Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:735

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-018-7915-3

THEMATIC ISSUE

Damage phenomenon and petrophysical properties of sandstones

at the Phnom Bakheng Temple (Angkor, Cambodia): first
investigations and possible conservation measures
Wanja Wedekind1 · Christian J. Gross2 · Andreas Hoffmann3 · Siegfried Siegesmund2

Received: 19 June 2018 / Accepted: 20 October 2018 / Published online: 31 October 2018
© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2018

Abstract
Sandstones, clay in the form of bricks and laterite are the building materials used by the Khmer to construct the imposing
and magnificent temples in Southeast Asia. Many of these monuments suffer from fracturing, sanding, contour scaling, crust
formation and salt weathering. The affinity to weathering is closely connected to the type of material. Two sandstone types
classified as feldspathic arenite and quartz arenite of Angkor as well as two arkosic sandstones from Thailand are described
and investigated in this study. Important petrophysical properties determined for the different sandstones consist of hydric
expansion, thermal expansion, pore radii distribution and ultrasonic velocity. Different investigations such as capillary
water uptake, surface hardness, hygroscopic water sorption, and salt resistance tests were undertaken in the laboratory to
characterize the various rock types. Observations and quantified damage mapping were done onsite at the Phnom Bakheng
Temple. Contour scaling in the form of weathering crusts is one of the main deterioration features observable at the Angkor
monuments. Comparisons are made between the building stone, the crust material from the Phnom Bakheng Temple and
fresh stone material used for restoration. Significant differences in hydric and especially in thermal expansion of the crust
and sandstone have been determined. The results seem to indicate that extensional processes occur, which can be consid-
ered a force for detachment (i.e., contour scaling, flaking). In an experimental trial, the hydric and thermal expansion of the
weathering crust and the building stone was significantly reduced by using a weak acid for the crust and a swelling inhibitor
for the original building stone.

Keywords  Phnom Bakheng Temple · Contour scaling · Crustal delamination · Cathodoluminescence

Introduction

Sandstones have always been a popular and commonly used

construction material for monuments as well as secular and
religious buildings around the world (e.g., Petra in Jordon,
Fatipu Sikri in India, and Luxor in Egypt). Sandstones are
This article is part of a Topical Collection in Environmental relatively soft and easy to work with, where their durabil-
Earth Sciences on “Stone in the Architectural Heritage: from
ity is dependent upon the mineralogical composition and
quarry to monuments – environment, exploitation, properties and
durability”, guest edited by Siegfried Siegesmund, Luís Sousa, and the petrophysical properties (Hoffmann 2006; Mosch 2008;
Rubén Alfonso López-Doncel. Stück et al. 2013; Wedekind 2016). Therefore, sandstone
was often used for decorative artwork in architecture and
* Wanja Wedekind
sculptures. The exquisite sculptures and reliefs at the Angkor
info@wanjawedekind.de
temples (e.g., Banteay Srei) are a testimony to the use of this
1
Applied Conservation Science (ACS), Leinestr. 24, stone (Figs. 1a, 7a, b).
37073 Göttingen, Germany Crust formation and contour scaling are generally
2
Geoscience Centre of the University Göttingen, Göttingen, described as the main weathering forms observable at many
Germany of the Angkor temples. Crust formation and the detachment
3
Roonstr. 42a, 56626 Andernach, Germany of the crust are found as a contour scaling affect parallel to

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Fig. 1  Temples investigated for comparative purposes. a The Banteay Srei Temple (east façade), built from weathering resistant red sandstone.
Note the foundation problems on the left-hand side of the image, and b the Phnom Bakheng Temple, a pyramid-like structure (east façade)
the surface of the single building stones. This weathering
feature is independent of the placement of the stone surface,
i.e., parallel or perpendicular to the bedding. Contour scal-
ing resulting in the loss of many square meters of decorated
surfaces have been photographically documented over the
decades at some parts of buildings in the 1960s and 1990s
(Leisen et al. 1996; André et al. 2012). The importance of
salts and their contribution to the deterioration and dam-
age forms have been investigated by Hosono et al. (2006),
Siedel et al. (2008) and André et al. (2011). At the Phnom
Bakheng and Ta Keo temples, Hosono et al. (2006) suggest
that the sandstone exfoliation observed are not related to the
bat guano, but connected to the crystallization of calcite,
which this study also explores.
Biodegradation causes damages to the temples of Angkor.
Many buildings are strongly affected by the giant fig trees
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Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:735
and their aerial roots, but they are left undisturbed because
they represent a tourist attraction. Microbiological growth
also causes damages to the surface of the buildings (Bartoli
et al. 2014), but this decay effect is not comparable to the
damages caused by contour scaling.
The objective of this first investigation is to characterize
the different weathering forms and to quantify the damages
observed at the Phnom Bakheng Temple as an example for
a free-standing building exposed to the environment. Com-
parisons are made to the red sandstone of the Banteay Srei
Temple and equivalent sandstones from Thailand. Weather-
ing forms not only are described but the causes of specific
weathering forms such as contour scaling are investigated
and explained. Specific restoration stones that may create
future problems are investigated, and measures are proposed
for sustainable conservation. An alternative hypothesis is
Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:735 Page 3 of 36  735
presented that may explain contour scaling and the forma-
tion of sandstone weathering crusts observed at the Phnom
Bakheng Temple.
Monuments investigated
Different sandstone types were used in the construction of
the sculptures, wall reliefs, temples and buildings of Ang-
kor. These were designated a World Cultural Heritage Site
in 1992. They can be visited in the Angkor Archaeological
Park that is located amid forests and farmland to the north of
Tonlé Sap Lake (the largest freshwater lake in SE Asia) and
south of the Kulen Mountains, near Siem Reap City in the
Siem Reap Province of Cambodia. The legendary Angkor
served as the seat of the Khmer Empire, which encompassed
most of SE Asia and flourished from approximately 802 to
1431 CE. The empire hosted the largest temples on earth,
with the Khmer culture being dominated by a warrior soci-
ety. With the modern technique of satellite imaging, it has
become clear, that the ancient city of Angkor with an esti-
mated population of more than 1 million inhabitants was the
largest pre-industrial urban center of its time (Evans et al.
2007).
The main object investigated in this study is the main
sanctuary (center shrine) of the Phnom Bakheng Temple,
located around 1.5 km northwest of Angkor Wat. The temple
was erected under the rulership of Yasovarman I (889–910
CE) and is the first temple built at Angkor. Phnom Bakheng
has a pyramid-like form (Fig. 1b) consisting of seven tiers
built atop a steep hill 65 m above the surrounding plain. The
temple faces east and measures 76 by 76 m at its base. Five
sandstone sanctuaries stand in a quincunx pattern at the top
level—one in the center and one at each corner of the level’s
square. Originally, 108 small towers were arrayed around the
temple at ground level and on several of its tiers; most of
them have collapsed (Roony 2002). The temple symbolizes
Mount Meru, the home of the Hindu gods, while the seven
tiers represent the seven heavens. Not only does the temple
suffer from static fractures as well as crust formation and
salt weathering, but the large number of visitors to the site
has contributed to its continued deterioration. Since 2004,
the building is being restored with the support of the World
Monuments Fund (WMF) in cooperation with the Author-
ity for the Protection and Management of Angkor and the
Region of Siem Reap (APSARA).
Another object that is relevant to this study is the Banteay
Srei Temple, a tenth century structure built almost entirely
of red sandstone, with brick and laterite being utilized for
enclosure walls and specific structural elements (Fig. 1a).
The temple is located 25 km NNE of Angkor Wat near the
hill of Phnom Dei in the Siem Reap Province. Dedicated to
the Hindu god Shiva, this temple (sometimes referred to as
the citadel of beauty) is renowned for its well-preserved,
elaborate, and decorative wall carvings. The preservation
of these wall carvings is due to its quartzose nature (André
et al. 2011).
Climate
Two different types of climate define the region of Angkor,
the tropical wet and dry climate and the tropical monsoon
climate. The site has a wet tropical, hot summer and dry,
mild winters. The mean temperature is 28.5 °C. Average
monthly temperatures vary by 7 °C. Records indicate tem-
peratures reach 30 °C by day in the winter and on average
fall to 23 °C overnight. Temperatures climb to 34 °C in the
springtime, generally in the afternoon with overnight lows
of 26 °C. In the summer, average high temperatures during
the day are 33 °C and average low temperatures at night are
26 °C. Autumn temperatures decrease and achieve an aver-
age high of 31.5 °C during the day and a low of 25.5 °C.
Total annual precipitation averages 1425 mm. Precipita-
tion occurs from March and ends in November. Most of the
rainfall occurs from May to October (monsoon season) and
reaches an average of 240 mm per month. Daily humidity
reaches a minimum of 54% during the dry season in Janu-
ary and March, and in the monsoon season a high-relative
humidity of 80–90% is measured (Waragai et al. 2013).
Surface temperature has been measured on some Angkor
temples and these can be applied to the Phnom Bakheng
Temple which is situated nearby. André et al. (2012) meas-
ured maximum values of surface temperature up to about
50 °C at the southern side. On the western side tempera-
tures attained a value of 40 °C, followed by measurements
of 37 °C on the eastern side and values of 29 °C on the
northern side. Similar results were obtained by Leisen et al.
(1996) at the Angkor Wat Temple. On a sunny February day,
temperatures of about 30 °C were measured on a side facing
away from the sun and 45 °C on the southern and western
sides of the Angkor Wat Temple.
Geological background
Cambodia and Thailand, where the investigated sand-
stone samples originate (Fig. 2a, b), are part of SE Asia,
whose geologic and tectonic evolution began in the Upper
Devonian and underwent many stages of development up
to the present (Gubler 1933; Carbonnel 1965; Gatinsky
et al. 1984; Hutchison 1989). Numerous micro-continen-
tal blocks existed in the Tethyian oceanic region (around
250 Ma) such as the Shan Thai Block and the Indochina
Block. The Shan Thai Block consists of the western half
of Thailand, eastern Myanmar and northwestern Laos,
whereas the Indochina Block contains the eastern half of
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Fig. 2  a Simplified geological map of Cambodia and the eastern part of Thailand (after Uchida et al. 2010), b approximate areal extent of the
Khorat Group (after Hoffmann 2006). Source areas of the samples are indicated
Thailand, all of Cambodia, Laos, South Vietnam and the
eastern Malaysian Peninsula. Even though both micro-
continents (the Shan Thai and Indochina) underwent an
independent geological evolution before the collision,
both units are assumed to a have a similar origin based on
similar stratigraphic sequences. Fossil evidence suggests
that both landmasses possibly represent former margins
of Gondwanaland.
With the closure of the Paleo-Tethys because of east-
directed subduction, collision of the Shan Thai Block and
Indochina blocks occurred (Bunopas 1992). The time of the
collision supposedly ensued during the Lower Carbonifer-
ous (Hahn et al. 1986), Middle Permian (Helmcke and Lin-
denberg 1983), the Lower Triassic (Mitchell 1992), Upper
Triassic (Hutchison 1989) and even the Upper Jurassic
(Auldley-Charles 1984). The resulting collision is called the
“Indosinian Orogeny”, which forms a fold belt that strikes
N–S from the Malaysian Peninsula up to South China and
represents a possible suture zone.
In Thailand, extension of the continental crust led to
the formation of N–S and NW–SE striking trenches in the
northern and northeastern part of the country in the period
from the Upper Permian to the Lower Triassic (Helmcke
1983; Kozar et al. 1992; Gabel et al. 1993). This extension
in NE Thailand led to the formation of the so-called Khorat
Basin, in which continental red beds with a thickness of
4.5 km were deposited in the period starting from the Upper
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Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:735
Triassic up to the Paleogene. This continental series forms
the present-day Khorat Plateau in Thailand (Fig. 2a).
The lithostratigraphic units of the Khorat Basin were
combined by Ward and Bunnag (1964) and designated the
Khorat Group. This extensive sequence makes up eastern
Thailand and equivalent sediments in all of Cambodia, east-
ern Laos and parts of southeastern Vietnam (Fig. 2b). As
the continental blocks moved closer, the Jurassic sediments
of the Khorat Group in northern Thailand became intensely
folded, whereas their equivalents in NE Thailand were only
subordinately deformed.
The Angkor temples are located in northern Cambodia in
a region between the Khorat Plateau (Thailand) and near the
very large Tonle Sap Lake. The low-lying central plain in
this region is overlain by extensive Quaternary to Holocene
loosely consolidated sediments consisting of sands, silts and
clays (Fig. 2a). The thickest deposits occur near the Ang-
kor Archaeological Park and in the Mekong Delta. Deposits
range in thickness from 50 to 200 meters, especially in the
Mekong floodplain (Feldman and Rosenboom 2001).
Emerging from the low-lying landscape near the Angkor
Archaeological Park are isolated buttes and the Kulen and
Tbeng mountains. The buttes only have a surface area not
exceeding a few kilometers. Stratigraphically, they consist
of Lower to Middle Triassic volcano-sedimentary units,
Lower to Upper Jurassic sedimentary units and smaller Plio-
cene–Pleistocene basalts and associated deposits (Carò et al.
Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:735 Page 5 of 36  735

