
ment on the quality of published systematic review and meta-analyses. PLoS ONE, 8(12), e83138.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0083138
Perry, V. G., & Morris, M. D. (2005). Who is in control? The role of self-perception, knowledge, and
income in explaining consumer financial behavior. Journal of Consumer Affairs, 39(2), 299–313.
https:/doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6606.2005.00016.x
Sabri, M. F., Cook, C. C., & Gudmunson, C. G. (2012). Financial well-being of Malaysian college
students. Asian Education and Development Studies, 1(2), 153–170. https:/doi.org/https://doi.
org/10.1108/20463161211240124
Sabri, M. F., MacDonald, M., Hira, T. K., & Masud, J. (2010). Childhood consumer experience and
the financial literacy of college students in Malaysia. Family and Consumer Sciences Research
Journal, 38(4), 455–467. https:/doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1552-3934.2010.00038.x
Shapiro, N. S., & Levine, J. H. (1999). Creating learning communities: A practical guide to winning
support, organizing for change, and implementing programs. Jossey-Bass Inc. Publishers.
https:/doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/10790195.2000.10850108
Sherraden, M. S., & Ansong, D. (2013). Conceptual development of the CYFI model of children
and youth as economic citizens (Report No. 13–03). Washington University Center for Social
Development.
Shim, S., Barber, B. L., Card, N. A., Xiao, J. J., & Serido, J. (2010). Financial socialization of
first-year college students: The roles of parents, work, and education. Journal of Youth and
Adolescence, 39(12), 1457–1470. https:/doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-009-9432-x
Strothmann, M., & Antell, K. (2010). The live-in librarian: Developing library outreach to university
residence halls. Reference & User Services Quarterly, 50(1), 48–58. https://doi.org/10.5860/
rusq.50n1.48
Part V
Ongoing Research and Implications
Chapter 11
Comparison of How Residential Hall
Experience Impacts Hong Kong
University Students’ Development
Elsie Ong and Samuel Kai Wah Chu
Abstract Residential halls are an important component of college education, bene-

fiting holistic personal development, as documented by previous research (Kuh et al
in What matters to student success: A review of the literature [Commissioned report
for the National Symposium on Postsecondary Student Success]. National Post-
secondary Education Cooperative, 2006; Pascarella et al in Foreword. Schroeder
and Mable (eds) Realizing the educational potential of residence halls, Jossey-Bass,
1994). While previous research has tended to focus on Western universities, the
current research aims to improve Hong Kong university students’ residential hall
experiences by providing a comprehensive analysis of the impact of hall experiences
on students’ academic, social, and independent developmental domains. Comparing
students living in residential halls with those who are not residents, it was predicted
that students living in halls would outperform their non-hall counterparts in most
aspects of development. A total of 1,904 participants from four universities in Hong
Kong were recruited to participate in a self-assessed questionnaire tapping into
various aspects of students’ development. Contrary to the predictions, the results
revealed that students living in halls significantly outranked non-hall residents in
five aspects of development: peer-group interactions and communication skills (p =
.012), self-efficacy (p = .019), problem-solving skills (p = .012), self-control (p =
.001), and open-mindedness (p < .001). These results imply that there is still much
to be done to improve students’ residential hall experiences to facilitate students’
personal development.
Keywords College student · Hall residence · Academic development · Social

development · Independent development
S. K. W. Chu
University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong
e-mail: samchu@hku.hk
E. Ong (B)
University of Northampton, Northampton, UK
e-mail: elsieong@hku.hk
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8906-2_11
132 E. Ong and S. K. W. Chu
Comparison of How Hall Experience Impacts Students’

Academic, Social, and Independent Developmental Domains
Unlike academic classes, which aim to deliver one of the major aims of education—
intellectual development (Whitehead, 1967)—residential halls are ideal places for
college students to grow and develop in areas of practical knowledge, values, matu-
rity, and citizenship (Blimling, 2014). Residential halls are not solely considered
as dormitories, which only provide spaces for sleeping. Instead, residential halls
are major social and recreational platforms, where students learn and grow outside
classrooms (Schroeder & Mable, 1994). The importance of learning communities
was raised by Astin (1991), who stated that ‘the potential for their success is signif-
icantly enhanced by making use of a location where a majority of freshman spend
most of their time—the residence halls’ (p. 21). From this, it is clear that residential
halls are places for students to integrate their curricular and co-curricular experience;
hence, this is how residential education takes place (Marchese, 1994). Residential
education is education provided in an environment where students both live and learn
outside of their family homes. Previous research on residential education is mostly
focused on Western universities, which is only generalisable to the specific residen-
tial hall culture there. The specific benefits of the residential culture in Hong Kong
are unclear.
Positive Outcomes Specifically Related to Students Living

in Residential Halls
Prior studies have demonstrated many positive educational outcomes from living in
residential halls (Kuh et al., 2006; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991, 2005). For example,
the model of multiple intelligences by Gardner (2000) suggests that living in halls
contributes most directly to intrapersonal and existential development (which are
collectively referred to as the independent developmental domain in this paper)
and interpersonal development (which is referred to as the social developmental
domain). Ecological theory1 (Peterson et al., 1998) further suggests that an individual
is embedded in five ecological systems and the extent of the interactions among these
systems influences the growth and development of the individual directly (Bron-
fenbrenner, 1977, 1989, 2009). Among these five systems, the microsystem is the
innermost layer, referring to the groups that mostly impact an individual’s develop-
ment through interactions, such as parents and classmates. Residential halls operate
as an essential microsystem and serve as an immediate context in which univer-
sity students primarily live throughout the academic year (Renn & Arnold, 2003).
Another example is Astin’s (1984) involvement theory, which postulates that students
1The ecological systems theory holds that we encounter different environments throughout
our lifespan that may influence our behavior to varying degrees. The five systems include the
microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, the macrosystem, and the chronosystem.
11 Comparison of How Residential Hall Experience Impacts Hong Kong … 133
living in residential halls may learn and develop actively through their intermediate
system. This includes development through interactions with other hall residents,
social rendezvous, deliberate and inadvertent experiences, and circumstances for
probing interests (Blimling, 2014). These models lend support to the importance of
scrutinising the unique role of residential halls in student development in terms of
three major domains: academic, social, and independent domains.
Concerning the academic developmental domain, we explore three aspects in this
paper: academic impacts, time management, and planning skills. Academic impacts
include striving for excellence in academic studies, enthusiasm for further learning,
higher academic achievements, intellectual stimulation, and analytical skills (Chu
et al., 2019). Time management includes time estimation and allocation, working
under time constraints, designing and utilising systems to trace information, and
managing tasks (Lay & Schouwenburg, 1993). Planning skills include establishing
roadmaps to plan and prioritise the steps toward goal attainment or task completion,
and differentiation between more important and less important issues (Shanahan
et al., 2011). In past literature, when compared to those who had no hall experience,
students who lived in residential halls learned more, were less likely to drop out, and
were more likely to graduate from college (Gellin, 2003; Pelter et al., 1999; Schudde,
2011). When controlling previous academic performance and socioeconomic vari-
ables, however, students who lived in residential halls did not show any significant
difference in academic performance compared to students not living in residential
halls (Blimling, 2014; Pascarella, 1992; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005).
Concerning the social developmental domain, we explore three aspects in this
chapter: peer-group interactions and communication skills, cultural exchanges, and
global/social awareness and empathy. Peer-group interactions and communication
skills, or interpersonal skills, are a set of abilities for dealing with other people
and relationships effectively, such as adaptively interpreting social cues, demon-
strating social cognition and interests, and interacting with others in an appropriate
social manner (Gardner, 2000). Cultural exchanges include the comprehension of
how various cultures and people from different cultural and ethnic backgrounds
interact, perceptions of close relationships and exchanges between students from
different cultural backgrounds, and a strong desire to promote exchanges between
students from different cultural backgrounds (Palinkas et al., 2009). Global/social
awareness and empathy include the awareness of one’s role as a global or social
citizen, perceiving information and ideas from a global or multifaceted perspective,
and placing oneself in others’ positions, so as to understand or feel what people
from other racial and cultural backgrounds are experiencing or feeling (Doscher,
2013; Wang et al., 2003). Intensive social exchanges and interactions boost the social
awareness, social cognition, social motivation, and social skills of students living in
residential halls (Blimling, 2014). Apart from the better comprehension and inter-
pretation of others’ emotions, hall experiences have been found to be beneficial to
students living in residential halls, as students living in residential halls encounter
others with various ethnic, racial, or cultural backgrounds, which contributes to their
diversity awareness and openness to experiences (Crisp & Turner, 2011; Pascarella,
1996).
Concerning the independent developmental domain, we explore four aspects in

this paper: self-efficacy, problem-solving skills, self-control, and open-mindedness.
Self-efficacy is the belief one holds in one’s own capabilities to succeed or accomplish
goals (Bandura, 1982). Problem-solving skills include problem identification, solu-
tions generation, and executing the solutions (Beyer, 1988). Self-control is the ability
to manage one’s own thoughts, emotions, and behaviour when facing temptations
and impulses (DeLisi, 2014). Open-mindedness is a personality mega-trait, tapping
into one’s tendency to be receptive in a new situation and being willing to accept
information that goes against one’s own opinions (Peterson & Seligman, 2004).
Self-disclosure among students living in residential halls fosters self-awareness, self-
reflection, and introspection (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006; Lee & Kalyuga, 2014),
thereby helping students living in residential halls to acquire more self-knowledge
(Siegel, 2012). Through trial and error, students living in residential halls self-monitor
by learning what to disclose and what not to disclose to articulate their images, even
when being compelled to disclose. Thus, students living in residential halls acquire
self-control skills at the same time. Moreover, students living in residential halls were
found to engage in intellectual discussions or even debates on moral, ethic, sociopo-
litical, or religious issues, as well as topics related to the purposes and meanings
of life and personal missions, as they advance their epistemological judgments and
metacognitive skills (Blakemore, 2012; Cullum & Harton, 2007).
Hall Experience Factors Benefiting Students’ Development
Social group identity (definition) assists in the personal development of students

living in residential halls. The processes of differentiation, assimilation, and the
identification of social groups in residential halls help to build up self-esteem
(Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005), especially when individuals perceive the group they
belong to as being better than others (Kimmel, 2008). As students living in residential
halls place a great deal of emphasis on their group identity, they tend to devote more
time to activities related to their group identity. Thus, their values and beliefs might
conform to the group (Cullum & Harton, 2007).
Roommates and other peers also assist in the personal development of students
living in residential halls. About half of students living in halls spend more time
with their roommates than with other friends. Slightly more than a quarter of these
students considered their roommates as their best friends (Stinebrickner & Stine-
brickner, 2006). In a study conducted by Cullum and Harton (2007), it was revealed
that, for students living in residential halls, more than 30% of their friends live in the
same living unit or same floor and 18% of their friends live in the same residential
halls, while about a quarter of their friends live in other residential halls and about
a quarter of their friends do not live in residential halls. Moreover, physical prox-
imity significantly predicts students’ social interactions (Cullum & Harton, 2007).
It was found that students living in residential halls tend to interact with their fellow
hallmates face-to-face and share more similar attitudes to those living closest to
them (Cullum & Harton, 2007). Furthermore, roommates were found to be effective
in terms of promoting self-acceptance and academic performance (Shook & Clay,
2012; Shook & Fazio, 2008). Finally, roommates and other peers in halls can play a
significant role in students’ decisions to take part in social groups or events (Eisen-
berg et al., 2014; Foster, 2006). Apart from that, peer and social group attachment
allows for emotional bonding among students living in halls, so that halls serve as a
safe haven for students to explore larger college communities.
In order to promote students’ whole-person development and to maximise their
positive educational outcomes, over the past few decades, scholars have attempted to
identify good practices of successfully integrating college students’ formal and struc-
tured academic experiences with their informal residential hall experiences (Foubert
et al., 1998; Schroeder & Mable, 1994). Echoing Blimling’s (2001) four communities
of practice in the student affairs model (i.e., student development, student learning,
student administration, and student services), Riker and DeCoster’s (1971) hier-
archy of educational objectives of residential halls argued that halls should not only
target the provision and maintenance of a safe physical environment and adequate
facilities, but should also construct guidelines favourable for community living,
building a harmonious environment for other hall residents, and, ultimately, offering
opportunities for students’ growth and development.
Rationale for the Current Research
Whereas the existing body of literature has explored the positive outcomes, the
factors behind, and the respective good practices of living in residential halls, a
research gap was identified by this study. To date, there is a lack of comprehensive
research contrasting the academic, social, and independent development of students
living in residential halls and students not living in residential halls, as previous
research has overwhelmingly examined only a few aspects (e.g., self-acceptance
and academic performance; Shook & Clay, 2012; Shook & Fazio, 2008). More-
over, previous research has concentrated on university students in Western countries.
Therefore, the results may not be generalisable to Hong Kong university students
and the unique residential life there. Chu et al. conducted a study on one university
in Hong Kong to identify which demographic is more likely to participate in hall
activities. To extend Chu et al.’s study, this research aims to investigate the benefits
of living in residential halls in four Hong Kong universities, thus encouraging more
active participation in hall activities.
Having taken all of the above findings into account, this research aims to provide
a comprehensive analysis of the development of the academic, social, and indepen-
dence of students living in residential halls and students not living in residential halls.
Given the many positive outcomes found in the previous literature, it was hypothe-
sised that students living in residential halls would outperform students not living in
halls in most aspects of development.
Methodology
Participants
The research team recruited 1904 hall residents in four Hong Kong universities to
participate in the study in exchange for a drink coupon of small monetary value. A
total of 1,359 of the participants were female (71.4%) and 545 participants were male
(28.6%). The number of participants from the four universities were 762 (40.0%),
270 (14.2%), 441 (23.2%), and 431 (22.6%), respectively. In terms of their cultural
backgrounds, 1390 of the participants were local (73.0%), and 504 of them were
non-local (26.5%). The majority of the participants were undergraduates (N = 1635;
85.2%) and the majority were currently residing in halls (N = 1528; 80.3%).
Measures
The questionnaire used for this study consisted of three sections: demographic infor-
mation, perception of hall experience, and impact of hall experience. The academic,
social, and independent aspects measured in this study were based on 77 self-report
items formatted as multiple-choice structured questions in Section Three of the ques-
tionnaire. All of the questions were presented in the same order online via Survey-
Monkey, which participants accessed via their own electronic devices in their own
time.
In Section One (demographic information), seven items were asked to ascertain
the student’s gender, the university in which the student was currently studying, the
student’s status (i.e., full-time, part-time, exchange student, or alumni), the student’s
level of study (i.e., undergraduate or postgraduate student), the student’s year of
study, the origin of the student (i.e., local or non-local student), and the hall in which
the student was currently residing.
The impact of hall experience was divided into three parts, with a total of 77 items.
The first part, containing 15 items, focused on the impact of hall experience on the
academic developmental domain. Ratings for this part were evaluated on a seven-
point Likert scale ranging from one (strongly disagree) to seven (strongly agree). The
impacts of hall experience on the academic developmental domain were divided into
three aspects: academic impacts, time management, and planning skills. There were
five items per aspect of academic development (see Table 4 in the appendix for the
items for each aspect listed under the impact of hall experience on academic aspects).
Questions about academic impacts were adapted from a recent study conducted by
Chu et al. (2019), while questions about time management and planning skills were
adapted from the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function—Adult Version
(Isquith et al., 2006). A higher score indicated higher proficiency in each aspect. In
this sample, the internal consistencies of the three aspects were good (Cronbach’s
αs > 0.8; Shemwell et al., 2015, p. 68).
The second part, with 29 items, focused on the impact of hall experience on
the students’ social developmental domain. Ratings for this part were evaluated on
a seven-point Likert scale ranging from one (strongly disagree) to seven (strongly
agree). The impacts of hall experience on the social developmental domain were
divided into three aspects: peer-group interactions and communication skills, cultural
exchanges, and global/social awareness and empathy. There were 11 items under
peer-group interactions and communication skills, which were adapted from The
Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (Zimet et al., 1988) and the
revised version of the Institutional Integration Scale (Pascarella & Terenzini, 1980);
eight items under cultural exchanges; and 10 items under global/social awareness
and empathy (see Table 5 in the appendix for the items for each aspect listed under the
impact of hall experience on interpersonal relationships). A higher score indicated
higher proficiency in regard to each aspect. In this sample, the internal consistencies
of the three aspects were excellent (Cronbach’s αs > 0.9).
The third part, with 33 items, focused on the impact of hall experience on students’
independent developmental domain. Ratings for this part were evaluated on a seven-
point Likert scale ranging from one (strongly disagree) to seven (strongly agree).
The impacts of hall experience on the independent developmental domain were
divided into four aspects: self-efficacy, problem-solving skills, self-control, and open-
mindedness. There were six items under self-efficacy, which were adapted from the
Generalized Self-Efficacy Scale (Schwarzer & Jerusalen, 1995); eight items under
problem-solving skills; eight items under self-control, which were adapted from the
Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function—Adult Version (Isquith et al.,
2006); and 11 items under open-mindedness, which were adapted from The Big-
Five Inventory (John & Srivastava, 1999) (see Table 6 in the appendix for the items
for each aspect listed under the impact of hall experience on intrapersonal aspects).
A higher score indicated higher proficiency in regard to each aspect. In this sample,
the internal consistencies of the four aspects were acceptable (Cronbach’s αs > 0.7).
Figure 11.1 shows the relationship between the developmental domain and the
developmental aspect, as described in Section Three of the questionnaire.
Results
Figure 11.2 presents the average of participants’ self-assessed scores across all 10
aspects of development. Looking at the pattern in Fig. 11.2, it appears that students
living in halls significantly outranked their non-hall counterparts in only five aspects
of development: peer-group interactions and communication skills, self-efficacy,
problem-solving skills, self-control, and open-mindedness. Moreover, students not
living in halls outranked students living in halls in regard to academic impact. To
test these apparent effects, the data were analysed using independent sample t-tests.
The results are presented in Tables 11.1, 11.2, and 11.3.
Fig. 11.1 The relationship