2010). The Kulen and Tbeng mountains are the broadest and
most dominant exposures of Jurassic sandstone in the area.
They are mapped as having lithologies similar to those of the
Khorat Group and can be regarded as their equivalents. They
are the dominant sandstone used in the Angkor temples.
Tien et al. (1991) describes Lower to Middle Jurassic
exposures consisting of conglomerates, sandstones and silt-
stones, which are designated the Terrain Rouge or Red Sand-
stone. The Upper Jurassic conglomerates and sandstones
comprising the southern margin of the Khorat Plateau, the
Kulen Mountains and other isolated exposures in the Siem
Reap and Preah Vihear provinces (location of the restoration
material PBr), is known as the Grès supérieures or Upper
Sandstone because of their exposures at mountain crests
(Tien et al. 1991; Sotham 1997). Both the Terrain Rouge and
Grès supérieures encompass the wide subhorizontal uplands
in northern Cambodia (Carò and IM 2012).
Contri (1972) conducted a field investigation of a section
on the SE slope of Kulen Mountain. From top to bottom
the section consists of a fine-grained feldspathic sandstone
(40 m), fine-grained red sandstone associated with red clay
interbeds and conglomerates (60 m), a fine-grained greyish
green sandstone (30 m) and a massive, cross-bedded fine- to
medium-grained sandstone (200–220 m). These sandstone
layers have been correlated to the lower and middle horizons
of the Khorat sequence of Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous in
age (Contri 1972; Racey 1996; Uchida et al. 2010).
Provenance studies have determined the locations where
the Khmer builders obtained their stones. Different histori-
cal quarries have been identified where most of the build-
ing stones were excavated (Carò 2009a). For example, the
Angkor quarries located in the 40-m thick sandstone layer
on the SE slope of Kulen Mountain or in locations near Koh
Ker (see Carò and IM 2012). The affinity between the stone
used for the construction of the Angkor temples and the
lithotypes exposed at these locations have been confirmed.
Not only did the Khmer use these sites for stone excava-
tion, but also along river banks where sandstone outcrops
are exposed (Fig. 3a). Evidence found consists of tool marks.
Present-day quarries for sandstone restoration material and
other purposes are found in the Preah Vihear and Banteay
Meanchey provinces (Cambodia; Fig. 2a).
In 2003, the sandstone occurrences were investigated on
the western border of the Khorat Plateau (Fig. 2a; Hoffmann

Fig. 3  Sandstone exposures. a Natural sandstone outcrops along a river west of Phnom Penh (Cambodia), b active red sandstone quarry (S-Red)
in the Sikhiu district of Thailand, and c excavation of green sandstone (PC-Green) in the Pakchong district of Thailand

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2006) in the province of Nakhon Ratchasima (Thailand).
Sandstone samples were collected in small quarries and such
excavation sites are shown in Fig. 3b, c. These deposits are
correlated stratigraphically to the Mesozoic Khorat Group
and consist of the following formations: the Phu Kradung
(Middle Jurassic, green sandstone), the Phra Wihan (Middle
to Upper Jurassic, white, yellow and brown sandstone) and
the Khok Kruat (Aptian to Albian in age, red sandstone).
These visually appealing stones with good colour intensity
were even used as a building stone for temples at the time of
the Khmer Empire (Dheeradilok 1993).
Considering the restrictions of sampling at a world her-
itage site such as Angkor, the sampling size and number
of samples obtained were limited. In total six samples are
investigated in this study and two originate from Thailand.
The Thailand samples represent sedimentary equivalents
to the stones used in the Angkor temples. Since no direct
sample was acquired from the Banteay Srei Temple, an
equivalent red sandstone from Cambodia and Thailand was
analyzed for comparison. Samples are listed in Table 1 and
their source locations are shown in Fig. 2a.
Petrography and cathodoluminescence

The microfabrics and mineralogical composition of the

Methods
Quantitative mapping and sampling
To understand the weathering processes at ancient and his-
torical monuments, documentation and mapping of damages
is a prerequisite for their conservation. Thus, case-specific
solutions to conservation problems caused by weathering
(e.g., contour scaling, crust formation, flaking, etc.) can be
developed. Onsite mapping of the Phnom Bakheng Tem-
ple and field surveys were done in August 2009. Damage
data collected onsite and from distortion-free photos were
analyzed by utilizing the mapping software Medigo-Map
(Medigo GmbH, Leipzig). All sides of the Phnom Bakheng
Temple were mapped.
sandstones were investigated with a Leica DMLP petro-
graphic microscope equipped with a Giga Vision Zelos-2
digital camera. Standard thin sections 30 µm in thickness
were used.
Cathodoluminescence (CL) microscopy was applied for
discerning microstructures, the mineralogical composition
and possible alteration features. This method allows micro-
structures to become observable, which are not visible by
conventional petrographic microscopes. In calcite, the most
­ n2+. Only 10–20 ppm of M
important activator ion is M ­ n2+
is required for the generation of luminescence, if the total
Fe content is less than 150 ppm (Machel et al. 1991). The
most important quencher of luminescence in calcite is F ­ e2+.
The type of CL microscope used in this study is the HC3-
LM apparatus, which uses an Olympus BHMJ microscope as

Table 1  Samples analyzed in the study

Sample Sample abbreviation Source Rock classification Province Location

Original sandstone PB Phnom Bakheng Temple Feldspathic ­arenitea Siem Reap Cambodia
(broken flooring material)
Sandstone weathering crust PBc Phnom Bakheng Temple Feldspathic ­arenitea Siem Reap Cambodia
(rubble mound near
enclosure wall)
Sandstone restoration PBr Phnom Tbeng Mountain Feldspathic ­arenitea Preah Vihear Cambodia
material (Artisans of Angkor Siem
Reap)
Red sandstone AR Equivalent to Banteay Srei Quartz ­areniteb Meanchey Cambodia
Temple
Green sandstone PC-Green Quarry Arkosec Nakhon Khorat Plateau, Thailand
Ratchasima
(Pakchong
District)
Red sandstone S-Red Quarry Arkosec Nakhon Khorat Plateau, Thailand
Ratchasima
(Sikhiu
District)
a
 Classification used in this study based on Uchida et al. (1998) and Carò and IM (2012)
b
 Rock classification for this stone defined by Uchida et al. (1998) and André et al. (2011)
c
 Samples collected, classified and investigated by Hoffmann (2006). These are lithological equivalents to the Angkor samples in this study

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Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:735 Page 7 of 36  735
its base. Standard operating conditions were: specimen vac-
uum chamber of 0.001 mbar, a filament current of 200 mA,
and an accelerating potential of 14 kV. Descriptions con-
cerning CL microscopy and theory are found in Marshall
(1988).
SEM and EDX
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was done on the origi-
nal sandstone from the Phnom Bakheng Temple (PB) and
the sandstone sample (PC-Green) from Thailand (Table 1).
The investigation focused on the presence of clay minerals
in the binding cement of the stones. Energy dispersive X-ray
(EDX) analyses were done to qualitatively determine the
composition of the observed clay minerals.
Determination of petrophysical properties
Hydrostatic weighing was carried out on all samples to
acquire the matrix and bulk density as well as the porosity
(see ISO 5018). To understand the alterability of building
materials, determination of the speed and the amount of
water that penetrates and leaves the porous system is essen-
tial. These water transport properties are closely related to
the properties of the pore space (Van Brakel 1975; Sieges-
mund and Dürast 2011; Dullien 2012). They were meas-
ured by the water uptake rate, the pore size distribution and
sorption.
Capillary water uptake was determined by capillary suc-
tion in a closed cabinet on cubic samples (65 mm in size),
while being simultaneously weighed according to the EN
1925 standard. Measurements were done parallel and per-
pendicular to the bedding. The water uptake coefficient
(w-value) describes how much water can be absorbed during
a specific time interval within a defined area of suction. This
is calculated following the DIN EN ISO 15148:2003-03,
where the units in this case are expressed in kg/m2/√1 h.
The pore size distribution was measured using a Pascal
440 Series (Thermo Scientific) mercury intrusion poro-
simeter (see Brakel et al. 1981; Siegesmund and Dürrast
2011). Capillary active pores are defined as those having a
dimension ranging from 0.1 to 100 µm (Klopfer 1985). The
smaller pores are defined as microporosity (from 0.0001 to
0.1 µm). Hygroscopic water sorption was measured by the
weight of the stone samples conditioned in a climate cham-
ber at 30 °C with a RH ranging 20–95%. The measurements
are carried out on plate-like samples with a dimension of
0.4 mm thickness and a length and height of 35 mm. The
amount of absorbed water is given in g/cm3 or percent of
the tested material.
Ultrasonic velocity was measured on cylindrical samples
(Ø 60 mm × 50 mm). Transient times of ultrasonic pulses
(piezoceramic transducers, resonant frequency 1 MHz) were
measured in three orthogonal directions using the pulse
transmission technique (Birch 1960, 1961; Dürrast et al.
1999).
Surface hardness was measured on dry and water-sat-
urated stone samples in the laboratory using the Equotip
3 (proceq Company) portable testing device. The testing
instrument works with the rebound method. This method
indirectly measures the loss of energy of a so-called impact
body. Dietmar Leep, the inventor of this method defined
hardness as HL, or the Leep hardness value. A special
impact device defined as D was used. Final results are then
given as HLD. Ten individual measurements were done and
the mean value calculated. Wedekind et al. (2016b) gave
a correlation of surface hardness (HLD) and compressive
strength for different types of stone.
Because the sample size of the crust was limited, a sim-
ple but effective testing device was developed for determin-
ing the thermal expansion of a small piece of weathering
crust. For purposes of comparison, the other samples were
measured with this procedure using the same sample size.
The plate-like sample is placed on a large cylinder of quartz
glass, 1.5 cm in diameter and 3.0 cm in length. Another
cylinder of quartz glass with smaller dimensions (1.0 cm
in diameter and 5 cm in length) is placed at the top of the
sample. The smaller cylinder is connected to an electronic
dial gauge. Heat is applied by an infinitely variable fan
heater concentrated on the sample at a distance of 1 cm. The
temperature of the sample is measured by a digital contact
thermometer placed directly at the back of the sample. Heat-
ing starts at 25 °C (room temperature) and is continuously
increased up to 100 °C within 30 min. After reaching 100 °C
the heating is stopped and the cooling process starts until the
sample reaches room temperature again. The crust sample
has a dimension of around 2 cm × 2 cm and a thickness of
around 4 mm.
The hygric as well as the hydric expansion is a property
of some materials that causes them to swell in contact with
water. This behavior is controlled by the amount of swelling
clay and the proportion of micropores present in the rock
(see Weiss et al. 2004; Ruedrich et al. 2005; Wedekind et al.
2013; Siegesmund and Dürrast 2011).
The hydric expansion of the stones was determined on
plate-like samples (0.4 mm in thickness, with a length and
height of 35 mm). These are preconditioned at 30% relative
humidity and room temperature. Afterwards the samples are
completely immersed in distilled water. The displacement
transducer has a resolution of 0.1 µm with an accuracy of
0.5 µm. Measurements are carried out on all samples parallel
to the x-and y-axes (parallel to the bedding plane) and z-axis
(perpendicular to the bedding plane).
Resistance to salt weathering was performed on all sand-
stone samples (except for the weathered crust) according
to the DIN EN 12370 test. Stone cylinders were cored with
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Page 8 of 36
a dimension of 5  cm × 5  cm. Samples were dried until
constant weight was reached and then placed into a closed
basket for 4 h containing a 10% solution of sodium sulfate
­(Na2SO4). Then the samples were blotted and put into a
heating chamber (60 °C) for at least 24 h. Samples were
removed from the heating chamber and cooled down to room
temperature within 1 h. Once cooled the weight change was
determined. The procedure was repeated until a 30% loss of
mass could be determined. This 30% material loss was used
as an index to define the salt resistance.
Results
Damage mapping and weathering forms
Typical examples of five different conditions leading to
deterioration and damage are shown in Fig. 4. These are
observable at the Phnom Bakheng Temple and other temples
in the Angkor Archaeological Park. Damages are colored
coded and correspond to the following types of observed
phenomena: (1) dark deposits due to microbiological growth
or manganese oxide precipitation (dark green), (2) sand-
ing and alveolar-like weathering due to salt crystallization
(magenta), (3) contour scaling, crust formation and micro-
cracking parallel to the bedding, which is due to thermal
expansion combined with hydric expansion (red), (4) frac-
tured surfaces and cracks due to breakage and shearing
forces in the building structure resulting from the dehydra-
tion and collapsing of the soil (yellow) and (5) damages
caused by restoration material made of cement mortars (light
blue) (Fig. 4).
Quantified mapping was done at the Phnom Bakheng
Temple on the central shrine of the upper platform. The
distribution of the types of damages on all four facades of
the temple is shown in Fig. 5 and the percentage of damage
type per façade is given in Fig. 6. Microbiological growth
ranges from 20 to 50% depending on the specific side of
the monument (Figs. 5, 6). Most of the growth deposits are
found on the south façade (50%), followed by the west side
with 37%, the east façade with 26% and finally the north
façade with 20%.
Weathering by significant surficial material loss due to
sanding, occupies a surface area of 18% on the east façade.
This is followed by 12% on the west side, 9% on the south
side and only 4% on the north facade.
Fractured areas are dominant on the south side with 19%
and cover 14% of the east facade. The north facade contains
8% broken areas, followed by 7% on the west facade. The
broken areas found at the base of the building appear to be
caused by weathering due to contour scaling (Figs. 5, 6).
Some of these areas appear older and were also affected by
weathering phenomena like rounding due to sanding. Visible
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Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:735
contour scaling is observable on the east façade with 1.65%,
followed by 1.5% on the south side of the temple (Fig. 5).
The west façade shows 0.6% and the north façade only 0.2%.
A closer look reveals that 70% of all contour scaling phe-
nomena visible on the east façade are concentrated at the
base of the building. Furthermore, nearly 60% of all broken
areas are also found in the same place. Both phenomena are
apparently linked with each other. Broken areas also cover
the roof area with around 4%. This may be due to mechani-
cal reasons since more than half of the upper building has
collapsed. On the temple walls only 0.5% of the surface area
is affected by contour scaling, but 9% by sanding on the roof
area. Only 2.3% due to sanding is found at the base of the
temple.
Similar weathering patterns are observable for the south
façade, where most areas of the broken surfaces can be
found. In contrast to the east façade, most of the broken areas
(63%) are closely connected to crust formation and contour
scaling. These weathering formations are also found on the
decorations of the wall (Fig. 5).
The west façade also shows some broken areas related
to contour scaling as well as significant weathering effects
caused by sanding. Similar amounts of broken areas
are visible at the north façade, but it also shows the low-
est amount of sanding and contour scaling of all mapped
facades (Fig. 5). Moreover, dark deposits and microbiologi-
cal growth occurs.
These dark and sometimes whitish as well as reddish
deposits are found where rainwater runs down the monu-
ment. These deposits are often close to the areas that show
surface loss due to sanding and back-weathering (Fig. 5).
Large areas at the south façade (50% of the surface) are
covered with dark deposits and microbiological growth. The
west façade shows 37% of deposits followed by the east with
26% and finally the north façade with 20% (Fig. 6). Not only
are these deposits considered to be due to blue-green algae,
but Uchida et al. (2016) also indicates that the blackening are
the result of manganese oxide (MnO) precipitation.
The distribution of these dark deposits can be traced back
to the main wind and rain direction (see Waragai et al. 2013;
Fig. 5). Throughout most of the year the wind comes from
the west (around 17%). Most of the deposits are mapped
on the south-facing façade of the temple (50%); however,
the western façade also shows nearly 40% of these depos-
its. This is because the sum of the wind and rain direction
between the west-south-west and the east-south-east con-
tains more than 40%. The north and east façades only show
low amounts of these deposits and also the lowest percentage
rate of wind blasting the façade.
In contrast, the Banteay Srei Temple does not show any
significant weathering like contour scaling, flaking or sand-
ing. The rich decoration of the single temple buildings is in a
comparably very good condition (Fig. 7a). Some parts show
Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:735 Page 9 of 36  735

Fig. 4  Typical examples leading to deterioration and damage lar-like weathering, c contour scaling and microcracking, d fractured
observed at the Phnom Bakheng Temple and other buildings in the surfaces and cracks and e problems with restoration material used for
Angkor Archaeological Park. a Dark deposits, b sanding and alveo- repair