between the developmental
domain and the
developmental aspect
Academic Developmental Domain
As shown from the data in Table 11.1, students living in residential halls reported
significantly lower levels of academic impact compared to students not living in
residential halls (t (1879) = −2.371, p = 0.018). In regard to time management and
planning (see Table 11.1), we found no statistically significant differences between
students living in residential halls and those not living in residential halls in terms of
time management (t (1878) = 1.381, p = 0.167) and planning (t (1877) = 1.535, p
= 0.125).
Social Developmental Domain
As shown by the data presented in Table 11.2, students living in residential halls
reported significantly better performance in terms of peer group interaction and
communication skills compared with students not living in residential halls (t (1832)
Fig. 11.2 Average scores of all participants across the 10 aspects; error bars represent standard
errors
Table 11.1 The impact of hall experience on students’ academic developmental domain
Hall residents Non-hall t p Cohen’s d
residents
M SD M SD
1. Academic impact 4.62 1.02 4.76 1.03 −2.37 0.018* −0.14
2. Time management 4.89 1.05 4.81 1.08 1.38 0.167 0.08
3. Planning 4.94 1.02 4.84 1.12 1.54 0.125 0.09
* p < 0.05
Table 11.2 The impact of hall experience on students’ social developmental domain
residents
M SD M SD
4. Peer-group 4.97 1.02 4.82 1.06 2.51 0.012* 0.15
interactions and
communication skills
5. Cultural exchanges 4.92 1.05 4.80 1.08 1.92 0.055† 0.11
6. Global/social 5.01 0.98 4.92 1.02 1.44 0.148 0.09
awareness and empathy
* p < 0.05. † p < 0.10
Table 11.3 The impact of hall experience on students’ independent developmental domain
residents
M SD M SD
7. Self-efficacy 4.91 0.97 4.77 1.07 2.35 0.019* 0.14
8. Problem-solving skills 5.00 0.96 4.85 1.14 2.51 0.012* 0.14
9. Self-control 4.17 1.25 3.90 1.61 3.43 0.001** 0.18
10.Open-mindedness 4.90 0.89 4.70 0.98 3.56 < 0.001*** 0.21
* p < 0.05. ** p < 0.01. *** p < 0.001
= 2.50, p = 0.012). In regard to cultural exchange, students living in residential halls

reported marginally significantly better results than students not living in residential
halls (t (1832) = 1.92, p = 0.055). We found no statistically significant difference in
students’ global/social awareness and empathy between students living in residential
halls and those not living in residential halls (t (1832) = 1.44, p = 0.148).
Independent Developmental Domain
As shown from the data presented in Table 11.3, students living in residential halls
reported significantly higher levels of self-efficacy than those not living in residential
halls (t (1785) = 2.348, p = 0.019). Students living in residential halls also reported
significantly better problem-solving skills than those not living in residential halls (t
(1784) = 2.510, p = 0.012). Moreover, students living in residential halls reported
significantly higher levels of self-control than those not living in residential halls (t
(1902) = 3.437, p = 0.001). Students living in residential halls also reported greater
levels of open-mindedness than those not living in residential halls (t (1785) = 3.560,
p < 0.001). In particular, open-mindedness met the minimum threshold (Cohen’s d
= 0.2) of small effect sizes (Cohen’s d = 0.209), demonstrating that the effect of
the difference observed between students living in residential halls and students not
living in residential halls is small.
Discussion
The results of this study lend partial support to the proposed hypothesis, as students
living in the residential halls outperformed students not living in halls in only five
aspects of development. The results show that hall experience did equip the partici-
pating students with better skills in a majority of their social and independent devel-
opmental domains. However, hall experience did not contribute much to students’
academic developmental domain.
Academic Developmental Domain
Academic Impact. Students living in residential halls demonstrated significantly

lower levels of academic performance compared to students not living in residential
halls. This contradicts the existing body of literature, which found no significant
difference in terms of academic performance between students living in residential
halls and students not living in residential halls. It may be that the current research
did not take students’ previous academic performance and socioeconomic factors as
control variables and was therefore not able to sreplicate the non-significant differ-
ence results regarding academic impact between hall-living students and non-hall-
living students. This might also be due to the fact that hall education places a great deal
of emphasis on non-academic skills, particularly social and affective skills, instead of
academic skills (Savitz-Romer et al., 2015). Moreover, when compared with students
not living in residential halls, students living in residential halls are more likely to
face hall-specific stressors (e.g., poor relationships with roommates, arguing with
floormates, studying in noisy apartments) and conflicts among mesosystems (e.g.,
the interplay between hall life versus family life), which might indirectly affect their
academic achievements (Renn & Arnold, 2003; Ross et al., 1999).
Time Management. When compared with students not living in residential halls,
students living in residential halls did not seem to be more able to master time
management skills, which are essential to executive functioning (Kaufman, 2010).
Beyond that, students living in halls are exclusively put under pressure to effectively
manage the use of their time and arrange their schedules for hall-related activities
(e.g., ball games, cultural events, inter-hall events) (Dusselier et al., 2005). Once
hall residents join a hall team, they are responsible for and accountable to not only
themselves, but also the group they belong to; they have a new group identity (Terry
et al., 1999). This makes time management of the utmost importance for students
living in residential halls, as they have to live up to the expectations of their hallmates
by utilising their out-of-class time (Clark, 2005). As students living in residential halls
are likely to bear various responsibilities, there is still room for improvement in terms
of their time management.
To help students living in residential halls to equip themselves with time manage-
ment skills, project-based interactive programmes can be implemented. These
programmes adapt the three major components in promoting motivation from self-
determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000). In terms of autonomy, students living in
residential halls are invited to brainstorm ideas for what they would like to produce
at the end of the programme (Deci et al., 1994), such as a video production on social
security or a peer activity on multiculturalism. Students living in residential halls
have the right to opt to produce something they find meaningful or interesting. In
terms of competence, a tutor would guide residents through the preparation work to
be done and the estimated time required for each small task (e.g., the time needed
for rehearsals, interviews, buying resources, etc.) (Niemiec & Ryan, 2009). The
tutor would also teach necessary time management strategies that facilitate and lead
to residents’ final production. Thus, by applying the strategies they learned in the
preparation process, residents are likely to feel competent through enactive mastery
experiences. In terms of relatedness, students living in residential halls are motivated
to learn time management skills by having close and secure relationships with their
tutor (Niemiec & Ryan, 2009).
Planning. Similar to time management, when compared to students not living
in residential halls, students living in residential halls appeared to not have better
planning skills, which are another essential component of executive functioning
(Meltzer, 2018). This is surprising because, although both groups of students need
to deal with competing priorities (e.g., planning for family and occupational affairs),
students living in residential halls exclusively need good planning skills to arrange
and deal with hall and campus affairs (Lezak, 1995). This demonstrates the necessity
of polishing planning skills among students living in residential halls. Therefore,
hall education urgently needs to provide training on planning through organically
incorporating life planning into available training curricula.
In the life planning curriculum, coaching could be provided to students living in
residential halls. Students living in residential halls get to prioritise what is important
to them themselves, figure out what they see themselves doing in 10 years, how to
organise their own time, and how to self-monitor, self-regulate, and reflect on their
progress to make adjustments (Zimmerman & Paulsen, 1995). Life coaches could first
invite students living in residential halls to learn more about themselves through inter-
views and validated inventories, then discuss current and possible future situations
with residents, sets major and minor goals, coach residents to break down goals into
smaller measurable or observable pieces through task analysis and backward plan-
ning, encourage residents to make committed actions that they feel comfortable about,
evaluate residents’ progress, and finally serve as confidants for cognitive resources
and emotional support (Green et al., 2007). Coaches could be professionally-trained
alumni of halls or hall tutors. Thus, it is hoped that, through learning planning skills in
coaching programmes, students living in residential halls can carry out life planning
in accordance with their passions, missions, professions, and vocations (Miralles &
Garcia, 2017).
Social Developmental Domain
Peer-Group Interactions and Communication Skills. Living in residential halls

enhances students’ interpersonal skills, which might be why students living in resi-
dential halls outperformed students not living in residential halls in this aspect.
Among all aspects of interpersonal skills, students’ peer-group interactions and
communication skills are polished under residential halls’ emphasis on interpersonal
cooperation, which can manifest in various group-based activities.
Through daily interactions with different parties, including roommates, floor-
mates, and teammates who are of various ages, nationalities, ethnic origins, and
cultural backgrounds, students are equipped with interpersonal communication skills,
such as active listening, affect recognition, verbal and non-verbal communication,

emotion regulation and expression, and conflict resolution (McKay et al., 2009).
Cultural Exchange. Students living in residential halls performed only
marginally better than students not living in residential halls in this aspect. Univer-
sities at Hong Kong hold top rankings in internationalisation across various global
higher education measures because non-local students make up a sizeable popu-
lation of the university community. Although residential halls provide a platform
for students with diverse upbringings and backgrounds to interact with one another,
more should be done to break down the language and cultural barriers between
local and non-local residents, which might the crux of why hall residents showed
a similar level of cultural exchange when compared with non-hall residents. As
explained by Chen (2002), the lack of familiarity with the culture of conversation
partners is an obstacle for students to overcome when identifying common topics
for conversations. This might sometimes create awkward group dynamics. Such a
cultural barrier becomes more salient when students of different nationalities live
under the same roof. For instance, residents might be annoyed by their floormates
or roommates who cook unfamiliar-smelling food or invite other foreign students to
stay over (Pedersen, 1991). Such conflicts between residents from different countries
may arise from their lack of intercultural communication competence. As suggested
by Flaherty (2009), intercultural communication competence involves being flexible
and respectful when interacting with people who come from different cultures and/or
have different behaviours, values, and opinions.
In order to help students living in residential halls to develop positive and benefi-
cial cultural exchanges during their hall life, not only should intercultural activities be
held but, more importantly, evidenced-based psychoeducational programmes (e.g.,
imagined intergroup contact) should be implemented to celebrate and embrace diver-
sity, to facilitate the acceptance of differences, and to encourage students to take an
active role in befriending others (Vezzali et al., 2015).
Global/Social Awareness and Empathy. Students living in residential halls did
not differ significantly from students not living in residential halls in regard to
global/social awareness and empathy. This is a worrying trend, as global aware-
ness and global citizenship have become formal educational and learning outcomes
of colleges in the face of sociopolitical, economic, cultural, and technological global-
isation (Werner & Case, 1997), and students living in residential halls should ideally
have more opportunities to gain global awareness, as they live in close proximity
with people from other cultures. In reality, some local residents may be exposed to
current foreign affairs through interacting with their non-local counterparts. On the
other hand, other local residents might be confined to their indigenous social circles
and thus have few motives to learn more about current issues abroad from other
non-local residents in hall settings.
Social inclusion programmes can be implemented to help students living in resi-
dential halls to grasp the construct of empathy. In these programmes, students from
diverse backgrounds living in residential halls put themselves in others’ shoes, feel
what others might be feeling, and think what others might be thinking. The most
significant part of these programmes is their ability to help students translate the
skills they acquire and to display empathetic and pro-social behaviours throughout
hall life. The promotion of a consciousness and understanding of global affairs, and a
state-of-the-planet awareness, which refer to having knowledge about global condi-
tions such as population growth and inter-nation relations, can be cultivated through
a series of interactive workshops (Hanvey, 1976). This can propagate hall residents’
state-of-the-planet awareness and sympathy by reducing ultimate attribution errors,
stereotypes, and prejudice (Case, 1993; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005).
Independent Developmental Domain
Self-Efficacy. Students living in halls were more likely to have confidence in their
own abilities and perceive themselves as more self-efficacious than students not living
in residential halls (Zimmerman, 2000). This comes as no surprise, as it is in accor-
dance with Bandura’s (1993) perceived self-efficacy model. First, students living in
residential halls gain mastery experience through goal-directed persistence and over-
coming difficulties when participating in hall activities (e.g., drama competitions,
mass dances, swimming galas), which might not be available to students not living
in residential halls, thereby boosting their self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977). Second,
students living in residential halls gain vicarious experience by learning from their
peers, shadowing, and through modelling (Bandura, 1982). The strong networking
of hall graduates also provides students living in residential halls with mentoring and
coaching opportunities, such that they can learn from experienced alumni, thereby
enhancing their self-efficacy. Third, students living in residential halls are more self-
efficacious, as they receive verbal persuasion from their supportive peers (Bandura,
1977). Slogans such as ‘you can make it’ boost hall residents’ confidence in their
own abilities. Fourth, with a harmonious and inclusive environment, students living
in residential halls experience positive affective states and thus might translate those
states into the impetus of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1982).
Problem-Solving Skills. Students living in residential halls reported better
problem-solving skills than students not living in residential halls. It may be that
this is due to the way in which students living in residential halls have moved into
a new environment where they are expected to resolve their own problems (e.g.,
adjustment issues, daily chores, financial problems, interpersonal problems, etc.)
and family members are not always available to offer help (i.e., less parental control
and parental support; Mattanah et al., 2004). As they encounter more problems, they
engage in metacognitive processes that facilitate the solving of problems (Brown,
1987). In particular, they might first work out the root of the problems, then eval-
uate possible and feasible ways to deal with them, take action, and review the entire
problem-solving process to see if there are new problems that have arisen (Newell &
Simon, 1972; Runco, 1994).
Self-Control. The participating students living in residential halls demonstrated

better emotional regulation and impulse control in the face of desires and temp-
tations (i.e., better self-control) when compared with students not living in resi-
dential halls. As part of inhibitory control, a core component of executive func-
tioning skills (Muraven & Baumeister, 2000), self-control enables students living
in residential halls to be self-aware, to self-monitor, to oversee their own desires
and impulses, to evaluate alternative behaviours, and to avoid committing certain
aggressive behaviours (e.g., bullying, fighting, arguing, drinking) (Baer et al., 1991).
Students living in residential halls are also able to self-discipline themselves by
exerting willpower (Terenzini et al., 1994). This might be partly due to the fact
that students living in residential halls are under constant psychosocial evaluation by
their peers in daily hall life, as well as in post-event evaluation hall meetings, thereby
encouraging students living in residential halls to exert self-control over their own
behaviour in order to build or maintain a good impression on others (Tangney et al.,
2018). Another possible explanation is that news and information regarding indi-
viduals’ behaviour spread rapidly and extensively. So, students living in residential
halls have to remind themselves to act well and conform to the hall norms. A further
explanation may be that there is a great deal of freedom while staying in the halls,
as residents get to choose what they would like to do and get to refuse temptations
or invitations from others (Trope & Fishbach, 2000). Students living in residential
halls need to employ self-control during critical times (e.g., finals week) so that they
can balance their academic and non-academic lives.
Open-Mindedness. The participating students living in residential halls were
found to be more open-minded than the participating students not living in residential
halls, meaning that the former were more aware of their own biases and heuristics,
and were more tolerant of different opinions, as well as people holding different
ideas, than the latter (Hare, 1993). As discussed, it may be that residential halls
provide a common place for students with diverse backgrounds to interact, which is
not commonly institutionalised elsewhere on the college campus. With more positive
interactions with diverse peers of different races, nationalities, or ethnicities, it is not
surprising that students living in residential halls are more open-minded in terms of
new experiences and diverse opinions than students not living in residential halls
(Antonio, 2004; Laird, 2005).
Implications and Future Directions
A major implication of the current study is that there was a significant difference in
terms of academic impact between students living in residential halls and students
not living in residential halls. Further research might replicate the current study,
taking students’ previous academic performance and socioeconomic factors into
consideration, in order to investigate if this significant difference still exists.
Given that the students living in halls did not significantly outperform their non-
hall-living counterparts in four aspects (i.e., time management, planning, cultural
exchanges, and global/social awareness and empathy), future research could explore
the factors behind the comparable performance of students living in halls and students
not living in halls in regard to these four aspects, and scrutinise the effectiveness of
intervention programmes targeting these aspects of students life in residential halls.
Future research might also use mixed methods, including self-reported ques-
tionnaires, site visits, and individual and focus group interviews, to collect data
among university students, to tap into the underlying mechanisms of residential
hall education in terms of students’ development regarding peer-group interactions
and communication skills, self-efficacy, problem-solving skills, self-control, and
open-mindedness.
Conclusion
In this chapter, we have provided a comprehensive analysis of the impact of hall

education on three major domains of the development (i.e., academic, social, and
independent) of college students. We found that students living in halls signif-
icantly outperformed their non-hall counterparts in five aspects of development:
peer-group interactions and communication skills, self-efficacy, problem-solving
skills, self-control, and open-mindedness. Students living in halls did not signifi-
cantly outperform their non-hall counterparts in four respects: time management,
planning, cultural exchanges, and global/social awareness and empathy. The only
aspect in which students not living in halls outperformed their hall-living counter-
parts was academic impact. The data collection was carried out using quantitative
and qualitative data methods (namely, self-reported questionnaires, individual and
focus group interviews, and site visits), laying the groundwork for future research.
References
Antonio, A. L. (2004). When does race matter in college friendships? Exploring men’s diverse and
homogeneous friendship groups. The Review of Higher Education, 27(4), 553–575.
Astin, A. (1991). Achieving educational excellence. Jossey-Bass.
Baer, J. S., Stacy, A., & Larimer, M. (1991). Biases in the perception of drinking norms among
college students. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 52(6), 580–586.
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological
Review, 84(2), 191–215.
Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American Psychologist, 37(2),
122–147.
Bandura, A. (1993). Perceived self-efficacy in cognitive development and functioning. Educational
Psychologist, 28(2), 117–148.
Beyer, B. K. (1988). Developing a thinking skills program. Allyn and Bacon.
Blakemore, S.-J. (2012). Development of the social brain in adolescence. Journal of the Royal
Society of Medicine, 105(3), 111–116.
Blimling, G. S. (2001). Uniting scholarship and communities of practice in student affairs. Journal
why. Wiley.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human development. American
Psychologist, 32(7), 513–531.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1989). Ecological systems theory. In R. Vasta (Ed.), Annals of child develop-
ment: Six theories of child development: Revised formulations and current issues (pp. 187–249).
JAI Press.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (2009). The ecology of human development. Harvard University Press.
Bronfenbrenner, U., & Morris, P. A. (2006). The bioecological model of human development. In
W. Damon & R. M. Learner (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Theoretical models of human
(6th ed., Vol. 1, pp. 793–828). Wiley.
Brown, A. L. (1987). Metacognition, executive control, self-regulation, and other more myste-
rious mechanisms. In F. E. Weinert & R. H. Kluwe (Eds.), Metacognition, motivation, and
understanding (pp. 65–115). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Case, R. (1993). Key elements of a global perspective. Social Education, 57(6), 318–325.
Chen, L. (2002). Perceptions of intercultural interaction and communication satisfaction: A study
on initial encounters. Communication Reports, 15(2), 133–147.
Practice, 56(3), 326–339. https://doi.org/10.1080/19496591.2019.1582428
Clark, M. R. (2005). Negotiating the freshman year: Challenges and strategies among first-year
college students. Journal of College Student Development, 46(3), 296–316.
Crisp, R. J., & Turner, R. N. (2011). Cognitive adaptation to the experience of social and cultural
diversity. Psychological Bulletin, 137(2), 242–266.
Cullum, J., & Harton, H. (2007). Cultural evolution: Interpersonal influences, issue importance, and
the development of shared attitudes in college residence halls. Personality and Social Psychology
Bulletin, 33, 1327–1339.
Deci, E. L., Eghrari, H., Patrick, B. C., & Leone, D. R. (1994). Facilitating internalization: The
self-determination theory perspective. Journal of Personality, 62(1), 119–142.
DeLisi, M. (2014). Low self-control is a brain-based disorder. In K. M. Beaver, J. Barnes, & B. B.
Boutwell (Eds.), The nurture versus biosocial debate in criminology: On the origins of criminal
behavior and criminality (pp. 172–183). SAGE Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/978148334
9114.n11.
Doscher, S. P. (2013). The development of rubrics to measure undergraduate students’ global
awareness and global perspective: A validity study (Report No. AAI3517005). PsycINFO.
(1373444808; 2013-99090-135). https://search.proquest.com/docview/1373444808?accountid=
14548.
Dusselier, L., Dunn, B., Wang, Y., Shelley, M. C., II., & Whalen, D. F. (2005). Personal, health,
academic, and environmental predictors of stress for residence hall students. Journal of American
College Health, 54(1), 15–24.
Eisenberg, D., Golberstein, E., & Whitlock, J. (2014). Peer effects on risky behaviors: New evidence
from college roommate assignments. Journal of Health Economics, 33, 126–138.
Foster, G. (2006). It’s not your peers, and it’s not your friends: Some progress toward understanding
the educational peer effect mechanism. Journal of Public Economics, 90, 1455–1475.
Foubert, J. D., Tepper, R., & Morrison, D. (1998). Predictors of student satisfaction in university
residence halls. Journal of College and University Student Housing, 27(1), 41–46.
Flaherty, B. E. (2009). Cultures in residence: Intercultural communication competence for residence
life staff [Master’s thesis, University of Montana]. Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, &
Professional Papers (Accession No. 284).
Gardner, H. E. (2000). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century. Hachette.
Gellin, A. (2003). The effects of undergraduate student involvement on critical thinking: Meta-
analysis of the literature 1991–2000. Journal of College Student Development, 44(6), 746–762.
Green, S., Grant, A., & Rynsaardt, J. (2007). Evidence-based life coaching for senior high school
students: Building hardiness and hope. International Coaching Psychology Review, 2(1), 24–32.
Hanvey, R. G. (1976). An attainable global perspective. Center for Global Perspectives in Education.
Hare, W. (1993). Open-mindedness and education. McGill-Queen’s University Press.
Isquith, P. K., Roth, R. M., Gioia, G. A., & Staff, P. A. R. (2006). Behavior rating inventory of
executive function—adult version (BRIEF-A) interpretive report. PAR Psychological Assessment
Resources, Inc.
John, O. P., & Srivastava, S. (1999). The Big-Five trait taxonomy: History, measurement, and
theoretical perspectives. In L. A. Pervin & O. P. John (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory
and research (Vol. 2, pp. 102–138). Guilford Press.
Kaufman, C. (2010). Executive function in the classroom: Practical strategies for improving
performance and enhancing skills for all students. Brookes Publishing Company.
Kimmel, M. (2008). Guyland: The perilous world where boys become men. Harper Collins.
Kuh, G. D., Kinzie, J., Buckley, J. A., Bridges, B. K., & Hayek, J. C. (2006). What matters to
student success: A review of the literature [Commissioned report for the National Symposium on
Postsecondary Student Success]. National Postsecondary Education Cooperative.
Laird, T. F. N. (2005). College students’ experiences with diversity and their effects on academic self-
confidence, social agency, and disposition toward critical thinking. Research in Higher Education,
46(4), 365–387.
Lay, C. H., & Schouwenburg, H. C. (1993). Trait procrastination, time management, and academic
behavior. Journal of Social Behavior & Personality, 8(4), 647–662. https://search.proquest.com/
docview/618468500?accountid=14548.
Lee, C. H., & Kalyuga, S. (2014). Expertise reversal effects and its instructional implications. In V.
A. Benassi, C. E. Overson, & C. M. Hakala (Eds.), Applying science of learning in education:
Infusing psychological science into curriculum (pp. 31–44). American Psychological Association
(Division 2).
Lezak, M. (1995). Neuropsychological assessment. Oxford University Press.
Marchese, T. J. (1994). Foreword. In C. C. Schroeder & P. Mable (Eds.), Realizing the educational
potential of residence halls (pp. xi–xiii). Jossey-Bass.
Mattanah, J. F., Hancock, G. R., & Brand, B. L. (2004). Parental attachment, separation-
individuation, and college student adjustment: A structural equation analysis of mediational
effects. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51(2), 213.
McKay, M., Davis, M., & Fanning, P. (2009). Messages: The communication skills book. New
Harbinger Publications.
Meltzer, L. (Ed.). (2018). Executive function in education: From theory to practice. Guilford
Publications.
Miralles, F., & Garcia, H. (2017). Ikigai: The Japanese secret to a long and happy life. Penguin.
Muraven, M., & Baumeister, R. F. (2000). Self-regulation and depletion of limited resources: Does
self-control resemble a muscle? Psychological Bulletin, 126(2), 247–259.
Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1972). Human problem solving (Vol. 104, No. 9). Prentice Hall.
Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, competence, and relatedness in the classroom:
Applying self-determination theory to educational practice. School Field, 7(2), 133–144.
Palinkas, L. A., Aarons, G. A., Chorpita, B. F., Hoagwood, K., Landsverk, J., & Weisz, J. R.
(2009). Cultural exchange and the implementation of evidence-based practices: Two case studies.
Research on Social Work Practice, 19(5), 602–612. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731509335529
Pascarella, E. (1992). Cognitive impacts of living on campus versus commuting to college. Office
of Educational Research and Improvement.
Pascarella, E. T. (1996). On student development in college: Evidence from the national study of
student learning. Improve the Academy, 362, 17–29.
Pascarella, E. T., & Terenzini, P. T. (1980). Predicting persistence and voluntary dropout decisions
from a theoretical model. Journal of Higher Education, 51, 60–75.
Pascarella, E. T., & Terenzini, P. T. (1991). How college affects students. Jossey-Bass.
Pascarella, E. T., & Terenzini, P. T. (2005). How college affects students: A third decade of research
(Vol. 2). John Wiley & Sons.
Pascarella, E. T., Terenzini, P. T., & Blimling, G. S. (1994). The impact of residential life on
students. In C. C. Schroeder & P. Mable (Eds.), Realizing the educational potential of residence
halls (pp. 22–52). Jossey-Bass.
Pedersen, P. B. (1991). Counseling international students. The Counseling Psychologist, 19(1),
10–58.
Pelter, G. L., Laden, R., & Matranga, M. (1999). Student persistence in college: A review of the
research. Journal of College Student Retention, 1(4), 357–375.
Peterson, G., Allen, C. R., & Holling, C. S. (1998). Ecological resilience, biodiversity, and scale.
Ecosystems, 1, 6–18.
Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Open-mindedness judgment, critical thinking. Character
strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification (pp. 143–159). American Psychological
Association Oxford University Press, Washington New York, DC NY. https://search.proquest.
com/docview/620377378?accountid=14548.
Renn, K. A., & Arnold, K. D. (2003). Reconceptualizing research on college student peer culture.
The Journal of Higher Education, 74(3), 261–291.
Riker, H. C., & DeCoster, D. A. (1971). The educational role in college student housing. Journal
of College and University Student Housing, 35, 3–7.
Ross, S. E., Niebling, B. C., & Heckert, T. M. (1999). Sources of stress among college students.
College Student Journal, 33(2), 312–318.
Runco, M. A. (Ed.). (1994). Problem finding, problem solving, and creativity. Greenwood Publishing
Group.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic
motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78.
Savitz-Romer, M., Rowan-Kenyon, H. T., & Fancsali, C. (2015). Social, emotional, and affective
skills for college and career success. Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning, 47(5), 18–27.
Schudde, L. T. (2011). The casual effect of campus residency on college student retention. Review
of Higher Education, 34(4), 581–610.
Schroeder, C. C., & Mable, P. (1994). Realizing the educational potential of residence halls. Jossey-
Bass.
Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1995). Generalized self-efficacy scale. In J. Weinman, S. Wright, &
M. Johnston (Eds.), Measures in health psychology: A user’s portfolio. Causal and control beliefs
(pp. 35–37). NFER-NELSON.
Shanahan, L., McAllister, L., & Curtin, M. (2011). The party planning task: A useful tool in the
functional assessment of planning skills in adolescents with TBI. Brain Injury, 25(11), 1080–1090.
https://doi.org/10.3109/02699052.2011.607781
Shemwell, J. T., Chase, C. C., & Schwartz, D. L. (2015). Seeking the general explanation: A test
of inductive activities for learning and transfer. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 52(1),
58–83. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21185
Shook, N., & Clay, R. (2012). Interracial roommate relationships: A mechanism for promoting
sense of belonging at university and academic performance. Journal of Experimental Social
Psychology, 48(5), 1168–1172.
Shook, N. J., & Fazio, R. H. (2008). Roommate relationships: A comparison of interracial and
same-race living. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 11(4), 425–437.
Siegel, D. J. (2012). The developing mind: How relationships and the brain interact to shape who
we are (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
Stinebrickner, R., & Stinebrickner, T. R. (2006). What can be learned about peer effects using college
roommates? Evidence from new survey data and students from disadvantaged backgrounds.
Journal of Public Economics, 90, 1435–1454.
Tangney, J. P., Boone, A. L., & Baumeister, R. F. (2018). High self-control predicts good adjustment,
less pathology, better grades, and interpersonal success. In R. F. Baumeister (Ed.), Self-regulation
and self-control (pp. 181–220). Routledge.
Terenzini, P. T., Rendon, L. I., Upcraft, M. L., Millar, S. B., Allison, K. W., Gregg, P. L., & Jalomo, R.
(1994). The transition to college: Diverse students, diverse stories. Research in Higher Education,
35(1), 57–73.
Terry, D. J., Hogg, M. A., & White, K. M. (1999). The theory of planned behaviour: Self-identity,
social identity and group norms. British Journal of Social Psychology, 38(3), 225–244.
Trope, Y., & Fishbach, A. (2000). Counteractive self-control in overcoming temptation. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 79(4), 493–506.
Vezzali, L., Stathi, S., Crisp, R. J., Giovannini, D., Capozza, D., & Gaertner, S. L. (2015). Imagined
intergroup contact and common in group identity. Social Psychology, 46(5), 265–276.
Wang, Y., Davidson, M. M., Yakushko, O. F., Savoy, H. B., Tan, J. A., & Bleier, J. K. (2003). The
scale of ethnocultural empathy: Development, validation, and reliability. Journal of Counseling
Psychology, 50(2), 221–234. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.50.2.221
Werner, W., & Case, R. (1997). Themes of global education. In A. Wright & A. Sears (Eds.), Trends
and issues in Canadian social studies (pp. 176–193). Pacific Educational Press.
Whitehead, A. N. (1967). Aims of education. Simon and Schuster.
Zimet, G. D., Dahlem, N. W., Zimet, S. G., & Farley, G. K. (1988). The Multidimensional scale of
perceived social support. Journal of Personality Assessment, 52, 30–41.
Zimmerman, B. J., & Paulsen, A. S. (1995). Self-monitoring during collegiate studying: An invalu-
able tool for academic self-regulation. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 1995(63),
13–27.
Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Self-efficacy: An essential motive to learn. Contemporary Educational
Psychology, 25(1), 82–91.
Chapter 12
Capacity Building for Advancing
and Sustaining Residential Education
Abstract Capacity building is a term widely used in relation to different organi-