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Fig. 5  Damage mapping at the Phnom Bakheng Temple. Quantification of deterioration types is visible for the four facades. Prevailing wind
direction (after Waragai et al. 2013) is shown in the upper right
loss due to fractures and broken areas and microbiological
deposits (Fig. 7b).
Petrographic characteristics
Quantitative petrographic analyses for the various Angkor
sandstones have been done by several researchers (e.g.,
Uchida et al. 1998, 2010; Reucher et al. 2007; André et al.
2011; Carò and IM 2012; Carò and Douglas 2013 for Tri-
assic sandstones in the region). In this study, the analyses
Fig. 6  Damage types in percent for all facades of the main tower
sanctuary (Phnom Bakheng Temple)
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Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:735
for the Angkor sandstones are qualitative, but are supported
by the observations from the above authors. More detailed
information on the Thailand sandstones can be found in
Hoffmann (2006).
Petrographic studies use different classification systems
for clastic sedimentary rocks, e.g., sandstones, and these are
based on the Gazzi-Dickinson system (Gazzi 1966, Dickin-
son 1970), Folk (1965) or Pettijohn et al. (1972). In Cam-
bodia, the various authors have classified the sandstones
that are like those in this study as feldspathic arenite, quartz
arenite, feldspathic greywacke and lithic greywacke (e.g.,
the red sandstone of Banteay Srei). The equivalent Thailand
sandstones are classified as arkoses (Hoffmann 2006).
Phnom Bakheng—original sandstone
The original sandstone from the Phnom Bakheng Temple
(PB) shows a greenish grey coloring, with faint brownish
discolorations unevenly distributed throughout the hand
specimen (Fig. 8a). Building stones used in this temple are
described as a grey to yellowish brown sandstone, which
are the dominant building stones used for most of the Ang-
kor temples. Color variations of these stones have been
investigated by Uchida et al. (1998). Fresh grey sandstones
appear to show a greenish color because of the presence of
Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:735 Page 11 of 36  735
Fig. 7  a Tower sanctuary at the Banteay Srei Temple and b close-up of the sculpted reliefs made from the weathering resistant red sandstone.
Note the excellent preservation, but also the black and green deposits covering parts of the stone surfaces
biotite, where alteration of biotite forms chlorite and goe-
thite (Uchida et al. 1998). Continued weathering eventually
leads to the yellowish brown stone color (due to goethite)
used at the Phnom Bakheng Temple.
The PB stone is a fine-grained material and is similar
in grain size to the Thailand arkose (PC-Green; Hoffmann
2006). PB is relatively well sorted, with detrital grains show-
ing an angular to subangular grain shape, mostly planar
grain contacts and partial rounding at the grain edges. A
laminated structure is also observable.
The main framework grains consist of quartz, K-feldspar,
plagioclase and minor lithic fragments. Quartz occurs in the
monocrystalline and polycrystalline form, but also as elon-
gated grains parallel to the bedding (Fig. 8b). Monocrystal-
line quartz exhibits moderate undulatory extinction to none.
Feldspars show some twinning with microclines exhibiting
the common cross-hatched pattern and plagioclases display-
ing polysynthetic twins. They can also be observed show-
ing some elongation. A large percentage of the feldspars
are weathered, showing strong sericitization (Fig. 8c). This
agrees with the observations of Reucher et al. (2007), where
strongly weathered feldspars range from 50 to 80%, moder-
ately altered from 20 to 50% and fresh feldspars showing
alteration up to 20%. Biotite follows as the dominant phyllo-
silicate with minor muscovite (Fig. 8c, d). Chlorite occurs as
an alteration product of biotite (Fig. 8d), giving the stone its
greenish tinge. All the phyllosilicates show bending between
framework grains and are parallel to the bedding, suggesting
a very good compaction. Very small percentages of calcite
occur as material filling some of the pore spaces (Fig. 8c).
In thin section, opaques (possibly hematite or mag-
netite) are evenly distributed throughout the stone and
are associated with the biotite–chlorite occurrences.
Here light reddish-brown discoloration occurs, possibly
representing goethite (Uchida et al. 1998). Carò and IM
(2012) determined the heavy minerals found in a simi-
lar stone and these include magnetite, hematite, epidote,
ilmenite, sphene, garnet, apatite, zircon and rutile. Both
Uchida et al. (1998) and Caro and IM (2012) classify this
stone as feldspathic arenite with an average composition
of ­Q54F40L6, whereas Reucher et al. (2007) utilizing the
classification scheme of Pettijohn et al. (1972) categorize
this stone as a feldspathic greywacke.
The cathodoluminescence (CL) microscope was used as
a quick means of determining the distribution of calcite in
the PB sample. Under CL calcite shows red luminescence
(Fig. 9a, b), no zonations and was estimated to make up
about two percent of the mineral content. It occurs essen-
tially as pore-space mineralizations.
Framework grains such as quartz exhibit two distinct
CL colors with low luminescence. Quartz shows dark
brown and brownish violet colors. The feldspars display
two distinct blue CL colors. K-feldspar is dark blue and
has a lower luminescence, whereas plagioclase exhibits
a bright blue color. Strongly weathered feldspars some-
times show relatively dark reddish-brown CL. The phyl-
losilicates (i.e., biotite, muscovite and chlorite) are non-
luminescent, whereas heavy minerals like apatite show a
strong luminescence and are yellow in color.
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Fig. 8  Original sandstone (PB) from the Phnom Bakheng Temple. a
Macroscopic image of the fine-grained and greenish-grey stone used
as flooring material. Unevenly distributed brownish discoloration also
visible, b typical grain fabric showing elongated quartz and feldspars,
biotite and chlorite are aligned parallel to bedding (crossed polars),
c altered feldspars, quartz, calcite and layering defined by kinked
Phnom Bakheng—Restoration sandstone
The restoration sandstone material (PBr), obtained from
the Preah Vihear Province, has many similarities to the
original sandstone (PB) in terms of color, grain size, min-
eralogical composition, and rock fabric. Macroscopically,
the stone shows a greenish grey color, where the green is
less pronounced and visible mottling due to Fe-oxidation
is also not as strongly discernible (Fig. 10a). The rock
is fine-grained, moderately well sorted and similar to the
sample PC-Green from Thailand described below.
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Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:735
muscovite (crossed polars), and d biotite shows brownish pleochro-
ism and chlorite green; framework grains are quartz (translucent)
and seriticized feldspars. Fe-oxidation is visible in interstitial spaces,
along grain boundaries and microcracks. Opaques are probably mag-
netite (transmitted light). Feldspar  (Fsp), calcite (Cc), muscovite
(Mu), biotite (Bt) and chlorite (Cl)
Compositionally, the stone consists of monocrystalline
quartz, feldspars, and accessory biotite, minor muscovite,
chlorite, and calcite, heavy minerals like apatite and zircon
and rocks fragments of probable volcanic origin. The frame-
work grains comprising quartz and feldspar generally show
a grain shape ranging from subangular to initial stages of
becoming subrounded, especially along the grain edges. A
few quartz grains still retain an angular shape. Quartz also
exhibits undulose to non-undulatory extinction. Moreover,
elongated quartz grains as well as feldspars are evident.
These are aligned parallel to the bedding, suggesting as in
Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:735 Page 13 of 36  735
Fig. 9  a Typical grain fabric of the original sandstone (PB, crossed
polars) and b same image under the CL microscope. Minor calcite
(red in color), unaltered feldspars show different degrees of blue
luminescence, altered feldspars exhibit various shades of a reddish-
the PB sample above good compaction (Fig. 10b). Polycrys-
talline quartz occurs sporadically and unevenly distributed
throughout the stone (Fig. 10c). Grain contacts are mostly
planar.
Feldspars consist of orthoclase and plagioclase that show
varying degrees of alteration from fresh to moderately
weathered ranging 20–50% (see Reucher et al. 2007). The
weathering is visible as sericite flakes or as a felted mass of
extremely fine particles with a higher birefringence. Micro-
cline twining is more seldom than in the PB sample, whereas
the typical polysynthetic twinning of plagioclase occurs with
more frequency.
Biotite is the dominant mica mineral and is aligned
parallel to the bedding, along with chlorite and muscovite
(Fig. 10b). It shows brownish pleochroism in transmitted
light, but in rare cases occurs as the Fe-poor variety with
a green pleochroic color, not to be confused with chlorite
(Fig. 10c). Minor muscovite occurs unevenly distributed as
singular flakes parallel to the bedding. Degradation of biotite
leads to the formation of chlorite, which gives the stone its
greenish tinge. All phyllosilicates exhibit bending or kink-
ing along the grain boundaries of the framework grains.
Petrographic analysis shows opaques occurring associated
with biotite-chlorite in interstitial spaces or as finer particles
along grain boundaries and microcracks.
In contrast to PB, the restoration stone contains distinctly
more calcite (Fig. 10d), which was also easily identifiable
by petrographic analysis due to its characteristic interfer-
ence colors. Calcite occurs as a pore space filling mineraliza-
tion, as a minor cement material and precipitates parallel to
the cleavage planes in the biotite-chlorite assemblage (see
below).
brown color, quartz shows a dark violet and low luminescent dark
brown shade and apatite is bright yellow. K-feldspar (Kfs) and calcite
(Cc)
The CL investigation reveals one of the distinct differ-
ences between the original sandstone and the restoration
material. This difference is represented by the amount of
calcite present in the stone, which was estimated to aver-
age around 7% in the studied specimen. Calcite exhibits a
dominantly higher luminescence with an orange color, and a
somewhat darker reddish orange color along the grain edges
and filling very small pore spaces. Furthermore, the red-
dish orange calcite occurs mineralizing within the cleavage
planes of the biotite–chlorite assemblage (Fig. 11a, b).
Quartz generally shows almost no luminescence to some
grains displaying CL colors ranging from dark brown to dark
violet (Fig. 11a, c). Feldspars show the typical blue CL color
with differing intensity of luminescence (Fig. 11c). Some
grains exhibit different zones from dark blue rims to lighter
blue cores almost showing a concentric zonation. Weathered
plagioclases can show interchanging colors from dark blue
to medium green, which correspond to the individual poly-
synthetic twins. Only plagioclase shows this green CL color.
Heavy minerals such as zircon are also visible under CL,
which are not readily identifiable in thin section (Fig. 11c,
d). Some of them exhibit the zonation structure typically
found in zircon (Fig. 11c). In this CL image, the contrast to
the original (PB) sandstone becomes evident, a stone fab-
ric consisting of a greater percentage of calcite with quartz
showing low to no luminescence.
Phnom Bakheng—Sandstone weathering crust
The weathering crust (PBc) can be differentiated into two
distinct zones: a strongly oxidized zone consisting of iron
oxides (hematite?) giving the crust a brownish color and
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Fig. 10  Restoration sandstone (PBr) used at the Phnom Bakheng
Temple. a, Macroscopic rock fabric showing a fine-grained and
greenish-grey stone similar to the original sandstone (PB), b, over-
all microscopic fabric showing phyllosilicates (biotite, chlorite, and
minor muscovite) parallel to the bedding, framework grains consist-
ing of quartz and feldspars and opaques (crossed polars), c thin sec-
an area showing much less oxidation (Fig. 12a). The iron
oxide zone represents the top surface of the crust. Both bio-
tite and chlorite are clearly visible in the crust fragment,
where the different intensities of green coloration are due to
chlorite. Calcite precipitation occurs in the lighter colored,
less oxidized zone, where a whiter discoloration is unevenly
distributed throughout the material (Fig. 12a).
PBc has essentially the same mineralogical composition
as the original sandstone from the Phnom Bakheng Temple,
where framework grains consist of quartz, K-feldspar and
plagioclase, listed in order of dominance. Under transmitted
light, the framework grains are highly broken (fractured)
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Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:735
tion image showing minor muscovite, biotite, monocrystalline quartz,
altered feldspars and calcite (crossed polars) and d pore spaces filled
with calcite (high-birefringence), elongated quartz, partially altered
and altered feldspars and opaques (probably magnetite, crossed
polars). Calcite (Cc), muscovite (Mu) and biotite (Bt)
giving the grain fabric a shattered appearance (Fig. 12b).
The large spaces visible in the grain fabric may represent
places where former framework grains, weathered phyllosili-
cates plus possible clay minerals existed. Biotite and chlorite
are the dominant phyllosilicate minerals. They are aligned
parallel to the sedimentary layering. As in the PB and PBr
sandstone, chlorite forms from the degradation of biotite.
Minor muscovite occurs as a fine-grained accessory.
Some cleavage planes within both chlorite and biotite
appear as “open” or long drawn-out extended areas that
contain precipitated calcite. A good example is shown in
Fig. 12c (white arrow). Moreover, thin analysis shows that
Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:735 Page 15 of 36  735
Fig. 11  Cathodoluminescence with corresponding polarized light
images for the restoration stone (PBr, Phnom Bakheng Temple). a CL
image (10× magnification) showing calcite as a pore-filling material,
but also within the cleavage planes of biotite (white arrow); quartz
exhibits both very low luminescence and a dark violet color; feldspars
are blue, b corresponding thin section image under crossed polars, c
at lower magnification (5×) the distribution and higher percentage of
calcite readily occurs as pore space fillings between the
framework grains, within microcracks, but also as a pre-
cipitation along the grain boundaries (12d).
Under the CL microscope, the significance of calcite pre-
cipitation in the weathering crust becomes more evident,
especially along the grain boundaries of the framework
grains, where calcite shows a bright reddish orange lumi-
nescence (Fig. 13a, b). In Fig. 13b, calcite is also visible
as a mineralization in the fractures of broken quartz grains,
which show a dark brownish red CL color. K-feldspar exhib-
its a blue color, but also seems to lose its blue color the more
weathered the mineral becomes (Fig. 13b).
The CL investigation also confirms the petrographic
observation that calcite precipitates within the cleavage
planes of the phyllosilicate minerals. Figure 13c, d shows
calcite is visible; quartz shows very low luminescence and dark vio-
let colors; feldspars are blue or medium violet when partially altered;
minor apatite is bright yellow and zoned (white arrow) and unzoned
zircons are also observable, and d corresponding thin section image
(crossed polars). K-feldspar (Kfs), calcite (Cc), zircon (Zrn) and bio-
tite (Bt)
extremely thin calcite mineralization parallel the cleavage in
biotite. Here, this assemblage occurs between blue lumines-
cent K-feldspars and green luminescent plagioclase grains,
which also show the distinctive polysynthetic twinning. The
twinned plagioclase also exhibits two CL colors alternating
between green and a dark reddish color corresponding to the
individual twin lamellae (Fig. 13d). In contrast to the origi-
nal PB sandstone, the weathering crust appears to contain a
greater percentage of calcite.
Banteay Srei—Angkor red sandstone
Angkor red sandstone (AR) is a fine-grained, light reddish
to pink colored rock with grain sizes ranging from 100 to
200 µm (André et al. 2008; Fig. 14a). It is equivalent to the
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Fig. 12  Sandstone weathering crust (PBc, Phnom Bakheng Temple).
a Macroscopic image of the small investigated sample, where discol-
orations due to iron oxidation and calcite precipitation are visible, b
photomicrograph in transmitted light showing open pore spaces and
stone used for the construction of the Banteay Srei Temple
and is similar in grain size, fabric, color and composition to
the red sandstone from Thailand (S-Red, see below). The
rock is moderately well sorted and grain shapes range from
angular to grains with a slight rounding. A typical fabric is
shown in Fig. 14b.
Quartz is the dominant framework grain in this stone.
Various authors report different percentages of quartz:
Reucher et  al. (2007) determined the mineral makes up
65% of the composition and Carò (2009b) showed a per-
centage of > 75%, whereas André et al. (2011) analyzed a
composition of up to 90% silica. Quartz occurs predomi-
nantly as monocrystalline grains, but also as very fine-
grained polycrystalline aggregates (Fig. 14c, d). It shows a
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Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:735
a visible fracturing of the framework grains quartz and feldspar, c
chlorite grain with calcite mineralization in the cleavage planes, and
d calcite mineralization along the grain boundaries between fractured
and broken quartz and feldspar grains. Calcite (Cc)
greater percentage of undulatory extinction than the original
sandstone (PB) and the restoration material (PBr) used for
Phnom Bakheng. Closer observation of the grain bounda-
ries reveals that initial recrystallization has occurred, which
is visible by small embayments and finely serrated grain
boundaries (Fig. 14c, d).
Minor muscovite can be found bent around some quartz
grains. No calcite was found in the sample investigated. Kao-
linite forms the binding material and was determined by
X-ray diffraction (Reucher et al. 2007; André et al. 2011).
Lithic fragments consist essentially of chert.
The distinctly reddish color of the stone is ascribed to
the presence of hematite. Hematite is evenly disseminated
as an extremely fine-grained mineralization along grain
Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:735 Page 17 of 36  735
Fig. 13  Photomicrographs (crossed polars) and corresponding
cathodoluminescence images of the sandstone weathering crust
(PBc). a broken quartz and altered feldspar grains with mineraliza-
tion of calcite along the grain boundaries, b corresponding CL image
shows the extent of grain boundary calcite precipitation, blue feld-
spars, altered feldspars showing a dark brown color and quartz domi-
nantly as low luminescent grains and violet (angular grain), c quartz
boundaries, microcracks, deposits in interstitial spaces, as
thin films coating quartz grains and as large agglomera-
tions (Fig. 14c, d). Moreover, fine-grained pyrite is also
present as a minor accessory.
The Angkor red sandstone is classified as a quartz
arenite (André et al. 2011; Uchida et al. 1998). In con-
trast to the dominant stones used for the Angkor temples,
e.g., Phnom Bakheng, the red sandstone of Banteay Srei
hardly shows any deterioration, which is well represented
by the essentially good preservation of the sculptural wall
reliefs (see Fig. 7a, b).
and bent biotite between plagioclase grains (crossed polars), and
d same thin section under CL showing plagioclase (green), K-feld-
spars (blue), low luminescent quartz dark brown in color and distinct
calcite mineralization within the cleavage planes of biotite (white
arrow). Calcite  (Cc), biotite (Bt), plagioclase (Pl) and K-feldspar
(Kfs)
Thailand sandstones: PC‑Green and S‑Red
Macroscopically the PC-Green sandstone is characterized by
its green colour and the fine-grained nature of the minerals
(Fig. 15a). The rock exhibits a fine, undisturbed horizontal
bedding of alternating layers millimeters in thickness. The
unit shows in some parts no sedimentary layering at the out-
crop scale, which leads to a dense and massive appearance.
The bedding planes of the green sandstone are occasionally
covered with a dense layer of mica, especially biotite, which
leads to a rough surface when cleaved (Hoffmann 2006).
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Fig. 14  Fabrics of the red sandstone (AR), equivalent stone to the
one used at the Banteay Srei Temple. a Macroscopic image of the AR
sample (a weathering resistant quartz arenite) showing a fine-grained
sandstone that is characterized by its light reddish color, b in thin sec-
tion the rock shows a quartzose fabric with well-sorted quartz grains,
Grain sizes range from 100 to 160 µm. The grains show a
slight rounding, an elongated shape creating a preferred ori-
entation and grain contacts that are essentially planar. Both
quartz and calcite cement represent the binding material of
this sandstone.
The mineralogical composition of PC-Green consists of
quartz (43.5%), K-feldspar (8.4%), plagioclase (25.0%), cal-
cite (2.8%), and chlorite (4.1%). Chlorite is probably respon-
sible for the green colour (Hoffmann 2006). Clay minerals
determined consist of illite (16.1%) with an absence of kao-
linite. These data are based on X-ray diffraction analyses by
Hoffmann (2006) and based on the mineralogical compo-
sition, the sandstone is classified as an arkose. Feldspars
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Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:735
chert fragments, fine-grained pyrite associated with hematite and
minor muscovite, and c, d close-up of the hematite mineralization
occurring as fine-grained agglomerations, filling interstitial spaces
and along grain boundaries. Extremely fine-grained quartz also vis-
ible
consist of microcline, oligoclase and albite, where the pla-
gioclase is the dominate type. The typical grain fabric is
shown in Fig. 15b.
Under the CL microscope calcite can be seen completely
filling the pore spaces, shows a yellow colour and good
luminescence. Quartz shows low luminescence, whereas
the K-feldspars exhibit the typical blue CL colour (Fig. 15c).
The S-Red sandstone from Thailand is characterized by its
red colour and a very fine sedimentary lamination (Fig. 16a).
Alternating layers generally show a thickness of only a few
millimeters, but can develop thicker layers up to decimeters
in size. Lighter, yellow-grey bleached zones > 30 mm in size
are typical for this sandstone. Similarities are observable
Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:735 Page 19 of 36  735
Fig. 15  a Macroscopic rock fabric of the Thailand sandstone (PC-
Green), b typical microscopic fabric showing the main framework
grains of quartz and feldspar, minor chlorite, opaques and indications
between the red sandstone and the Thailand sandstone clas-
sified as the yellow arkose variety, where oval clay accumu-
lations are found parallel to the bedding (Hoffmann 2006).
The S-Red variety shows a somewhat finer grain size dis-
tribution than the PC-Green, with grain sizes varying from
100 to 130 µm. As with the AR sandstone from Cambodia,
the binding cement is siliceous. Sorting is good with grain
edges showing rounding. However, the more angular shapes
of the crystals may be responsible for the dense interweaving
of the minerals. Grain contacts are mostly planar.
X-ray diffraction analysis by Hoffmann (2006) shows a
mineralogical composition containing quartz (47%), K-feld-
spar (5.6%), a much higher plagioclase content of 34.9 vol%,
illite (11.2%), no kaolinite and calcite detected and hematite
with a content of 1.4 vol%. Hematite gives the stone its red
colour. Compositionally the S-Red can be classified as an
arkose sandstone. A typical fabric is shown in Fig. 16b.
Cathodoluminescence analysis corroborates the XRD
analysis and no calcite is present even as extremely fine-
grained particles (Fig. 16c). Quartz shows low luminescence
as the PC-Green variety and K-feldspars display blue colors.
In the case of the Thailand sandstones, it becomes clear
that the pore space is to a certain degree closed because of
additional silicate growth. This silicate growth occurs with
differing intensities. Associated with this silica cement in
of bedding (crossed polars), and c cathodoluminescence (CL) image
exhibiting feldspars (blue), low luminescent quartz and bright yellow
calcite filling pore spaces. calcite (Cc)
the pore spaces are completely or partially filled pores with
clay minerals or iron (hydroxides) or oxides on the margins.
SEM investigation
The original sandstone (PB) and the Thailand sandstone
(PC-Green) were investigated by scanning electron micros-
copy (SEM). In the PB stone the results show that the bind-
ing cement is dominated by clay minerals that cover the
whole inner surface of the stone. Such clay mineral coat-
ings (white arrow), possibly representing the mineral illite,
is shown in the overview image of Fig. 17a. Coexisting with
these coatings are single areas or pockets that show plate-
like structures, possibly kaolinite or dickite (Fig. 17 a, b, and
e). Further indications of possible illite coatings are visible
in Fig. 17c (white arrow), where calcite as determined by
EDX analysis is partially covered by a clay mineral coat-
ing. Chlorite has also been determined by SEM/EDX and is
shown in Fig. 17d, where open areas (dashed line) between
the chlorite layers are observable. Cathodoluminescence has
revealed, as mentioned above that extremely fine-grained
calcite has been found between chlorite flakes. Fine fiber-
like, closely packed crystals forming typical structures
of illite are also found in significant amounts (Fig. 17e).
Whether swellable clay minerals occur is still an open
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Fig. 16  a Macroscopic image of the Thailand sandstone fab-
ric (S-Red), characterized by its red color and fine grain size, b thin
section image showing the dominant framework grains of quartz and
feldspars; hematite appears as the dark brown mineralization through-
question, however, possible mineralization of montmoril-
lonite may be seen in Fig. 17f. In this example, qualitative
EDX analysis indicates a geochemical composition similar
to montmorillonite, which would also agree with the X-ray
diffraction analyses of Reucher et al. (2007) in a similar
stone.
The results of the SEM investigation for the PC-Green
sample are shown in Fig. 18a, b. Fiber- to needle-like clay
minerals suggestive of illite are observable in the pore spaces
of the stone. Hoffmann (2006) determined by X-ray diffrac-
tion that the clay minerals present in the PC-Green sandstone
is illite, whereas kaolinite was not found as described above.
Petrophysical properties
The physical properties measured in this study and prop-
erties of the pore space are given in Tables 2 and 3. The
Angkor sandstones as well as the Thailand samples analyzed
can be defined as low to medium porous sandstones with
a porosity ranging between 7 to 18% (Stück et al. 2013;
Table 3). The one with the lowest porosity is the green sand-
stone from Thailand. The red sandstone (AR) shows the
highest porosity of 17.6%. The porosities of the PB sample,
the PBr sample and the S-Red are comparable (11.5–13.8%).
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Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:735
out (cross polars), and c CL image showing the dominant mineral to
be low luminescent quartz and feldspars exhibiting various shades of
blue
Most of the samples show a significant microporosity
as shown in Table 2. Micropores are often connected to a
high hydric dilatation as well as a sensitivity to salt crys-
tallization (Ruedrich and Siegesmund 2007; Stück et al.
2013; Wedekind et al. 2013). The Phnom Bakheng sand-
stone (PB) has the highest amount of micropores by poros-
ity of 12.3%. The two sandstones from Thailand show sim-
ilar values around 30% but a different mean pore radius
(Table 3). The AR sandstone only has a microporosity of
5.5% and a mean pore radius of 0.227 µm. However, the
restoration material PBr does not show any microporosity
but with 84% a very high amount of pores of the pore class
between 0.1 and 1 µm (Table 2). This also explains the
comparably high average pore radius of 0.442 µm.
The bulk density of the different samples ranges
between 2.65 and 2.73 g/cm 3 (Table 3). The PC-Green
sandstone attains the highest value with 2.73 g/cm 3. The
lowest values are shown by the two red sandstone varie-
ties (AR and S-Red), both having a value of 2.65 g/cm3. In
general, these two samples are representative for the most
common sandstones. The ones with a higher density are
the greenish- to grey types (PB, PBr, PC-Green). These
samples contain calcite which has a density of 2.71 gm/
cm3.
Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:735 Page 21 of 36  735