sations and public institutions for improvement. This chapter aims to discuss how
RE can be better sustained through capacity building at the individual, institutional
and societal levels by comparing the RE practices amongst a local university, the
Education University of Hong Kong and some universities in United Kingdom,
including the University of Manchester, University of Sheffield and the University
of Cambridge. It is expected that a better understanding of the relationship between
capacity building and RE advancement, including both its credits and limitations,
can be achieved through this chapter. Suggestions for further strengthening RE in
universities by capacity building in the three different levels will be recommended.
Keywords Capacity Building · Residential Education · Residential Education

Advancement · Sustainable Development
Introduction
In Hong Kong, under the government’s existing student hostel policy promulgated
in 1996, all local undergraduate students should be given the opportunity to stay
in student hostels for at least one year. Additionally, all research postgraduate and
non-local students, as well as undergraduate students whose daily travelling time
exceeds four hours, should be provided with hostel places.
However, owing to land and resources constraints, as well as competing priori-
ties, the number of publicly-funded student hostel places has fallen short of students’
needs. By the 2018–2019 academic year, the total projected shortfall of student hostel
places in universities funded by the local University Grant Committee (UGC) was
13,473, which represents about one-third of the total shortfall (Legislative Council
Archives of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Finance Committee, 2018,
p. 3). The shortfall has seriously limited opportunities to recruit international students
C. W.-M. Yu (B)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8906-2_12
152 C. W.-M. Yu
and enable local students to benefit from hostel life. A one-off grant of about 10
million Hong Kong dollars was arranged for six out of eight local UGC-funded
universities, to expedite the development of student hostels in order to meet hostel
shortfalls in full. It is expected that, through this one-off grant, the UGC-funded
universities can step up their efforts to organise more hostel-related programmes,
engender cultural exchange and interactions, and nurture multi-cultural student
integration. In fact, residential student leaders were found to be better developed
in terms of leadership, career development, multicultural experience, community
involvement, and ethical personal values (Ting et al., 2016).
Regarding the significance of residential education (RE) in universities and the
significant impacts of capacity development on RE, such as the aforementioned
government policy, this chapter aims to analyse and discuss how RE can be advanced
and sustained through capacity building at individual, institutional, and societal
levels, as well as various components for improvement in the case of the Education
University of Hong Kong (EdUHK), which recognises the potential benefits that
would be brought by hostel life to quality pre-service teacher education by the UGC.
Through comparing the RE practices among EdUHK, the University of Manchester,
the University of Sheffield, and the University of Cambridge in the United Kingdom
(UK), a better understanding of the relationship between capacity building and RE
advancement, including both its credits and limitations, can be achieved. Sugges-
tions for ways to further strengthen RE in universities through capacity building at
the three different levels are recommended at the end of the chapter.
The Capacity Building of RE
From the early 1970s onward, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
built capacity for technical and administrative development, which was considered
as ‘institution building’ in underdeveloped and developing countries, to improve
their performance. After a series of promotions on ‘institution building’ in gover-
nance and public administration, the concept of institutional development largely
expanded in the public and private sectors in the 1980s (Smillie, 2001). The term
was further evolved to ‘capacity building’ in the 1990s and has now become ‘capacity
development’, with an emphasis on sustainable development (UNDP, ).
Capacity building requires the establishment of conditions that allow individ-
uals to engage in the ‘process of learning and adapting to change’; enable existing
institutions to form ‘sound policies, organizational structures, and effective methods
of resources management’; and establish societal support to ‘public administration
that learns from and responds to the public more’ (The Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development, Development Assistance Committee [OECD DAC],
2009). These three levels of capacity building encompass multiple capabilities, such
as human, technological, organisational, and institutional capabilities.
According to Hughes et al. (2005) and Fullan (2007), capacity building is not only
a concept but is also a series of strategic actions to build up a learning community, in
12 Capacity Building for Advancing and Sustaining Residential Education 153
order to enhance the implications of human and technical resources for the sake of
students’ learning. It is even a ‘habit of mind’ to engage in and use to sustain student
learning in the broadest sense (Stoll, 2009). RE has multifaceted purposes, but the
most essential goal is promoting it at universities as an educational movement, to call
upon stakeholders at all levels of awareness and engagement in RE, so that students
can benefit from RE. Hence, capacity building in RE is more than a concept; it is
also a process, a series of strategic actions, a mindset of learning, and an evolving
vision and mission for RE in universities.
In a broader educational sense, Stoll (2009) highlighted seven issues affecting
educational improvement that should be considered in capacity building, including:
(1) differentiating capacity building in different educational contexts; (2) empha-
sising student needs in learning; (3) addressing both the present and future needs
in educational changes; (4) ensuring the sustainability of capacity building through
learning and maintaining a ‘habit of mind’; (5) developing leadership capacity in
terms of benefits for students’ learning and fundamental changes in learning culture;
(6) building educational learning networks; and (7) building systemic change by
aligning different parts of the system to mutually support each other.
In light of the spirit of capacity building in the educational development of hall life,
the following sections report, analyse, and discuss the key features of the capacity
building of RE across the three aforementioned levels (individual, institutional, and
societal) by referencing key observations and findings from an overseas RE visit to
the UK. This chapter also suggest ways to promote university RE through capacity
building across the three levels.
Studying RE in Hong Kong and the UK
As part of the effort to enhance the quality of RE, an overseas tour to the UK
focusing on the theme of the alignment of RE and university graduate attributes was
organised for a group of eight undergraduate students and four staff representatives
from the hall management team of the EdUHK in early 2019. This overseas tour
aimed to facilitate the exchange of knowledge with overseas universities and learn
about how overseas universities link their RE aims to their university educational
aims. During the tour, four official visits to three universities were arranged, to the
University of Manchester (UoM), the University of Sheffield (UoS), and Hughes
Hall (HH) and St John College (SJC) at the University of Cambridge. These visits
provided opportunities to explore residential policies, programmes, and facilities in
both traditional and modern RE systems in the UK. All the participants conducted
discussions about their observations and interactions with hall leaders (staff and
hallmates) from the host universities. After the tour, all of the participants submitted
individual reflective reports on what they had learned from the trip.
Through the daily group debriefing notes and individual reflective reports, a
comparison of RE in the host universities and home university through content
analysis was made possible. Content analysis is ‘a research technique for making
154 C. W.-M. Yu
replicable and valid inferences from text (or other meaningful matter) to the contexts
of their use’ (Krippendorff, 2004, p. 18). There are two different forms of content
analyses: quantitative and qualitative. The results of quantitative content analysis are
presented as frequency counts, while the results of qualitative content analysis are
presented as illustrative quotations (Wilkinson, 2010, p. 171). In this study, qualita-
tive content analysis was applied, since it offers a structured way of reducing data into
distinct themes or categories to facilitate easy retrieval for subsequent analyses of
trends and differences across multiple cases (e.g., Arndt & Bigelow, 2000; Sonpar &
Golden-Biddle, 2008). Any texts that are directly or indirectly related to RE policies,
programmes, practices, facilities, and outcomes were initially categorised together to
form the first layer of analysis. All of the categorised texts were then re-examined and
filtered into the fine-tuned themes as the second layer of analysis. In the third and final
layers of analysis, all the categorised themes were double-checked and confirmed
for a comparative study of the EdUHK and universities in the UK. Finally, a number
of issues with achieving various desirable RE aims through capacity building were
identified using the qualitative content analysis in the study.
Findings
The following explains the key features contributing to the analysis of the capacity
building of RE, with quotations extracted from the participants’ valuable insights
gained from their visits and noted in their reflective reports.
A. Accommodation
Hall accommodation policies are the most common concern, since they may have
strong influences on individual hall life.
‘The accommodation of the UoM can be divided into self-catered and catered
halls. All undergraduate and postgraduate students are eligible to apply for accom-
modation. The university guarantees an offer for overseas students or students
embarking on their first degree at the UoM, even if they are local. In regard to
the room allocation policy, the UoM tries to ensure that all students taking longer
courses will be offered college accommodation in all three years. They also try
to house first-year (especially UG) students on the college’s central site, to better
accommodate their studies.’
‘There are six buildings on the main site at HH. Most of the rooms are for students
living on their own. About half of the rooms have en-suite bathrooms and the others
have access to shared bathrooms. They also have a few flats/studios for those who
want to bring their partners with them, as the majority of them are mature PG or
PhD students.’
‘Basically, the four halls at the EdUHK are reserved for both undergraduate and
postgraduate students in shared rooms or houses; however, overseas and mainland
undergraduate students may enjoy a longer stay, due to the limited housing supply
in Hong Kong. Due to limited resources, no room can be reserved for married PG
students.’
The accommodation policies among the universities were quite similar for
undergraduate and postgraduate students, subject to available resources/conditions.
However, the visiting policies are very different.
‘The hall policy at the UoM is not strict, compared with the EdUHK. It allows
non-students to stay overnight without paying a fee, for up to a few days, if the
floormates agree and there is no interference to the daily lives of student residents.
As many students come from different cities or countries, their parents and friends
can always come and visit them. It is eye-opening because they welcome everyone to
stay overnight in their hall, which is also educating students about showing tolerance
and taking care of their neighbourhood.’
‘HH really focuses on college spirit and alumni relations; they are very pleased
to hear from their alumni and to help them reserve rooms in the college when they
come back to visit. It is very impressive that they make the college your ‘home away
from home’, which helps the students transition from family to the college to the
community. They are proud that ‘Hughes Hall is the place for study and friendship’.’
‘At the EdUHK, non-residents are not allowed to stay later than 11pm. We under-
stand that there are differences in the cultural backgrounds between the EdUHK
and the UoM. However, if we take the UoM’s policy as reference, students would
probably be able to learn proper attitudes and ways to treat their neighbours.’
B. Technological Applications in Hall Operations

The hall facilities at the UoS and the EdUHK are quite similar. Both have basic
facilities, such as a common room, laundry room, and catering service; however, the
operations are quite different, especially for the impressive laundry service at the
UoS.
‘Residents might have to physically queue for laundry in the halls of the EdUHK.
At the UoS, washing clothes on campus is quite simple. By adopting managed laundry
systems, residents can simply start the laundry directly from their phones using the
mobile app. All available washing machines or drying machines can be viewed in
the app. Residents can select the machines in real time, as well as making payments.
The app also offers a feature that automatically notifies the user when the laundry
is done. They will get back their clothes right after the laundry has finished, so as
to avoid holding up the next user. The system is well designed and easy-to-use, and
makes tedious work easy to manage, as well as saving time!’
With the advancement of technology, a mobile app integrates with multiple
connected products and allows a user to control those products in an effective way.
Taking the laundry app as an example, laundry seems to be an ordinary part of daily
operations, but it can be enhanced to make individual hall life more straightforward
and easier.
156 C. W.-M. Yu
C. RE Programmes and Residents’ Participation