Fig. 17  SEM investigation of the original sandstone (PB). a Over- (dashed line), e plate-like and fiber-like clay mineral growth and f
view showing clay coatings, possibly illite (arrow), b single areas clay mineralization interpreted as possible montmorillonite. calcite
where plate-like clay mineralization occurs, c calcite grain and clay (Cc) and chlorite (Cl)
coatings (arrow), d chlorite with open spaces between the flakes

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Fig. 18  SEM images of the Thailand PC-Green sandstone. a overview image of clay minerals in the pore spaces and b close-up of the needle-
like clay minerals interpreted to be illite

Table 2  Pore radii distribution Sample Pore radii distribution [%] Percent of

of the investigated stones from micropores
Angkor and Thailand 0.001– 0.01–0.1 (µm) 0.1–1 (µm) 1–10 (µm) 10–100 (µm) (%)
0.01
(µm)
Microporosity Capillary porosity

PB, Phnom Bakheng 44 39.4 11 14.5 1.8 83.4

PBc, Phnom Bakheng 0 0 23.4 56.4 20.2 0
PBr, Phnom Bakheng rest 0 0 83.5 11.3 5.4 0
AR, Angkor R ­ eda 2.7 2.9 2.09 5.7 89 5.5
S-Red ­sandstoneb 4.3 28.4 44.5 21 1.8 32.6
PC-Green ­sandstoneb 3.8 27 69 0.8 0 30.7
a
 Equivalent stone to those used in the Banteay Srei Temple
b
 Samples from Thailand

Due to its low to medium porosity and the comparably
small average pore radius, the water uptake of the stone sam-
ples is mainly low and reaches average values between 4 and
8 kg/m2/√h. The average pore radius of the crust material is
high with a value of 2.9 µm, so that a high water uptake rate
can be expected. However, because of the small sample size
the crust material could not be measured.
The sandstone samples show an anisotropic behavior of
9 up to 67% during water uptake. The Thailand S-Red sand-
stone shows the highest anisotropy of all samples and exhib-
its the most highly defined bedding and cleavability. There-
fore, the stone is often used as floor plating (Fig. 3b, see
Hoffmann 2006). The second highest anisotropy of 30% was
determined for the AR sandstone. The highest water uptake
was measured in the PBr sandstone, which also shows the
lowest anisotropy. The PB sandstone as well as the AR sand-
stone has a similar water uptake of around 6 kg/m2/√h as
well as a similar anisotropy of around 30% (Table 2).
The binding strength measured by ultrasonic veloc-
ity for the quarry fresh samples (PBr, AR, PC-Green and
S-Red) are quite high. Only the original material of the
Phnom Bakheng Temple, exposed to nearly 1000 years of
weathering, mainly shows lower values between 1.8 and
3.3 km/s (Table 3). Under wet conditions an increase of
the velocity takes place, while all samples nearly reach
3 and up to 4 km/s (Table  3). The PB sample shows a
partly unusual behaviour. Some measured directions show
a lower value of ultrasonic velocity under wet conditions
than under dry conditions (Table 3).
In the quarry fresh samples, the ultrasonic velocity
ranges between 2.2 and 3.5 km/s under dry conditions and
between 3.0 and 4.0 km/s under wet conditions (Table 3).
The anisotropic behavior of all samples is comparable and
ranges between 10 to 16% under dry conditions and 4.4 to
6.3% under wet conditions. However, these samples also

13
Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:735 Page 23 of 36  735

Table 3  Pore space properties, moisture transport, and mechanical properties of the investigated stones
Type PB Phnom PBc Phnom PBr Phnom AR Angkor Red S-Red PC-Green
Bakheng Bakheng Bakheng Rest. ­sandstonea Thailand Thailand

Effective porosity (Vol%) 12.3 17.6 11.5 17.6 13.8 7.2

Particle density (g cm− 3) 2.43 2.22 2.37 2.18 2.28 2.53
Bulk density (g cm− 3) 2.67 2.69 2.68 2.65 2.65 2.73
Average pore radius (µm) 0.021 2.858 0.442 0.227 0.236 0.053
w value (kg/m2/√h)
 X 6.36 – 7.84 6.72 8.79 –
 Y 6.42 – 8.72 6.76 4.08 3.77
 Z 4.66 – 7.58 5.32 2.83 4.47
 Average 5.80 – 7.96 6.26 5.23 4.00
 Anisotropy (%) 27.4 – 8.7 30 67 16
Ultrasonic velocity dry (km/s)
 X 3.315 – 2.529 3.078 3.044 3.548
 Y 2.252 – 2.212 3.155 2.883 3.296
 Z 1.894 – 2.632 2.834 2.617 2.986
 Average 2.153 – 2.457 3.022 2.848 3.276
 Anisotropy (%) 42.8 – 16 10 14 14
Ultrasonic velocity wet (km/s)
 X 2.778 – 3.086 3.879 3.563 4.098
 Y 2.945 – 3.257 3.939 3.456 3.972
 Z 2.717 – 3.247 3.665 3.339 3.919
 Average 2.813 – 3.196 3.827 3.452 3.996
 Anisotropy (%) 26 – 5.2 5.5 6.3 4.4
Surface hardness (HLD) dry 568 – 517 509 630 643
Surface hardness (HLD) wet 455 – 422 462 539 546
Surface hardness reduction (%) 20 – 18 9 14 15
Hydric dilatation (mm/m)
 X 1.18 0.961 0.176 0.021 0.21 0.9
 Y 1.15 0.961 0.175 0.019 0.20 1.13
 Z 1.988 1.55 0.384 0.024 0.76 1.34
 Average 1.43 1.15 0.245 0.021 0.39 1.12
 Anisotropy (%) 42.8 16.4 28.6 9 73.6 33
Thermal expansion experiment (mm/m at 60 °C)
 XY plane − 0.201 1.036 0.227 0.83 0.33 0.2
 Z 0.048 0.49 0.142 0.83 0.32 0.1
 Average − 0.153 0.5 0.158 0.83 0.33 0.16
 Anisotropy (%) – 53 15 0 3 50
a
 Equivalent stone to those used in the Banteay Srei Temple

show a reduction in anisotropy under wet conditions of
more than 50%.
Surface hardness of all samples is quite high and range
from 517 HLD to 643 HLD (Table 3). Under wet conditions
a reduction from 9 to 20% takes place. The highest reduction
occurs in the PB sandstone. The PBr sandstone with 18%
comes next followed by the two Thailand sandstones (both
14%) and finally the AR sandstone with only 10% (Table 3).
The hydric dilatation of the samples shows different val-
ues. The dilatation ranges from 0.02 to 2 mm/m (Table 3).
The PB sandstone and the PC-Green sandstone show the
highest dilatation perpendicular to the bedding between
1 mm/m to nearly 2 mm/m (Table 3). The anisotropy of the
PC-Green is 33% and 43% for the BP sample, which are sig-
nificant values. A moderate to high hydric dilatation (for all
three directions) is also shown by the S-Red sample and with
74% the highest anisotropy of all samples. This is because of
its high hydric dilatation perpendicular to the bedding. The
sandstone weathering crust shows a high hydric dilatation of
more than 1.5 mm/m perpendicular to the bedding, but has