RE should not only focus on residents’ hall life in accommodation and routine opera-
tions, but also on their all-rounded development, including academic, sports, mental
health, and social community elements.
‘The UoM inspires us in that they really put effort into hall life education, as
they take care of every aspect of their students, ranging from time management to
personal life support.’
‘SJC provides different types of activities to their residents, such as sports, gaming,
and workshops. These activities provide opportunities for residents to achieve all-
round development. Residents can join all the activities.’
‘There are 40+ sports and societies groups at HH, and students will never be
bored if they wish to join any of them. If there is no activity that fits their interests,
they can always propose one. It is worth mentioning that we saw many champion
paddles displayed on the ceilings of their common room, which helps to boost the
college spirit.’
However, the residents’ participation rate in RE programmes is low.
‘In the ResLife Programme at the UoM, the low resident participation rate is not
proportional to resources invested. The UoM points out that it is worth investing
if even only one student enjoys the activities; at least they would help one student
resident who would otherwise have dropped out of university. The persistence of the
UoM as a university shows the spirit of taking every opportunity to help students.’
‘Coincidentally, the EdUHK is in the same situation as the UoM. The university
organises a lot of activities and programmes for student residents to achieve all-
round development. However, the participation rate is surprisingly low, even when
the activities are useful for future careers or are fun to join.’
‘From the HH experience, it is evident that individual residents may prefer riding
on bicycles alone or with friends, wandering around the college or the city, to reflect
(introspection), to relax (free from study pressure), and to enjoy their free time (the
stunning views of Cambridge), since some residents are well aware of the fact that
one of the strengths of Cambridge students is their ability to build relationships
and networks through various ways. For example, residents can chat with senior
academics in a friendly way, talk freely about academia, career planning, the future,
and global issues, or simply chat about daily life and hobbies instead of joining some
specific RE programmes.’
Hence, diversifying residents’ hall life experience is more important than focusing
on residents’ participation rate in the RE programmes.
D. Support for Residents

In addition, it was not difficult to observe the hall staff showing their support to
residents in a variety of ways throughout the visits.
Residents’ Associations
‘SJC provides lots of assistance to their students so as to maintain special traditions
in the halls. For example, the Junior Combination Room and the Samuel Butler Room
at SJC are organised by junior students as spaces for a college Student Union and
Graduate Union, respectively.’
‘At the EdUHK, not only wardens but also the university itself are able to show
their respect and support to Student Residents’ Associations (SRAs). The SRA is a
very good channel to help consolidate opinions from the hall residents. Without coop-
erating with SRAs, the university would never know what is happening in the halls.
Understanding the differences between halls is crucial for giving proper support to
them.’
Tutorship and Mentorship
‘Mentors at the UoS are volunteer undergraduate students who have trained for the
role. They are matched with a small group of Year 1 students (the mentees) from their
own department and, if possible, from the same course (programme). According to
the staff, ‘this can ensure the students can receive suggestions from professionals
via the proper channel’. This system reflects the way in which the UoS is not only
focusing on the hall life of students but also on their academic development. The
university also presents awards to several ‘outstanding’ mentors who are nominated
by their mentees. This helps encourage students to become a (good) mentor.
In the halls at the EdUHK, tutors are required to take certain training courses
so as to help them better prepare for the role. This is very similar to the mentor
system at the UoS, which ensures the mentors will listen to your problems and then
help the students concerned to identify the right channel through which to solve the
problems. According to the staff, ‘this can ensure the students can receive suggestions
from professionals via the proper channel.’’.
‘In order to promote academic excellence, HH has a decentralised supervision
and tutorial system. Students are required to produce four-to-five papers per year
as coursework. They also have projects and need to attend a three-hour hand-
written examination for each course. There are weekly consultations in a small-group
teaching format, for which students need to prepare extensively. For the tutoring, each
tutor (they are staff members, not student tutors) is responsible for taking care of 10
undergraduates and 65 postgraduate students. They have to give pastoral support
for all situations and check on those students each term in regard to their academic
performance as well as their personal well-being.’
Critical Analysis of Capacity Building in RE
From the insightful learning in the above RE comparisons, there are some commonal-
ities and differences in RE among the universities. At the individual level, RE provides
various programmes, services, and support in the areas of residents’ academic,
personal, mental, and social life by organising residents’ associations and offering
mentoring and/or tutorial system(s) in residential halls. Both residential staff and
student leaders try their very best to support the implementation of RE. A key area is
how individual residents are engaged in RE. Issues such as how busy residents are in
their daily college life and their prioritisation of participation in RE influence their
individual needs and how RE could cater for those needs. As young adults and college
158 C. W.-M. Yu
students, residents should be respected in terms of their own RE arrangements once

their academic and personal development can be sustained through residential life.
Moreover, from the different practices described above, the significance of RE
policies at the institutional level can be clearly seen. For example, more open visiting
policies have impacts on residents’ attitudes and the care they show for others, and the
use of a mobile app for laundry services better facilitates residents’ time management.
Of course, the openness and advancement of policies might be subject to a number of
human and non-human factors in different universities, which may eventually hinder
the capacity building of those universities. Such contextual issues are limitations of
capacity building too.
According to Stoll’s (2009) highlighted issues that should be considered in
capacity building for educational improvement, RE can be viewed as a unique educa-
tional context that could cater for residents’ informal and formal learning needs, in
order to address their current and future needs. It is worthwhile for all university
students, faculty members, administrative staff, and institutional and public policy
makers to keep ‘advancing RE’ as a ‘habit of mind’, to support better learning and
development in terms of RE. Moreover, at institutional and societal levels, stronger
networking could be built to ensure the systematic and supportive provision of RE.
For example, in view of the COVID-19 pandemic, the use of virtual forms of RE is
increasing, which requires closer collaboration among universities to save both time
and effort in the short and long term.
In fact, through the organisation of the overseas visit to the UK, RE was already
developed in its capacity through collaborative work with key stakeholders across
the three levels of the local and overseas universities involved. At the individual
level, the tour participants who served as the core figures of the RE in question could
experience first-hand different practices that can facilitate their better learning of RE.
At the institutional level, the involved universities that supported the process of RE on
a hall basis could learn from each other, to enhance their RE policies and enable the
effective management of RE resources. At the societal level, the committees or parties
that monitored RE with support from stakeholders in the local community (society)
could establish more supportive policies and practices in regard to RE through the
study reports from the visit. All these stakeholders played significant roles that made
a real RE experience possible at the university. Hence, the capacity building of RE
focuses on these three levels of stakeholders and can thereby carefully consider their
RE designs and make contributions to RE together.
It is suggested that RE provides residents with the opportunity to engage in
the ‘process of learning and adapting to change’. Moreover, building a commu-
nity network among local and overseas universities can enable a stronger sense of
collaboration and a driving force for RE from the university organisational level.
More importantly, the capacity building of social responsibility can further lead resi-
dents to engage in a wider learning context in terms of social interaction, and help
them to become more aware of the concerns of others and better understand the world
around them. This provides support at a societal level that enables RE to address and
respond to the public’s concerns to a greater extent. The current serious shortfall of
student hostel places in HK requires societal support to provide necessary resources
in order to achieve more effective RE. RE is not just for solving students’ housing
problems but can also be harnessed to actualise academic and cultural exchange
among international and local students, to help develop outstanding young leaders
in society.
According to Stoll (2020), in view of the increasingly collaborative activities
and networking between teachers and school leaders as a positive strategy for
teacher development and to support school improvement, everyone in the educational
ecosystem, such as parents, school leaders and teachers, communities and agencies,
policy makers and politicians, needs to be learning individually and together, and
across levels, in light of their openness to achieving transformative learning in the
long run. Therefore, RE cannot be developed without the active engagement of all key
stakeholders, universities, the government, and community support in policy making
in terms of the direction and settings of the resources made available based on student
needs. Substantial work on policy and operational support at different levels of RE
in the university system is primarily and urgently needed in the near future. More-
over, a further study on how the good practices of RE might be turned into quality
university RE is needed. RE learning programmes may be offered through formal
or informal learning activities that could be creatively defused and/or developed as
an area of study in existing university education according to the innovation-driven
and interdisciplinary nature of RE. In fact, the ways of carrying out RE could be
multifaced as long as the ultimate outcomes of RE can sharpen residents’ holistic
development.
Acknowledgements A special thank you goes to the tour participants, it would have been impos-
sible to complete this study without their invaluable learning outcomes achieved through the tour.
Credits for this chapter go to the tour participants.
References
Anfara, V. A., & Mertens, S. B. (2012). Capacity building is a key to the radical transformation of
middle grades schools. Middle School Journal, 43(3), 58–64.
Arndt, M., & Bigelow, B. (2000). Presenting structural innovation in an institutional environment:
Hospitals’ use of impression management. Administrative Science Quarterly, 45(3), 494–522.
Development Assistance Committee. (2009). Inventory of donor approaches to capacity devel-
opment: What we are learning. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Develop-
ment. https://europa.eu/capacity4dev/public-cd-tc/documents/inventory-donor-approaches-cap
acity-development
European Commission. (2010). Toolkit for capacity development. Europa. https://europa.eu/capaci
ty4dev/t-and-m-series/documents/reference-document-nr-6-toolkit-capacity-development-2010
Finance Committee. (2018). Capital works reserve fund, head 708—Capital subventions and major
systems and equipment, education subventions, 61EC—Hostel Development Fund (Report No.
FCR(2018–19)35). Legislative Council Archives of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region.
https://www.legco.gov.hk/yr17-18/english/fc/fc/papers/f18-35e.pdf
Fullan, M. (2007). The meaning of educational change. 4th ed., Teachers College Press.
160 C. W.-M. Yu
Hughes, G., Copley, L., Howley, C., & Meehan, M. (2005). Measure of school capacity for improve-
ment: User manual and technical report (Report No. ED489134). ERIC. https://files.eric.ed.gov/
fulltext/ED489134.pdf
Krippendorff, K. (2004). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology (2nd ed.). SAGE
Publications.
Smillie, I. (Ed.). (2001). Patronage or partnership: Local capacity building in humanitarian crises.
Kumarian Press.
Sonpar, K., & Golden-Biddle, K. (2008). Using content analysis to elaborate adolescent theories of
organization. Organizational Research Methods, 11(4), 795–814.
Stoll, L. (2009). Capacity building for school improvement or creating capacity for learning? A
changing landscape. Journal of Educational Change, 10(2–3), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10833-009-9104-3
Stoll, L. (2020). Creating capacity for learning: Are we there yet? Journal of Educational Change,
21, 421–430. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10833-020-09394-z
United Nations Economic and Social Council. (2006). Definition of basic concepts and terminolo-
gies in governance and public administration [Compendium of basic terminology in governance
and public administration]. Committee of Experts on Public Administration, 5th session, Agenda
Item 5, E/C. 16/2006/4.
United Nations Development Programme. (2009). Capacity development: A UNDP primer. United
Nations Development Programme. https://www.adaptation-undp.org/sites/default/files/downlo
ads/cdg_capacity_development_primer.pdf
United Nations Development Programme. (2010). Supporting capacity building the UNDP
approach. United Nations Development Programme. https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/
home/librarypage/capacity-building/support-capacity-development-the-undp-approach.html
Walstad, W., & Kourilsky, M. L. (1998). Entrepreneurial attitudes and knowledge of black youth.
Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 23(2), 5–18. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1042258798023
00201
Wilkinson, S. (2010). Analysing focus group data. In D. Silverman (Ed.), Qualitative research (3rd
ed., pp. 168–184), SAGE Publications.
World Economic Forum. (2011). Unlocking entrepreneurial capabilities to meet the global chal-
lenges of the 21st century: Final report on the entrepreneurship education workstream. World
Economic Forum. http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GEI_UnlockingEntrepreneurialCapabi
lities_Report_2011.pdf
Chapter 13
Strengthening the Alignment
of Residential Educational Aims
and University Educational Aims
Abstract Residential halls have been seen as an essential microsystem that can
promote desirable academic, personal, and social outcomes. However, the extent
to which residential education maps onto universities’ educational aims remains
ambiguous. Therefore, a study was conducted in two stages, using a mixed-method
approach to examine the strength of the alignment between universities’ educational
aims and residential educational aims among four government-funded universities in
Hong Kong. The results clarify the nature of residential educational aims and found
that educators should avoid projecting an ultimate set of residential educational aims
onto every institution regardless of the underlying conditions and settings.
Keywords University educational aims · Residential educational aims ·

Alignment · Mixed-method approach
Introduction
In recent years, there has been notable dissatisfaction among the public with univer-
sity graduates who lack employability skills (e.g., Nguyen, 2016; Wickramasinghe &
Perera, 2010). To better prepare graduates for demanding and fast-changing work
environments, there is an increasing demand for universities to develop students’ soft
skills, including both interpersonal and intrapersonal skills (Leonard, 2014; Leung,
2015; Tooley & Bornfreund, 2014). These skills are essential for fresh graduates to
make meaningful contributions to society and to succeed in the workplace (Schulz,
2008). Despite the way in which the importance of developing students’ transferable
skills has been widely recognised, a systematic review found that there were only a
handful of undergraduate courses that target the development of transferable skills
in a discipline-specific context. Cheng et al. (2018) revealed a general assumption
M. W. Cheng (B)
S. K. W. Chu
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8906-2_13
162 M. W. Cheng and S. K. W. Chu
that extracurricular and experiential learning are responsible for developing students’
transferable skills.
A potential and compelling approach to enhancing students’ transferable skills
might be through implementing effective residential education. Quite a number
of research studies have recognised that residential education has brought bene-
fits to students, such as social-life enrichment and the nurturing of values such as
empathy and tolerance (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). In fact, one difference between
commuter students and residential students is that the former are outperformed by
the latter in terms of their personal growth and academic achievements (Pascarella &
Terenzini, 2005). According to the ecological systems theory proposed by Bronfen-
brenner (1974, 2005), the rationale behind the significant impact of residential educa-
tion on students could be discussed in terms of the role of an immediate context in
which university students primarily live throughout the academic years; this affirms
residential halls as a form of microsystem to which students are subjected. This
study is part of a funded project1 in which residential halls are seen as an essential
microsystem that can promote desirable academic, personal, and social outcomes.
On the other hand, this model is applicable to the university as well, as we can
imagine college students’ experience at university would also facilitate the impact
of residential education. Thus, the university can be seen as a form of microsystem
as well, one that is parallel to the microsystem of residential halls.
As the two environments are seen as microsystems that college students are
subjected to simultaneously, it is likely that an interaction will exist between them.
This interaction may consequently shed light on the mesosystem in which the students
are embedded. However, the extent to which residential education maps onto universi-
ties’ educational aims is still unknown. If institutions were to optimise the education
provided based on the theoretical implications of the mesosystem, the alignment
between universities’ educational aims and residential educational aims must first be
strengthened and proven to be reliable. Therefore, in order to better facilitate residen-
tial education as a way of cultivating students’ transferable skills, this study embarks
on the task of studying the alignment of the two educational aims and measuring
students’ personal development in regard to the impact of universities and halls as
two substantial microsystems.
The Present Study
Despite the clarification of the meanings of the two educational aims, their relation-
ship remains ambiguous and, as such, the optimal way to utilise college residential
education remains concealed. Hence, this study embarks on the objective of exam-
ining the alignment of residential educational aims and university educational aims
1The project, ‘Strengthening the Alignment of Residential Education and University Educational
Aims’, was a three-year project funded by the University Grants Committee of Hong Kong in late
2017.
13 Strengthening the Alignment of Residential Educational Aims … 163
in the hopes of establishing an essential understanding that could assist the future
optimisation of college residential education. In particular, this study was designed
to examine the existing alignment between the two educational aims in terms of the
setting of Hong Kong universities. In addition, students’ perceptions of hall activities
and students’ self-rated achievement of the two educational aims are also explored
in this study.
In total, four recognisable government-funded Hong Kong universities partic-
ipated in this study. These four universities have long supported the practice of
residential education, through which students develop non-academic skills and abil-
ities (e.g., motivation, self-control, resilience, and creativity; see Gutman & Schoon,
2013). Moreover, in order to prevent the results of this study from being interpreted
in a way that is confined by existing impressions within the local sphere, participation
from overseas universities is included when context allows.
A clear and defined set of residential educational aims that is complementary to
the university’s educational aims is needed to maximise students’ gains from residen-
tial education. The research objectives of this study are to (1) analyse Hong Kong
universities’ residential educational aims and their alignment with corresponding
university educational aims; and (2) understand how students relate to the corre-
sponding residential educational aims of their institution. Two stages of studies have
been included to achieve these two research objectives.
Study I
Methods
Stage 1 of the study functions as a pilot study, which commenced in late 2017.
The pilot study was implemented to allow researchers to grasp and articulate the
residential educational aims of the four participating Hong Kong universities. A
total of 24 focus group interviews were organised at this stage.
Results
A total of 110 stakeholders participated in the pilot study (107 student residents
and three hall tutors). Of the 107 student interviewees, 103 were undergraduate
students. By interviewing these closely related stakeholders, data that could reflect
the residential educational aims upheld by the affiliating universities were gathered.
With the 24 focus group interviews conducted in Stage 1, we gathered data
regarding how participants perceive their affiliated institution’s residential educa-
tional aims. Participants’ perceptions of related educational aims were coded into
categories of aims. It was discovered that five categories were shared by all
four studied universities: ‘independence and confidence’, ‘communication skills’,