13
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Page 24 of 36
a low anisotropy (Table 3) The AR sandstone has the lowest
hydric expansion as well as the lowest anisotropy.
The thermal expansion at 60 °C also shows diverse val-
ues. In the PB sample, even a contraction takes place in the
direction of the bedding plane during heating and cooling
(Table 3). The crust material shows the highest expansion
with a value of > 1 mm/m parallel to the bedding (Table 3).
This sample also shows the highest anisotropy in thermal
expansion of more than 50% (Table 3). The lowest ther-
mal expansion of the Angkor samples was measured in the
PB sandstone. Even in this sample a reduction takes place
parallel to the bedding (Table 3). The restoration material
(PBr) with an average value of 0.16 mm/m shows a mod-
erate expansion as well as a moderate anisotropy of 15%
(Table 3).
The AR sandstone shows the highest thermal expansion
of all samples with 0.83 mm/m in all directions (Table 3).
In contrast, the S-Red sandstone (Thailand) shows a small
thermal expansion of 0.33 mm/m at 60 °C perpendicular
to the bedding and 0.32 mm/m in the xy-plane (Table 3).
Moreover, the thermal expansion of the PC-Green sand-
stone is comparably small at 0.2 mm/m in the xy-plane
Fig. 19  Salt bursting test performed on the Cambodian and Thailand
sandstones. The least resistant stone is the original sandstone from
the Phnom Bakheng Temple and the most resistant, as expected, is
13
Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:735
and 0.1 mm/m perpendicular to the bedding. In the PC-
Green, the expansion is low but attains a 50% anisotropy
(Table 3).
Salt resistance test
Salt resistance tests were performed on all three Angkor
sandstones and the two comparative sandstones from Thai-
land (Fig. 19). The stone samples show different resistances
to salt bursting. Twelve to 25 cycles are required until the
material loses 30% of its initial primary weight.
Phnom Bakheng sandstone (PB)
During the first 10 cycles, only a small amount of material
loss takes place at the bottom of the sample. The sample
color changes from gray to brown-yellow (Fig. 19). After
the 12th cycle serious cracks are visible. These cracks lead
to massive contour scaling and a total loss of the sample.
Material loss amounts to 30% at the 12th cycle.
the red sandstone from Banteay Srei. Insufficient sampling material
prevented a testing of the sandstone weathering crust (PBc)
Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:735 Page 25 of 36  735
Phnom Bakheng restoration material (PBr)
Salt weathering of the PBr sandstone is characterized by a
similar behavior as with the PB sandstone. A color change
also takes place but in this case from a grayish to greenish
color (Fig. 19). Cracks start to develop at the 13th cycle
parallel to the bedding, but with the formation of contour
scaling. This leads to a total loss of the sample.
Angkor red sandstone (AR)
Only minimal weathering takes place in the AR sandstone.
Discoloration is observable like in the other sandstones, i.e.,
a color deepening (Fig. 19). One difference is that continu-
ous sanding takes place all around the sample. A massive
crack occurs at the top of the sample at the 25th cycle, prob-
ably due to the visible salt crystallization. These cracks lead
to massive contour scaling as the process continues until the
completion of the test.
Thailand green sandstone (PC‑Green)
In the first 15 cycles, no relevant loss of material is observ-
able in the PC-Green sample (Fig. 19). Only salt efflores-
cences are visible. After the 20th cycle, loss by contour
scaling occurs first at the bottom and then at the top of the
sample. As the process continues the whole body of the cyl-
inder starts to scale in the form of a tube. The inner core of
the stone also shows surface loss due to flaking.
Thailand red sandstone (S‑Red)
S-Red shows a surface loss by flaking after around the 10th
test cycle. However, after the 15th cycle the first cracks
begin to appear (Fig. 19). These cracks become wider and
begin to develop massive contour scaling and loss of mate-
rial at the 18th cycle.
The tests show that both the original sandstone and res-
toration material of the Phnom Bakheng Temple have a low
salt resistance with similar weathering behaviors. The red
sandstone variety (AR) shows the best resistance value.
This supports the onsite observations at the Banteay Srei
Temple and those reported by André et al. (2011). Damages
related to salt weathering were not found at the Banteay
Srei Temple.
The S-Red sandstone shows a slightly better salt resist-
ance by a low material loss than the sandstones of the Phnom
Bakheng Temple, with a 30% weight loss after the 18th
cycle. PC-Green exhibits an even better salt resistance than
S-Red, with a weight loss of 30% occurring at around 23
cycles. Discoloration occurs in both Thailand samples. The
Thailand specimens also exhibit contour scaling, the typical
weathering forms at the Angkor monuments in Cambodia.
Discussion
Hydric expansion
Contour scaling of the Angkor Wat sandstones can be
explained by very high rates of hydric swelling of up to
3 mm/m (Leisen 2002). Leisen (2002) assumed that the
periodic process of moisture expansion and shrinking due
to drying weakens the structure of the stone. The author
concludes that moisture expansion and shrinkage in com-
bination with salt action, eventually leads to an irrevers-
ible deterioration of the stone material. This process is
assumed to be due to the presence of clay minerals. A
swellable clay mineral was qualitatively determined by
X-ray fluorescence and grain size analysis (see Reucher
et al. 2007). Their study suggests that montmorillonite is
responsible for the swelling behavior in the sandstones.
Two aspects must be considered in regard to the cause
of contour scaling, where the above studies assume that
hydric dilatation due to clay swelling is responsible:
1. According to Reucher et al. (2007) and the investigations
in this study, the average value of hydric dilatation is
lower than 3 mm/m: All measurements attain an aver-
age value of 1.4 mm/m perpendicular to the bedding (Z)
and 1.1 mm/m parallel to the bedding (xy-plane) with an
anisotropic relation of 19%. The hydric dilatation of the
restoration material (PBr) is much lower, with an aver-
age value of 0.25 mm/m (Table 3).
2. The other aspect that influences moisture dilatation is the
high relative humidity during the rainy season, which is
up to 90% (Waragai 2013). Hygric dilatation (dilatation
related to the relative humidity) is already strong and
frequently hydric expansion and shrinkage is, therefore,
lower. Hydric dilatation measurements on the PB sand-
stone show that after the conditioning of the sample by
a relative humidity of 80% the hydric dilatation only
reaches 1.36 mm/m perpendicular to the bedding (Z).
The high relative humidity leads to a reduction of 32%
comparable to normal laboratory conditions with a rela-
tive humidity of around 50%. During the rainy season,
the stone material is often nearly saturated with water
because of the frequent monsoon rains.
The greenish-grey sandstone of the Phnom Bakheng
Temple has a hydric dilatation perpendicular to the bed-
ding (Z) of nearly 2 mm/m (Table 3). An average dilata-
tion of 1.165 mm/m is reached parallel to the bedding
(XY-plane, Fig. 20a). Both values produce an anisotropic
relation of 42%. The weathered crust (PBc) shows a dila-
tation of 1.55 mm/m perpendicular to the bedding and
0.96 mm/m in the xy-plane (Fig. 20a). The dilatation of
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Page 26 of 36
Fig. 20  a Comparison of the hydric dilatation in the original sand-
stone (PB), the restoration material (PBr) and the sandstone weather-
ing crust (Phnom Bakheng Temple) with the equivalent red sandstone
Fig. 21  Sorption curves for the Cambodian sandstone samples
PBc in the xy-plane is similar to the xy-plane of the origi-
nal PB sandstone (Fig. 20a). However, the process of dila-
tation differs in time and form regarding the weathered
crust or the building stone. During the first two and a half
minutes of wetting, the dilatation of the crust is faster than
the dilatation of the original sandstone (Fig. 20b). This is
due to the higher porosity of the crust, which is only domi-
nated by capillary pores (Tables 2, 3). As time elapses the
dilatation of the crust requires more time to reach the final
value than the dilatation of the PB sample. This process
may lead to extensional stress, which is a force for detach-
ment as shown in Fig. 20b.
PB and PBr both show the highest sorption values in con-
trast to the weathering crust (PBc) and the AR sandstone
(Fig. 21). Based on other studies (e.g., Reucher et al. 2007;
Hoffmann 2006; André et al. 2011), the presence of swella-
ble clay minerals or a high microporosity can influence the
increase of sorption. Significant amounts of clay minerals
13
Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:735
(AR) of Banteay Srei. b Expanded view of the first 12  min for the
Phnom Bakheng sandstones and the restoration material. Arrows rep-
resent possible detachment forces
have been found by the SEM investigation in the PB and
PC-Green samples (Figs. 17, 18). In contrast, the lower
sorption of the crust implies less swellable clay minerals.
Furthermore, the crust also shows a lower hydric expansion
as compared to the original temple stone (Table 3) and no
microporosity (Table 2). The AR sandstone shows the lowest
sorption of all the investigated Angkor samples (Fig. 21),
because kaolinite does not belong to the group of swellable
clay minerals and its low microporosity content (Table 2).
Contour scaling due to thermal expansion?
A distinct zonation is observable in the sandstone weather-
ing crust, distinguished by a zone of Fe-oxidation in the first
few millimeters and an area where carbonate precipitation
occurs (Fig. 22a). Closer examination at the macroscopic
scale reveals a brownish color followed by a bright discolor-
ation (Fig. 22b). Hosono et al. (2006) and André et al. (2008)
also report on similar weathering processes such as weath-
ering depicting theses zonations and calcite efflorescences.
The bright discoloration was identified as the precipitation
of calcite by petrographic analysis and CL microscopy.
This calcite mineralization originates from the dissolution
of either calcite cement or calcite filling pore spaces in the
stone material. Precipitation results from chemical weather-
ing and the remobilization of calcite near the drying surface.
It also precipitates in cracks and weak zones in the stone
material, e.g., microscopically along grain boundaries and
parallel the cleavage planes in biotite (Fig. 13d). Examples
of calcite precipitation on decorated temple walls exhibit-
ing both contour scaling and calcite precipitation is shown
in Fig. 22c, d. Nearly all Angkor sandstones contain a small
amount of calcite (André et al. 2011). Only the AR sand-
stone (equivalent stone used for the Banteay Srei Temple)
is an exception with a CaO content of only < 0.01–0.02%
(André et al. 2011).
Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:735 Page 27 of 36  735
Fig. 22  Calcite precipitation in the sandstone weathering crust
(Phnom Bakheng Temple). a macroscopic image scan of the weather-
ing crust showing the zone of Fe-oxidation and calcite precipitation,
The thermal expansion of the PB, PBr and PBc of the
Phnom Bakheng Temple show considerable differences
(Fig. 23). The weathering crust exhibits a maximum ther-
mal expansion of 1.03 mm/m in the xy-plane and 0.48 mm/m
perpendicular to the bedding at a temperature of 60 °C. This
is a temperature that is almost reached daily at some surfaces
exposed to the sun. The values of thermal expansion of the
crust reach an anisotropy of 95%. This probably generates
stress within the crust zone. Furthermore, this may explain
the bedding-parallel microcracks and cracks observable in
ashlars at the Phnom Bakheng Temple (Fig. 24b, c). In con-
trast, the thermal expansion of the PB stone perpendicular
to the bedding with 0.049 mm/m is around ten times smaller
than the crust (Fig. 23a). In the xy-plane, a shrinking takes
place that attains a value of − 0.2 mm/m at 60 °C (Fig. 23b).
The hydric expansion of the Phnom Bakheng sandstone
(PB) is much higher than the weathering crust, especially
when it is perpendicular to the bedding (Table 2; Fig. 24d).
The processes that may be responsible for the expansion
under a determined relative humidity (hygric dilatation)
and water-saturated conditions (hydric dilatation) are gen-
erally attributed to the presence of swellable clay minerals.
However, there is also a “non-clay associated” swelling type
known as disjoining pressure, which is similar to osmotic
swelling and related to the electrolyte concentration of a
b close-up of the same zone, and c, d examples of calcite precipita-
tion and contour scaling at the Bayon (c) and Angkor Wat (d) Temple
(white arrows)
solution (Derjaguin and Obukov 1936). This swelling type
is more dependent on the size and amount of micropores in
the rock (Wedekind et al. 2013), as well as on the presences
of lithoclasts in a sandstone (Ruedrich et al. 2011). The PB
sandstone shows the highest amount of micropores with 83%
of all the sandstone samples investigated (Table 2).
The daily sunshine generates high temperatures at the
stone surface and a high thermal expansion within the crust
material (PBc), especially parallel to the bedding (Table 3;
Figs. 23a, 24b, d). Daily temperatures are high all year long.
Therefore, the high thermal expansion can lead to stresses in
the crust as well as between the crust and the stone material
(see model presented in Fig. 24d).
A possible explanation of why the thermal dilatation par-
allel the xy-plane is much higher than perpendicular to the
bedding, is that calcite precipitates in cracks, empty spaces
formed by the loss of phyllosilicate minerals due to weather-
ing, along grain boundaries and has even been found in the
cleavage planes of biotite or chlorite (Fig. 13c, d). The basal
planes, as seen in thin section, are normally parallel to the
bedding (i.e., the xy-plane).
In the case of the investigated crust material, the water
transport capacity of the crust is high due to its high poros-
ity and pore size distribution dominated by capillary pores
(Tables 2, 3). A simple test for water absorption has shown a
13
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Page 28 of 36
Fig. 23  a Thermal dilatation of the investigated samples perpendicular to the bedding (Z), b thermal dilatation in the XY-plane, c thermal expan-
sion of various crystals (modified after Winkler 1994)
rapid moisture penetration of the crustal material. Therefore,
rainwater can easily reach the first centimeters of the inner
stone material and may cause a high dilatation perpendicular
to the bedding in the first centimeters of the stone (Fig. 24d).
Strong rainfalls are common during the rainy season with an
average of 18 days per month.
The hydric dilatation process of the PB sandstone is very
closely related to the structural anisotropy of the stone.
The ultrasound investigation as well as the capillary water
uptake test has shown that this type of sandstone has a very
pronounced orientation. The anisotropy for the ultrasonic