‘cultural exchange’, ‘problem-solving skills’, and ‘peer-group interactions’ (see
Fig. 13.1). The other two categories in each list were exclusive to the corresponding
universities.
HKU CityU BU EdUHK
Independence and Independence and Independence and Independence and
confidence confidence confidence confidence
Communication Communication
Communication skills Communication skills
skills skills
Cultural exchange Cultural exchange Cultural exchange Cultural exchange
Problem-solving Problem-solving Problem-solving

Problem-solving skills
skills skills skills
Peer-group Peer-group Peer-group

Peer-group interactions
interactions interactions interactions
Willingness to try
Empathy and social Planning and
new things and Open-mindedness
awareness organisation skills
explore new areas
Time management
Social networking Emotional and self- Global exposure and
and organisation
and support control career planning
skills
Fig. 13.1 Comparing the residential educational aims of different universities in Hong Kong
Study II
Method
Motivated by the results from the first stage, the five categories shared by the four
studied universities are seen as general residential educational aims. These shared
categories were used to shape the content of the residential educational aims in this
second stage of the study. A mixed-methods approach2 was employed. In particular,
the methods of (1) distributing online surveys and (2) conducting another round of
focus group interviews were implemented.
The previous pilot study provided a solid clarification of the residential educa-
tional aims. The second stage of the study proceeded to examine the alignment of
the two educational aims. Moreover, how student residents relate to the residential
educational aims was also explored through the focus group interviews. In total,
1883 responses were received for the online surveys and 192 students participated
in the focus group interviews. Both studies were conducted between 2018 and 2019.
In regard to the online survey, participants’ perceptions of their own development
cultivated through hall experience were studied. The online survey was designed to
study and measure the impact that residential education could have on student resi-
dents. Participants from a Western university, which is one originator of the Oxbridge
model, were also invited to stimulate discussions about unexpected impacts.
The survey included 77 self-report items in total, rated on a seven-point Likert-
scale. The concept of ‘development’ was dissected and categorised into three distinc-
tive domains: academic, social, and independence (see Fig. 13.2). Altogether, the
survey was ascribed 10 different domains, such as ‘time management’, ‘cultural
exchange’, and ‘self-efficacy’. It was expected that participants’ rating of their devel-
opment under the hall setting would reflect the impact residential education has on
student residents. In order to analyse the potential impact yet to appear in the Hong
Kong setting, participants from a Western university were also invited to participate in
our study.
Following the online survey, focus group interviews were conducted. While 73
focus group interviews were conducted with 192 Hong Kong students, 164 were tran-
scribed for use in this study. Note that students in other countries were not included
in the focus group interviews, as the interview questions focused on how Hong Kong
students perceive the impact that hall experiences have had on them; the perceptions
of students from different geographical backgrounds would be irrelevant in terms
of helping us to understand these concrete expectations. The data gathered from the
focus group interviews were later processed and analysed using (1) qualitative data
analysis (NVivo 12) and (2) descriptive statistics (SPSS 24). In total, four questions
were asked during the interviews.
2 The focus group interview instruments are listed in the appendix.

Fig. 13.2 Ten developmental aspects measured under the concept of ‘development’
Results
Quantitative Analysis Moving to the second stage of the study, the data acquired
through online surveys presented an overall positive impression of how students
perceive the impact that hall experiences has exerted on them (see Fig. 13.3). This is
reflected by the fact that all 10 developmental aspects achieved a mean rating above
the midpoint of 4. The aspect of ‘academic impacts’ was also included among the
10 developmental aspects, achieving a mean rating of 4.3 out of 7. The results of the
online survey thus indicate that participants in general regarded hall experiences as
having a positive impact on their academic development. Furthermore, other non-
academic aspects attained an average higher mean rating than academic impacts. A
total of 8 out of the 9 non-academic aspects attained mean ratings above 4.8. With
the mean ratings higher than the midpoint level, it can be concluded that participants
have acknowledged and affirmed the gains in many non-academic aspects that hall
experiences could offer.
Qualitative Analysis A total of four questions were asked in the following focus
group interviews. The alignment between the two educational aims and how students
relate to the corresponding residential educational aims of their institution were
Fig. 13.3 Impact of hall experiences on the 10 developmental aspects
investigated. The first question concerns students’ impression of hall activities in

general. The question consists of two parts; participants were required to indicate
the hall activities they attended in the academic year 2018–2019 in the first part and
rank the top five activities according to their interests in the second part. Across the
four Hong Kong universities, informal activities, such as communal living and festive
activities, were popular among the highest number of participants; only around 8%
of the top three activities that were most participated in are formal activities. Informal
activities are in general more popular among student residents in terms of the rate of
participation. In addition, the results obtained through the second part of the question
indicate that the rate of participation generally aligns with the perceived interesting
qualities of the corresponding activities; the activities considered to be the most
interesting usually have a relatively higher rate of participation.
The second question in the interviews invited participants to self-rate their level
of achievement for each of the residential educational aims. These categories were
designed according to the result obtained through the pilot study. As reflected by the
results (see Table 13.1), ‘independence and confidence’ was the most achieved resi-
dential educational aim ranked by participants from all four universities (highlighted
in yellow). The category ‘communication skills’ was another prominent residential
educational aim, which was ranked either second or third in the most achieved resi-
dential educational aims by participants from all four universities (highlighted in
blue). Based on self-reported items rated on a Likert scale, ranging from one (totally
not achieved) to three (neutral) to five (totally achieved), all the aspects were rated
above three. Among them, some were rated close to or above four, reflecting the way
in which those aims achievable through living in residential halls.
The third question invites participants to self-rate their level of achievement for
each of the university educational aims. Using the same five-point Likert-scale, the
Table 13.1 Ranked levels of achievement for residential educational aims

Rank HKU CityU EdUHK HKBU
1st Independence 4.12 Independence 4.41 Independence 4.08 Independence 4.00
and confidence and confidence and confidence and confidence
2nd Communication 4.07 Open- 4.26 Communication 4.05 Communication 3.36
skills mindedness skills skills
3rd Willingness to 4.02 Communication 4.12 Problem- 3.85 Peer-group 3.77
try new things skills solving skills interactions
and explore
new areas
4th Peer-group 3.86 Cultural 4.00 Peer-group 3.75 Problem- 3.66
interactions exchange interactions solving skills
5th Social 3.82 Time 3.91 Planning and 3.60 Emotion and 3.63
networking and management organisation self-control
support and organisation skills
skills
6th Cultural 3.70 Peer-group 3.88 Cultural 3.55 Empathy and 3.46
exchange interactions exchange social
awareness
7th Problem- 3.52 Problem-solving 3.79 Global 3.10 Cultural 3.31
solving skills skills exposure exchange
university educational aims were generally ranked as well-achieved by student resi-

dents from all four universities (see Table 13.2). The educational aim of ‘communi-
cation skills’ has been affirmed as one of the university educational aims of the partic-
ipants’ affiliated institutions and participants do perceive that they have successfully
achieved this aim at their corresponding institutions.
The last question focuses on the alignment between the two educational aims
(see Fig. 13.4). In particular, participants were required to express their opinions on
the alignment of the two educational aims by drawing lines to indicate alignments
that they consider to exist. Regarding the five categories of residential educational
Table 13.2 Ranked levels of achievement for university educational aims3
1st Communication and 4.15 Honesty 4.34 Social interaction skills 3.94 Have trilingual and 3.77
collaboration biliterate competence in
English and Chinese, and
the ability to articulate
ideas clearly and
coherently
(communication)
2nd Critical self-reflection, 4.00 Learn 4.33 Problem-solving skills 3.87 Be independent, lifelong 3.82
greater understanding of continuously learners with an open mind
others, and upholding and an inquiring spirit
personal and professional (learning)
ethics
3rd Intercultural 3.81 Act 4.33 Oral and written 3.77 Have the necessary 3.82
communication and global professionally communication skills information literacy skills,
citizenship as well as numerical and
problem-solving skills, to
function effectively in
work and everyday life
(skills)
(continued)
13 Strengthening the Alignment of Residential Educational Aims …
3 The university educational aims are retrieved from the following websites:
HKU: http://www.handbook.hku.hk/ug/full-time-2017-18/important-policies/educational-aims-and-institutional-learning-outcomes.
CityU: https://www.cityu.edu.hk/about/vision-and-mission.
EdUHK: https://www.eduhk.hk/en/about/vision-and-mission.
HKBU: https://chtl.hkbu.edu.hk/nso/AY1920-student/.
169
170

4th The pursuit of academic 3.60 Think critically 4.13 Creative thinking skills 3.62 Be ready to serve, lead, 3.66
professional excellence, and work in a team, and to
critical intellectual inquiry, pursue a healthy lifestyle
and lifelong learning (teamwork)
5th Tackling novel situations 3.52 Communicate 4.10 Critical thinking skills 3.51 Have up-to-date, in-depth 3.53
and ill-defined problems effectively knowledge of an academic
speciality, as well as a
broad range of cultural and
general knowledge
(knowledge)
6th Leadership and advocacy 3.43 Excellence 4.09 Ethical decision making 3.43 Be able to think critically 3.53
for the improvement of and creatively (creativity)
human conditions
M. W. Cheng and S. K. W. Chu
Fig. 13.4 An example from a participant who answered question four
aims, the categories of ‘communication skills’ and ‘independence and confidence’

were best aligned with the university educational aims, as participants from the
four universities have all linked them to at least one university educational aim.
For the residential educational aims ‘independence and confidence’, participants
have pointed out that the items in the category have a close relationship to multiple
university educational aims. For instance, ‘taking care of themselves’ as an item
under ‘independence and confidence’ requires the intensive application of ‘problem
solving’ and ‘social interaction skills’. To summarise, the analysis conducted through
NVivo12 indicated that the two most prominent residential educational aims are
aligned with the university educational aims.
Discussion
Each university in the first study has two distinctive categories of residential educa-
tional aims in their top seven ‘most perceived’ list. Despite there being residential
educational aims that are commonly shared by universities in Hong Kong, partic-
ular residential educational aims of institutions always diverge from one another.
This result has informed us about the nature of residential educational aims, and
researchers should avoid trying to project an ultimate set of residential educational

aims on every institution regardless of the underlying conditions and settings.
Currently, there is still a lack of research investigating residential educational
aims; this gap is waiting to be addressed by future studies. When carrying out this
research project, the authors were surprised that they were not able to find previous
studies that examined the alignment of residential education aims and university
education aims. Although many studies have acknowledged the educational value of
residential experiences (e.g., Cheng et al., 2018; Leonard, 2014; Leung, 2015), many
universities are implicit in stating residential education aims, as they are unsure how
they align with the university education aims. This study aims to highlight the fact
that residential education aims and university education aims can actually be closely
aligned. This also suggests that it is worthwhile for universities to further invest
resources in residential halls, as they are able to facilitate students in achieving the
university residential outcomes.
Academic Impacts
It was observed through the online survey that participants generally have a posi-
tive impression of the effects hall experiences could have on their academic devel-
opment. Intrigued by this response, the rationale behind it was later explored in
informal discussions with the student participants. According to the students, the
hall setting has encouraged them to study together and has facilitated their work on
group projects. In other words, the results could indicate that hall experiences by
nature encourage cooperative learning and halls are therefore perceived as a setting
that facilitates academic development. This result is aligned with a past study that
found that residents on the same floor have positive influences on each other’s intel-
lectual development (McCluskey-Titus et al., 2002). It has also been suggested that
increased hall involvement may lead to better academic performance (Arboleda et al.,
2003).
Nevertheless, in comparison, ‘academic impacts’ has the lowest mean rating
among the 10 development aspects. A possible way to interpret this phenomenon
is through the way in which participants do not consider the experiences by them-
selves as playing a significant role in facilitating their academic development. As
the mode of cooperative learning is mainly for learning outside of the classroom, it
is fair to say that the aspect of ‘academic impacts’ is a side-product of residential
education. Therefore, past studies have advised hall administration teams to further
refine hall activities and consider organising more academic exchanges or seminars
to motivate residents’ academic pursuits in halls (Chu et al., 2019). The impacts of
and mechanism behind the cooperative learning nature of hall settings cannot be
explained by the results of this study; this particular phenomenon could therefore
be seen as an invitation for further research regarding the facilitation of cooperative
learning in college residential environments.
Non-academic Aspects
Out of the several residential educational aims, participants rated themselves as

having most successfully achieved the aspects of ‘independence and confidence’
and ‘communication’. The rationale behind this situation was further analysed using
NVivo12. In general, the majority of the 164 participants believed they had learned
to ‘take care of oneself’ through their hall experiences, which explains why the
category of ‘independence and confidence’ has been ranked as the most well-achieved
educational aim. The results are aligned with a past study that found that residents are
able to develop self-regulation skills, which are understood in regard to being able to
take care of oneself, such as learning to manage and regulate life, even if they only
reside in the halls and do not participate in specific residential activities (Cheng &
Chan, 2020). In Hong Kong, many ‘snow-plough’ parents would push all obstacles
out of their child’s path to prevent them from ever losing or not succeeding. As a
result, these children rely heavily on their parents for their physical and emotional
needs (de Vito, 2015). Living in a residential hall provides a precious opportunity for
these students to take care of themselves, learn to be independent individuals, and
build confidence in themselves.
On the other hand, the majority of the participants also described the way in
which their hall experiences have bestowed them with the opportunities to implement
‘biliterate and trilingual learning’ through communicating with non-local students
and ‘organising hall activities’, attaining the educational aim of ‘communication’.
Communication skills are listed in the 21st-century skills framework (Chu et al.,
2017), illustrating that the importance of these skills is widely acknowledged. The
results of this study reflect expectations based on the impression that residential
halls as a setting stimulate communication among student residents. According to
Blimling (2014), residential halls facilitate the development of interpersonal skills
because living in a group requires students to understand the motives, feelings, and
expressions of people with diverse backgrounds, as well as learn how to communicate
with them. In addition, as the survey invited students who are relatively less active in
terms of engaging in hall activities to participate, it could be argued that the positive
impacts of the two aspects are nonetheless applicable to less active students as well.
In this study, the alignment of the two educational aims has been outlined based
on participants’ general impressions. As analysed in the previous section, the two
well-achieved aspects are also the aspects that have been considered to be most
aligned with university educational aims. This result shows that the college residential
environment has fruitful educational value in terms of non-academic development
aspects.
Conclusion
Despite our study collecting data from half of the Hong Kong University Grants
Committee-funded universities to make it more generalisable, the data mostly reflect
the Hong Kong context only. Although we also collected data from one of the
Oxbridge universities, it does not offer a comprehensive view of the corresponding
Western context. Both contexts, however, can act as reference points for future
research. The study as a whole examines two educational aims and how students
perceive their achievement in terms of the two aims. Based on this understanding,
researchers could construct refined versions of the residential educational aims, in
the hopes of optimising the college residential environment by enabling it to be
tailored to university educational aims. This study has been conducted successfully
and opens up an insightful window for further considerations of the optimisation of
the residential education provided by higher education institutions.
Appendix: Focus Group Questions (A Sample for One

of the Universities)
Question 1
Please read the list of common residential hall activities in your university in
Table 13.A and then: (1) Put ✓ or ✗ in the boxes to indicate your participation
in (a) THE LAST YEAR (2018–2019) and (b) THIS YEAR (2019–2020); and (2)
Rank the TOP FIVE activities according to your interests in column (c) with #1 being
the most interested.
Question 2
Please read the list of the residential educational aims of your university, which
were collected in Stage One of this project, and: a) Please indicate your level of
achievement of the residential educational aims during your stay in the residential
hall. (1—totally not, 2—not really, 3—neutral, 4—somewhat achieved, 5 —well
achieved) (Table 13.B).
Question 3
Please indicate your level of achievement of the university educational aims
during your stay in the residential hall. (1—totally not, 2—not really, 3—neutral,
4—somewhat achieved, 5—well achieved) (Table 13.C).
Question 4
Please draw lines to line up residential educational aims and university educational
aims that you think are in alignment in Table 13.D.
Table 13.A A list of common residential hall activities

Code Residential hall (a) Last year (b) This year (c) Rank (top five)
activities (2018–2019) (✓ or (2019–2020) (✓ or
✗) ✗)
A1 Big bowl feast
A2 Celebration for
Chinese new year’s
eve
A3 Cultural nights (e.g.,
Indonesian night,
Diwali night,
Taiwanese night,
Japanese day)
A4 Dog therapy: an exam
energizer
A5 Haunted house for
halloween night
A6 High table
A7 Joint hall jam night
A8 Joint hall mid-autumn
festival celebration
A9 Meet-and-chat nights
A10 PEK competitions
(aquatic meets,
athletic meets, soccer,
tennis)
A11 Special hall night
talks
A12 Yoga day
A13 Others (please fill in):
______________
Table 13.B A list of residential educational aims

Code Residential educational aims Level of achievement
R1 Independence and confidence 1 2 3 4 5
R2 Communication skills 1 2 3 4 5
R3 Cultural exchange 1 2 3 4 5
R4 Problem-solving skills 1 2 3 4 5
R5 Peer-group interactions 1 2 3 4 5
R6 Open-mindedness 1 2 3 4 5
R7 Time management and organisation skills 1 2 3 4 5
Table 13.C Level of achievement of each of the university educational aims

Code University educational aims Level of achievement
U1 Excellence 1 2 3 4 5
Building excellence throughout its
educational, research, and outreach
programmes, involving every unit of the
institution and every member of the City
University community. This pursuit of
excellence is driven by our respect for
knowledge, our passion for learning, and
our concern for human well-being
U2 Honesty 1 2 3 4 5
Honesty and high ethical standards will
inform all actions as an academic
enterprise dedicated to scholarship,
discovery, and creativity. These standards
are the hallmark of our success and our
excellence as a great university
U3 Freedom of enquiry 1 2 3 4 5
The freedom and responsibility of all
faculty and students to engage in critical
enquiry, intellectual discourse, and
academic debate is vital to the
advancement of the frontiers of knowledge
and the pursuit of higher truths. Academic
faculty should take the lead in promoting
the rational debate of ideas and
constructive problem-solving based on
academic values and priorities
U4 Accountability 1 2 3 4 5
A sustained commitment to openness and
accountability is critical to a university’s
success as a public institution of
international standing. Best interests are
served by having in place structures that
ensure accountability at all levels and a
commitment to raising quality through
continuous improvement
U5 Civility and collegiality 1 2 3 4 5
Fostering civil dialogue, promoting
collegial exchanges, and cultivating
mutual respect are essential to our healthy
development as an increasingly diverse
and robust community of students, alumni,
faculty, and staff. These values support a
robust academic culture that nurtures our
academic enterprise and intellectual life
U6 Think critically 1 2 3 4 5
(continued)
Table 13.C (continued)

Code University educational aims Level of achievement
U7 Act professionally 1 2 3 4 5
U8 Communicate effectively 1 2 3 4 5
U9 Learn continually 1 2 3 4 5
U10 Discover and innovate 1 2 3 4 5
Table 13.D A set of residential educational aims and a set of university educational aims
Code Residential educational aims Code University educational aims
R1 Independence and confidence U1 Excellence
R2 Communication skills U2 Honesty
R3 Cultural exchange U3 Freedom of enquiry
R4 Problem-solving skills U4 Accountability
R5 Peer-group interactions U5 Civility and collegiality
R6 Open-mindedness U6 Think critically
R7 Time-management and organisation skills U7 Act professionally
U8 Communicate effectively
U9 Learn continually
U10 Discover and innovate
References
Arboleda, A., Wang, Y., Shelley, M. C., & Whalen, D. F. (2003). Predictors of residence hall
involvement. Journal of College Student Development, 44(4), 517–531. https://doi.org/10.1353/
csd.2003.0036
why. Wiley.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1974). Developmental research, public policy, and the ecology of childhood.
Child Development, 45, 1–5.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (2005). Ecological systems theory (1992). In U. Bronfenbrenner (Ed.), Making
human beings human: Bioecological perspectives on human development (pp. 106–173). SAGE
Publications.
Cheng, M. W., & Chan, C. K. (2020). Do university residential experiences contribute to holistic
education? Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 42(1), 31–48. https://doi.org/
10.1080/1360080X.2019.1659211
Cheng, M. W., Lee, K. K., & Chan, C. K. (2018). Generic skills development in discipline-specific
courses in higher education: A systematic literature review. Curriculum and Teaching, 33(2),
47–65. https://doi.org/10.7459/ct/33.2.04
Practice, 56(3), 326–339.
Chu, S. K. W., Reynolds, R. B., Tavares, N. J., Notari, M., & Lee, C. W. Y. (2017). 21st century
skills development through inquiry-based learning. Springer. 10.1007.978-981
de Vito, E. (2015). The solitary sparrow epidemic: A developmental perspective on loneliness in

adolescence. Adolescent Psychiatry, 5(3), 164–173.
Gutman, L. M., & Schoon, I. (2013). The impact of non-cognitive skills on outcomes for young
people. A literature review. London, UK: Education Endowment Foundation.
Leung, C. (2015, February 2). Employers would rather hire mainland graduates over ‘less
hard-working’ Hongkongers, experts claim. South China Morning Post. http://www.scmp.com/
news/hong-kong/economy/article/1856540/fresh-hong-kong-graduates-are-less-hard-working-
previous
Leonard, W. P. (2014, June 30). Teach students soft skills. University World News. http://www.uni
versityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20140611144116863
McCluskey-Titus, P., Oliver, R. S., Wilson, M. E., Hall, L. M., Cawthon, T. W., & Crandall, P.
D. (2002). The relationship between community and academic achievement in residence halls.
Journal of College and University Student Housing, 30(2), 11–16.
Nguyen, T. (2016, January 22). Employers lament lack of soft skills in graduates. South China
Morning Post. http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20160119123408402.
Pascarella, E. T., & Terenzini, P. T. (2005). How college affects students: A third decade of research.
Jossey-Bass.
Schulz, B. (2008). The importance of soft skills: Education beyond academic knowledge. Journal
of Language and Communication, 2(1), 146–154.
Tooley, M., & Bornfreund, L. (2014). Skills for success: Supporting and assessing key habits,
mindsets, and skills in preK-12. New America.
Wickramasinghe, V., & Perera, L. (2010). Graduates’, university lecturers’ and employers’ percep-
tions towards employability skills. Education and Training, 52(3), 226–244. https://doi.org/10.
1108/00400911011037355
Part VI
Future Directions and Conclusion
Chapter 14
Summarising Chapter
Michelle Wing-tung Cheng, Christina Wai-Mui Yu, Kevin Conn,

Chun Chau Sze, Elsie Li Chen Ong, and Samuel Kai Wah Chu
Abstract Important and interesting ideas from the previous chapters are consol-
idated. To make this chapter more reader-friendly, the key takeaways are cate-
gorised under different stakeholders, including researchers, residential education and
management teams, and policymakers. While suggestions are made for individual
stakeholders to reflect on, we also share our insights regarding future directions of
the university residential community. It is hoped that, with the combined experience
and knowledge of the authors of this book, this final chapter will encourage readers to
apply the presented ideas in the current challenging and educating residential setting.
Keywords Educational value · University residential experiences · Challenges ·

Recommendations
In many ways, the message of this book is a simple one: It is necessary to add educa-
tional value to students’ university residential experiences. The residential commu-
nity is a microcosm of society, as a place where student residents accommodate and
grow. As covered in this book, people in various parts of the world have tried to
adopt different methods to facilitate students’ development through shaping their
residential experiences; for instance, by adding the elements of experiential learning
M. W. Cheng (B)
C. W.-M. Yu
K. Conn
Residential Life and Housing Services, New York University, New York, United States
C. C. Sze
Student Experiential Learning, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
E. L. C. Ong
Faculty of Health, Education, and Society, University of Northampton, Northampton, UK
S. K. W. Chu
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8906-2_14
182 M. W.-t. Cheng et al.
and community service. Educators see the potential of residential halls, which is
to functionally accommodate students, as well as to provide educational opportu-
nities to widen students’ learning experiences beyond the classroom. As simple as
this message may seem, there are many challenges encountered when adding educa-
tional value to residential halls. To achieve this important vision, various residential
programmes have been designed and launched by different countries, including Hong
Kong, Singapore, the US, and the UK. This chapter summarises the major findings
and recommendations in regard to adding educational value to students’ university
residential experiences, which are based on the cases illustrated in each chapter of
this book.
One may suspect that universities need to invest extra resources and time in order
to bring out the value of university residential halls. This is not necessarily true;
one of the unique characteristics of residential halls is that they are full of energetic
young people who are continuously influencing and being influenced by the resi-
dential community. Youth empowerment theory sees young people from an ecolog-
ical perspective, in that young people’s positive development is influenced by a set
of social environmental contexts and their interactions. Instead of being passively
affected by social environmental factors, youth empowerment theory focuses on
how young people can play a role within these social contexts to learn skills and
gain resources with which to enhance self-efficacy and gain positive development
toward adulthood. Psychological empowerment therefore includes three key compo-
nents: an intrapersonal component, including self-esteem, leadership efficacy, and
civic efficacy; a behavioural component, including leadership behaviour, commu-
nity engagement, and school engagement; and an interactional component, including
adult mentors, adult resources, and resource mobilisation. Residential halls provide
the perfect platform to facilitate youth empowerment. According to a hall warden,
one of his residents was greatly empowered in his position as the chair of the hall’s
student association; due to this and some other residential experience, he eventually
took up one of the most senior positions in the HK government. The resident proudly
shared that, if he had not experienced residential education, he would not have been
able to take up this high-ranked position in the government.
Instead of developing and transforming students, the highly competitive educa-
tion process, as experienced by many young people, could also be disempowering
for young students, who end up in feeling unconfident and unmotivated in terms
of both their studies and their personal growth. The notion that youth volunteering
is one of the most effective ways to help young people to regain power (or confi-
dence) and become motivated in terms of their personal growth again is supported
by practice and research findings. The keys to this are that, first, volunteering is a
highly self-determining process; second, all volunteer work is basically teamwork
and involving young people will enable them to learn how to work with others; and,
finally, all volunteering work happens in the community with groups in need, and
so volunteering work will facilitate young people to reconnect with the community
and to feel that they are taking part in the solution to social problems. From self-
determination to social participation, young people will feel that they are helping
themselves to grow, and they are also helping others to have a better life in the
14 Summarising Chapter 183
process. The resulting emerging sense of empowerment will then lead to a posi-
tively rewarding reinforcement cycle, which provides young people with a sense of
motivation and the confidence to involve themselves more and in better ways in the
community.
Takeaways for Different Stakeholders
For Future Student Residents
Residential experience is incredibly valuable for undergraduate students. In previous

studies, it has been shown, with strong evidence, that the residential environment is
one that brings positive impacts to student residents in both their academic and
personal development (e.g., Mayhew et al., 2016). As described in Chap. 4, it has
been observed that there are varieties of effective empowerment projects initiated in
the hall environment. In addition, through Chaps. 7 and 8, we have gained access
to previous student residents’ residential experiences, which have provided several
insights into the unique beneficial character of residential experience.
In previous discussions, it has been noted that the hall environment is a network
that facilitates interactions between individuals. With these interactions, opportuni-
ties beyond our expectations emerge and catalyse residents’ personal growth. There-
fore, it is crucial for student residents to acknowledge and grasp these opportunities,
actively shaping their pathway according to their preferences. This educational nature
deeply resonates with the spirit of student empowerment, allowing student residents
to establish and customise their own hall experiences. To summarise, future student
residents are recommended to focus on the following aspects of personal growth:
1. Interact with different parties in halls, as this could enhance one’s interpersonal
and communication skills;
2. Respect and appreciate individuals with different backgrounds, as the hall
environment is by nature multicultural;
3. Explore the hall environment, as it offers unique and impactful opportunities for
its members, and stepping out of one’s comfort zone is likely to be a rewarding
decision.
For Researchers
The collaborative efforts of education researchers alongside hall management teams

and student resident leaders will help ensure that students’ residential experiences are
of a high quality. In order to enhance the educational value of university residential
halls efficiently and effectively, it is crucial that education researchers thoroughly
examine and understand the nature and dynamics of university residential halls.
The first chapter of this book served as a literature summary, to lay out the history of
university residential systems and examine the relevant literature, in order to reveal
the current challenges that are encountered in university residential settings. This
book has adopted different theories to examine students’ residential experience;
for instance, Chap. 2 introduced a new model regarding student involvement in
university residential halls (Cheng, 2019) and Chap. 5 adopted the attitude, skills,
and knowledge aspects of the ASK model (Kwan, 2019). In brief, researchers are
encouraged to:
1. Continue investigating the impacts of residential halls on student development;
2. Examine to what extent current theories/models are sufficient to explain student
development in residential halls;
3. Evaluate students’ residential experiences in regard to facilitating the achieve-
ment of residential experience outcomes (e.g., promoting student enrichment
and wellbeing, creating a sense of belonging, growing intellectually beyond the
classroom).
For Hall Education and Management Teams
To enhance the educational value of students’ residential experiences, hall manage-

ment teams in different universities organise learning programmes and events for
their residents, promoting student integration in the hall community, as students are
from all walks of life, with different academic, cultural, socioeconomic, and polit-
ical backgrounds. For instance, Chaps. 3 and 4 illustrated different hall life education
programmes organised at one of the universities in Hong Kong. These programmes
include ‘Community Engagement Organisers (CEOs)’ and ‘Green Quest’, which aim
to promote care in the community, as well as raise environmental awareness. In addi-
tion, Chap. 6 introduced the ‘Deeper Experiential Engagement Projects’, organised
by Nanyang Technological University Singapore, which aims to develop student
residents’ transferable skills. The idea of ‘living-learning programmes’ (LLPs) in
university residential halls (Inkelas, 2008; Inkelas et al., 2008) is becoming more
popular. Hall education and management teams can take reference from these good
practices to facilitate students’ whole-person development. Furthermore, perceiving
residential halls as part of the higher education experience and a contribution to
university educational aims, Chap. 13 analysed Hong Kong universities’ residential
educational aims and their alignment with the corresponding university educational
aims. It is believed that a clear set of residential educational aims is necessary to
maximise students’ gain from residential education. In summary, recommendations
for hall education and management teams are:
1. Apply a suitable framework/model to help understand student development
in residential halls, and how to further enhance different aspects of student
development;
2. Build close bonds with student residents, as well as within the hall education
and management team;
3. Apply/create gamifying principles and/or features in residential education

programmes, so that they may be more enjoyable for residents as well as
potential residents;
4. Consider introducing innovative and interesting residential programmes into the
hall to attract different types of students to participate;
5. Empower students to initiate different university residential hall programmes;
6. Enable cultural integration between local and international students;
7. Understand which elements in residential halls have positive/negative impacts
on student development;
8. Share good practices within residential communities to better support colleagues
in this field.
For Policymakers
Higher education does not necessarily provide students with opportunities to reside
on campus because of various reasons. For instance, small institutes, especially
private ones that operate on low budgets, are less likely than large institutes to be
able to provide residential halls to accommodate students (Isaias, 2016), and some
university hospitality spaces are unaffordable for students (Hay, 2019).
We hope that research results and insights from this book will inform policy
makers (such as the funding bodies who decide how to allocate resources to univer-
sities and those within universities who decide where to spend their available
funding) in regard to the importance and usefulness of residential education. With
this enhanced understanding, we hope they will place greater emphasis on spending
money on residential education, as it complements students’ university education
and helps achieve university aims.
Since there may not be enough support from the government (the common body
that allocates funding for universities), it’s unlikely that all students can stay in a resi-
dential hall for their entire university life. However, university administrators should
try their very best to offer an opportunity to every student to reside in a university
residential hall for at least one year, so that students can benefit from the residential
hall learning outcomes, which are closely tied to the development of soft skills that
are highly valued by employers. To summarise, policymakers outside of universi-
ties (those who decide on funding and perhaps even land for universities) should
seriously consider placing greater emphasis on investing in residential education,
which is important for students’ whole-person development. Policymakers within
universities should:
1. Invest in building residential halls and offer facilitates inside halls that support
all sorts of soft-skill development that aligns with the university aims;
2. Provide solid support in regard to conducting diverse and innovative residential
programmes that enable students to achieve the residential goals, which align
with the university aims;
3. Raise the number of hall management staff, such as wardens and resident tutors,
when the current staff-to-student ratio is low (Cheng & Chan, 2020), to provide
proper pastoral care for student residents (e.g., academic support, career advice,
mental health consultations).
Future Directions
The future of residential life and education is grounded in both past foundational
experiences, as well as the potential long-term impacts of global events. These areas
can impact the way in which we develop and design our residential offerings at
colleges and universities across the globe. Residential life teams have structures in
place that are built on curricular and programmatic development, which help to shape
and guide student development within residential hall environments. This emphasis
on student success and learning can help guide a department’s focus when creating
a plan for the year, on-boarding staff, and helping to create an action plan for a
successful year at an institution.
While working to develop these initiatives, it is critical to remain focused on
the future, to see which areas are changing and how to best adapt and restructure
to fit the changing needs of not only the current student population, but also the
changing aspects of the higher education landscape. How are students learning?
How are students engaging? These questions, among others, can be asked to help
guide the conversation to reframe and focus on offerings, programmes, and services
that make sense for a department aiming to best meet the needs of their specific
stakeholders. Gone are the days of simply repeating what was done in the past; the
wash, rinse, and repeat metaphor has expired. It is time to rethink how we approach
these conversations and what resources we need to best define our work and our
engagement with students.
How are students showing up and engaging in your department? Prior to the rise of
the COVID-19 pandemic, there was already a shift toward multifaceted engagement
opportunities, including both online and in-person components, for both academic
and residential life (Cheng et al., 2021). It is important to engage students through
face-to-face communication, self-guided learning experiences, as well as virtual
methods online, in both a synchronous and an asynchronous fashion. These were
items that were on the horizon, but varied based on the institution type or student
needs. As the pandemic began, the need to shift to virtual learning and the removal
of in-person connections fully shifted how we operate as an industry. We must
now continue working to create personal and connected learning and development
experiences for students in a virtual environment.
These types of experiences, while we may be designing them for times during the
pandemic, are likely to last far beyond the outbreak of COVID-19. Virtual engage-
ment, once thought to only refer to online learning in the classroom, is now a place to
connect, network, and programme within residential life. Setting floor expectations,
roommate agreements, game nights, interactive programmes, and much more can be
facilitated through this new virtual format. This is a new venue for many institutions
and is likely something that will stay for many years to come. When we are able to
come back to a place when in-person gatherings are not of a social or health concern,
there will likely be a place for students who are unable to participate in-person and
a need to still participate in online and interactive programming.
This new type of format is something that may reach out to those students who
may have been less likely to attend in-person programming for a variety of reasons.
How we work to create these events, bring students into the conversations, and
follow-up to help students create these relationships is critical. This virtual form of
community building is necessary in helping to move us forward and look at the future
of residential life and community building for the time being, as well as how we use
this new form of connection in the years to come. Looking at new ways to develop
connections, sustain networks, and help students access and utilise resources across a
variety of methods and platforms within residential life will continue to be of utmost
importance as we move forward in the years ahead.
Finally, as we move into a ‘new normal’ after the COVID-19 pandemic even-
tually subsides, a new virtual environment has also been launched among profes-
sional staff for those working within the professional staff of residence life. Depart-
ments typically structured with many in-person meetings, committees, gatherings,
and other related functions have now realised that many day-to-day functions could
be conducted in a remote or virtual fashion; it is likely that not everything needs
to be handled through in-person operations. This shift in operational philosophy
will change not only how departments operate moving forward, but also how they
recruit, develop, and train staff, as well as how major operational functions and
project management are carried out within these offices. This shift can hopefully
create new and creative ways of doing things among these departments, and provide
greater flexibility and fluidity in terms of resource allocation, to where resources
are most needed, to further shape and refine these departments for continued future
success.
Conclusion
Over the course of half a century, researchers have raised questions regarding the
possibility of bringing the potential of education to students’ residential environ-
ment (Astin, 1977; Chickering, 1969). This book has taken the readers through a
journey of understanding, analysing, and reimagining university residential halls,
as it offers readers a theoretically grounded, practically meaningful, and effective
way to design university residential halls that facilitate the development of student
residents. This book has also provided the perspectives of student residents, hall
management and education teams, researchers interested in the residential commu-
nity, and policymakers. Their narratives, from diversified backgrounds, allow readers
to gain a comprehensive understanding of the current situation in residential halls.
Furthermore, this book includes studies situated around the world, broadening the
understanding of residential education to a more international and cultural extent.

It is our hope that the different ideas shared in this book, together with some of
the research recommendations in the concluding chapter, may offer a new direction
to the readers. Among different studies, we learned that residential education and
student development do not occur naturally. To facilitate students’ personal growth
and all-rounded development, it is important for dedicated stakeholders to purposely
construct residential programmes that maximise students’ residential experience.
References
Astin, A. W. (1977). Four critical years: Effects of college on beliefs, attitudes, and knowledge. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Cheng, M. W. (2019). Generic competencies development through experiential learning: Inves-
tigating diversity in first-year residential experiences [Doctoral dissertation, The University of
Hong Kong]. HKU Theses Online (HKUTO).
Cheng, M. W., & Chan, C. K. (2020). ‘Invisible in a visible role’: A photovoice study exploring the
struggles of new resident assistants. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 45(5), 688–703.
https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2020.1812547
Cheng, M. W., Leung, M. L., Yu, C. W., Yue, K. K., Liu, E. S., & Chu, S. K. (2021). Sustaining healthy
staying communities in university residential halls amid unprecedented pandemic. Sustainability,
13(11), 6176. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13116176
Chickering, A. W. (1969). Education and identity. Jossey-Bass.
Hay, B. (12 Feb 2019). The campus hotel: Commercial hospitality space in a UK public university
and some insights for Australian universities [Conference session]. CAUTHE 2019: Sustainability
of Tourism, Hospitality and Events in a Disruptive Digital Age: Proceedings of the 29th Annual
Conference.
Inkelas, K. (2008). National study of living-learning programs: 2007 report of find-
ings. Retrieved from https://drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstream/handle/1903/8392/2007%20NSLLP%
20Final%20Report.pdf;sequence=1.
Inkelas, K. K., Soldner, M., & Szelenyi, K. (2008). Living-learning programs for first-year students.
In Residence life programs and the new student experience (pp. 53–67).
Isaias, A. M. (2016). The impact of student communities on student development: Institutional size
and residential living. INNOVA Research Journal, 1(4), 22–30.
Kwan, P. (2019). Foundation learning for school managers (I). Education bureau. www.edb.gov.
hk/en/sch-admin/sbm/handy-tips/learning-journey-for-school-managers/ask-model/index.html.
Liu, E. S. C. (2019). Empowering Asian youth through volunteering: Examples of theory into
practice. Routledge.
Liu, E. S. C., Ye, C. J., & Yeung, D. Y. (2015). Effects of approach to learning and self-perceived
overall competence of university students. Learning and Individual Differences, 39, 199–204.
Mayhew, M. J., Rockenbach, A. N., Bowman, N. A., Seifert, T. A., & Wolniak, G. C. (2016). How
college affects students: 21st century evidence that higher education works (Vol. 1). John Wiley &
Sons.
Payne, M. (2009). In search of youth empowerment in England. In E. S. C. Liu, M. J. Holosko, & T.
W. Lo (Eds.), Youth empowerment and volunteerism: Principles, policies and practices (pp. 57–
81). City University of Hong Kong Press.
Risler, E. A., & Holosko, M. J. (2009). Blueprint for a youth empowerment model (YEM) through
volunteerism. In E. S. C. Liu, M. J. Holosko, & T. W. Lo (Eds.), Youth empowerment and
volunteerism: Principles, policies and practices (pp. 57–81). City University of Hong Kong
Press.

Evolving Landscape of Residential Education

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Evolving Landscape of Residential Education

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Evolving Landscape of Residential Education

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Samuel Kai Wah Chu · Kevin Kin Man Yue ·

Christina Wai-Mui Yu · Elaine Suk Ching Liu ·

Chun Chau Sze Kevin Conn

ISBN 978-981-16-8905-5 ISBN 978-981-16-8906-2 (eBook)

Part II Models and Outcomes

Part III Current Programmes and Case Studies

Part IV Students’ Voices

8 ASK: An Undergraduate’s Growth Through International

Part V Ongoing Research and Implications

Part VI Future Directions and Conclusion

Michelle Wing-tung Cheng and Samuel Kai Wah Chu

Keywords University residential hall systems · Educational value · Difficulties

The Origins of the University Residential System

The Existing Residential System Worldwide

University Residential Education

Residential colleges, which are responsible for providing residence, catering,

The relationship between residential experience and academic achievement is uncer-

Challenges to Creating Educational Residential Experiences

Although residential systems are different in various countries and universities,

Fourth, researchers do not have a clear understanding of the residence life

Michelle Wing-tung Cheng

Abstract To understand students’ development through their unique residential

keywords Residential experiences · Residential outcomes · Theory of student

The Theory of Student Involvement (I-E-O Model)

Fig. 2.1 The

The Presage-Process-Product (3P) Model

The presage-process-product (3P) model was proposed by Biggs (1989) to explain

Presage Process Product

Fig. 2.2 The 3P model of teaching and learning (Biggs, 1989)

Fig. 2.3 The presage-process-product (3P) model (Prosser et al., 1994)

students’ perceptions. This characteristic of the model enables it to supplement the

A New Model of Student Involvement in University

Presage Process Product

involvement is influenced by residents’ characteristics (presage), while residents’

Residential education in the United States provides an opportunity for students to

students’ experiences throughout their time at an institution: ‘While universities may

Learning Outside the Classroom and Connected Experiences

One aspect of students’ relationship to the university experience is the connections

Residence Hall Staffing Support

Engagement Opportunities and Outreach

Providing an opportunity for residential education and residential engagement also

Learning Outcomes and Goal-Driven Work

It is necessary when working within a residential education framework to create a

Faculty Support and Residential Colleges

Residential colleges further refine residential experiences, enhancing student learning

Concluding Thoughts and Questions to Consider

Core I: Residential Education and Staff Development

1. What model or framework is used to guide ongoing staff development within

Core II: Residential Education and Curricular Enhancement

1. Does your residence life department follow a programming model or utilise a

Elaine Suk Ching Liu

Abstract In this chapter, I will discuss my experience of merging my roles both as

Keywords Youth empowerment · Volunteering · Residential hall · Humanistic

In this chapter, I will discuss my experience as a residence master in one of the

Developing a Humanistic Empowerment Model

1. Adopting a humanistic perspective and seeing university students as respectable

Fig. 4.1 The humanistic-empowerment model

The Inception, Development, and Maturation of the CYEP