velocity is 43% under dry and 26% under wet conditions
(Table 3). The anisotropy of the W-value is 27% (Table 3).
Most phyllosilicates are oriented with their basal planes par-
allel to the original sedimentary layering. This is the reason
why the hydric dilatation perpendicular to the bedding is
normally much higher than parallel to the bedding.
Thermal dilatation seems to be the main deterioration
process for the detachment of stone by contour scaling at
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Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:735
the Phnom Bakheng Temple. This leads to the assumption
that the mineralogical composition is the main reason for the
significant increase in the thermal expansion. A change of
the mineralogical content within the crust is also considered
in the observations of Hosono et al. (2006), where calcite
was also detected in a weathering crust. Furthermore, the
CL investigations in this study have shown that an accu-
mulation of calcite occurs in the crust, specifically in pore
spaces, microcracks, within the cleavage planes of biotite
or along the grain boundaries (Fig. 13b, d). According to
numerous studies on marble deterioration, it is well known
that the calcite crystal shows a high thermal expansion along
the c-axis as well as a contraction along the a- and b-axis
(see Fig. 23c; Siegesmund et al. 1999, 2000; Ruedrich 2003;
Weiss et al. 2004). This also takes place at low temperatures
(23–100 °C) as shown in investigations by the aforemen-
tioned authors.
Chlorite is found in significant amounts in the Phnom
Bakheng sandstone (PB, PBc and PBr) and the PC-Green
Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:735 Page 29 of 36  735
Fig. 24  Model of crust formation. a contour scaling parallel to sedi-
mentary laminations, b contour scaling perpendicular to sedimen-
tary laminations visible on ashlars at the Phnom Bakheng Temple, c
sandstone from Thailand. This could also play a key role in
the hydric expansion as well as the thermal expansion and
probable shrinkage.
Shrinkage associated with weight loss can be related to
a dehydration of phyllosilicate minerals. At around 60 °C
many clay minerals begin to lose a part of their interlayer
water. Experimental studies have shown that a low weight
loss is established by heating different clay minerals between
0 and 100 °C, which can be traced back to dehydration
processes (Grim and Bradley 1948). For montmorillonite,
which was qualitatively determined by Reucher et al. (2007),
a weight reduction between 0 and 100 °C is comparable to
other clay minerals (Viellard et al. 2016). The same occurs
for smectite in claystones that show a clear loss of mass
starting at around 50 °C, which then reaches its maximum
at around 110 °C (Panna et al. 2016). Furthermore, some
chlorite minerals show a weight loss starting at around 50 °C
(Phillips 1963) when heated between 0 and 200 °C, where
even shrinking occurs (McKinstry 1965). This may be one
possible explanation for the shrinking behavior related to
the thermal stress in the Phnom Bakheng sandstone (PB)
parallel to the bedding (XY-plane; Fig. 23c).
The presence of water-rich phyllosilicates can lead to
a depression of the thermal expansion during the heating.
In this case the quartz grains expand, whereas some phyl-
losilicate minerals show shrinkage at the same time by los-
ing interlayer water. This decreases the expected thermal
dilatation that is mainly related to the thermal expansion
of quartz. Shrinking during cooling can take place because
the thermal expansion of quartz decreases and the crystal
water in the phyllosilicate minerals is still lost. This leads
mainly horizontal oriented cracks in Apsara decorations and d model
of the main forces in contour scaling
to a collapse of the internal structure and a significant
reduction in length, which has been observed in all sand-
stone samples investigated from the Phnom Bakheng Tem-
ple (Fig. 23a, b). Consequently, all the investigations show
that thermal expansion as well as contraction seems to
play an important role in the object-specific deterioration
form of contour scaling observed at the Phnom Bakheng
Temple.
The main forces that may be responsible for contour scal-
ing are the high thermal expansion of the crust material par-
allel the xy-plane (Fig. 24a, b, d). This leads to a detachment
of the crust from the stone material (Fig. 24d) and the devel-
opment of microcracks, which are often observable parallel
to the bedding plane (Fig. 24a, b). When it rains water can
penetrate through the crust as well as along the joints in the
stone material. This leads to a high hydric dilatation per-
pendicular to the bedding in the first few centimeters of the
stone material (Fig. 24d). The hydric dilatation of the stone
material interacts contrary to the thermal expansion of the
crust zone, which increases the effect of scaling.
In contrast to the processes of expansion and shrinking
in the greenish sandstone samples, the AR sample, which is
equivalent to the Banteay Srei Temple, shows a typical heat-
ing and cooling curve for quartz-rich sandstone (Fig. 23a,
b). Both curves are similar, they show a linear regression
and do not show any relevant depression during cooling.
However, the thermal expansion with 0.83 mm/m/60 °C is
the highest expansion measured for all investigated samples.
In contrast to the greenish samples, the AR sandstone shows
no anisotropy in thermal expansion as well as only a slight
anisotropy in hydric dilatation (Table 3).
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Salt weathering
Different occurrences of salts associated with the develop-
ment of crust formation and salt weathering are found at
the Angkor monuments. Precipitation of carbonate material
occurs in the first few millimeters of the sandstone weather-
ing crust. This material identified as calcite (­ CaCO3) occurs
as cement and pore-filling mineralization in the sandstone
(present study and Hosono et al. 2006). Small amounts of
barite ­(BaSO4) and gypsum can also be found associated
with calcite (Hosono et al. 2006). Similar results were also
obtained by Andrew et al. (2008).
Bats and their excrements are a major problem at the Ang-
kor monuments. In this situation, gypsum ­(CaSO4) mineral-
izes from the calcium coming from the stone and the sulphur
from bat guano. High gypsum contents near the surface are a
crucial factor for flaking and contour scaling (Hosono et al.
2006; Siedel et al. 2008). Bat guano is the source for the
sulfate-phosphate and nitrate deposits (Hosono et al. 2006;
Siedel et al. 2008). In most cases, the nitrates that originate
from the bat guano are in a dissolved state under the condi-
tions of a high relative humidity (Hosono et al. 2006; Siedel
et al. 2008). This is what would be expected in a tropical cli-
mate during the rainy season. In places where the sandstone
is exposed to direct insolation like at the southern façade,
where high surface temperatures occur over a long period,
nitrates will precipitate and contribute to damaging the stone
(Siedel et al. 2008).
Stone materials with a high amount of micropores are
classified as less resistant to salt crystallization (Well-
mann and Willson 1965; Ruedrich et al. 2005; Stück et al.
2013; López-Doncel et al. 2016). This significant amount
of micropores is probably the reason they are less resist-
ant against salt crystallization; a similar tendency has been
noted with investigated sandstones by different researchers
(Benavante 2011; Ruedrich and Siegesmund 2007; Stück
et al. 2013).
The most critical pore dimensions for salt crystallization
are those that range around 1 µm in size (Benavante 2011).
Two factors are important when considering the resistance
against salt crystallization: the pore radii distribution and
the cohesion. In the present investigation, the PB sample
with the highest microporosity (83.4%) shows the lowest
resistance to salt weathering followed by the PBr sample.
This sample shows no microporosity in the distribution class
(0.0001–0.1 µm), but most of its pores (83.5%) are in the
pore radii class of 0.1–1 µm (Table 2). Experiments have
shown that rocks with a high volume of pores with a radius
of < 1 mm are sensitive to salt crystallization or freeze–thaw
(Benavante 2011; Ordonez et al. 1997).
In contrast, the AR sandstone shows the best resistance
to salt weathering because of its pore size distribution (see
Table 2). This stone contains less than 10% microporosity.
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Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:735
The values of ultrasonic velocity are also the highest in
the AR sample as compared to the other Angkor sand-
stones because of its better cementation. The red sandstone
attains an average value of 3 km/s (Table 3). The sample
also shows the lowest anisotropy by ultrasonic velocity
of all samples investigated under dry conditions, which
underlines its homogenous intrinsic structure (Table 3).
Surface hardness is quite low, but the surface hardness
reduction in water-saturated conditions is the lowest in all
the investigated samples, possibly due to the absence of
swellable clay minerals (Table 3).
Weathering and conservation model
Utilizing the onsite observations and investigations, a
weathering model can be developed that describes and
attempts to explain the dynamics of weathering. Because
of the decaying drainage system that was an important
part of the city and its temples, the hydrological situation
changed and the soil became unstable. This, as well as
the growth of higher vegetation, led to the movement and
partial collapse of the sandstone buildings like the Phnom
Bakheng Temple (Fig. 25b).
Water infiltrates through surface gaps, cracks and crev-
ices (Fig. 25b). In the larger gaps created by these pro-
cesses bats have found a convenient roosting space. These
animals are one of the main sources of salt contamination
(Hosono et al. 2006; Siedel et al. 2008). Salt contamina-
tion and weathering is found in areas where infiltration
takes place, but where the surface is not exposed directly
to rainwater (Fig. 25b). Within the building massive gyp-
sum crusts can also be found. Contour scaling is found
all around the pedestal area that is affected by insolation.
Since 2004, the temple is being restored with the sup-
port of the World Monument Fund in cooperation with the
Authority for the Protection and Management of Angkor
and the Region of Siem Reap (APSARA). In 2012 the
UNESCO and APSARA published the Angkor charter,
which are guidelines for the World Heritage Site of Ang-
kor. This report mainly deals with static structural situa-
tions and environmentally caused problems. The develop-
ment of contour scaling is defined within the report as the
most prominent and critical deterioration pattern affecting
the sandstone on many Angkor monuments. However, a
special treatment procedure to deal with this problem is
not given in the UNESCO and APSARA report.
The model for the conservation (Fig. 25c) of the Phnom
Bakheng Temple is based on the weathering factors and
experimental analyses described in this research. This
includes aspects of preventive conservation as well as
active conservation. The single steps are explained as
follows:
Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:735 Page 31 of 36  735
Fig. 25  Weathering and conservation model of the Phnom Bakheng Temple. a Sketch depicting the sanctuary (center tower) before roof col-
lapse, b weathering model and c proposed conservation measures
Preventive conservation
The most important conservation work that needs to be done
is to protect the Phnom Bakheng Temple by stabilizing the
terraces. This work is already partially completed and the
continued work is being done by engineers specialized in
this type of undertaking. The project is directed by the World
Monuments Fund under the authority of APSARA (Ellis
2007).
Regarding the bats, artificial roosting sites can be devel-
oped that would prevent the stone material from being con-
taminated by bat droppings and subsequent salt weathering.
Artificial nest boxes for bats are already being developed
(Fig. 25c). Many different models are on the market. They
could be tested, modified and placed under the roof area of
the temples and could be periodically cleaned and main-
tained. To control the rainwater an object-specific drainage
system in the roof area should be designed and implemented
(Fig. 25c).
Active conservation
Periodic cleaning of the excrements would be one possible
strategy for reducing the ongoing salt contamination. Appli-
cation of a vacuum steam cleaner has been successful in the
removal of pigeon droppings at the Santa Monica Church,
Mexico (Arreola and Wedekind 2009). Joints should be
cleaned and closed with stone wedges from fresh but calcite-
free quarry material or lead (Fig. 25c). Lead has already
been used in the main gallery of Angkor Wat to seal the
stone roof plating. When the joints are closed water penetra-
tion is reduced and the bats no longer find places for roost-
ing. The upper area of the Phnom Bakheng Temple is now in
ruins and has to be restored in such a way whereby the rain
water can be drained in a controlled manner (Fig. 25c). For
active conservation a suitable method for desalination has
to be evaluated and if possible tested. Different techniques
for desalination are presented in Wedekind (2016a), which
may also be helpful in the case of the monument studied.
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Page 32 of 36
Experimental trial for a possible treatment
of contour scaling
In this study, the accumulation of calcite is hypothesized to
be a contributing factor to the contour scaling observed at
the Phnom Bakheng Temple. Therefore, one option might
be to reduce the calcite mineralizing out and to decrease
the thermal expansion of the crust zone. To evaluate this
hypothesis the tested crust sample was treated with a 5%
HCl solution. A small sample was placed in the solution
for 1 h and afterwards was washed with distilled water. The
weight was reduced by 0.7 M % after treatment, due to the
dissolution of calcite. Material loss due to the separation of
single grains was not detected in the solution.
The results of the thermal expansion measurements
show that only a slight change took place perpendicular
to the bedding, in comparison to the thermal expansion
before treatment (Fig. 26a). Both measurements show a
thermal expansion of around 0.5 mm/m at 60 °C, whereas
the treated sample decreased to around 0.48 mm/m with a
reduction of 13%. In the XY-direction of the crust a signifi-
cant decrease of the thermal expansion was determined:
The thermal expansion is still slightly higher than per-
pendicular to the bedding, but reached less than half at
Fig. 26  Conservation experiment. a Thermal dilatation of the crust before and after treatment, b hydric dilatation of the crust before and after
treatment and c hydric dilatation of the original sandstone (Phnom Bakheng Temple) before and after Anti-Hygro treatment
13
Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:735
60 °C (Fig. 26a). The dilatation was reduced to 47%. The
anisotropy perpendicular to the bedding (Z) and xy-plane
(parallel to the bedding) was also reduced from 95% to
15%, which is significant in that we can expect the effect
of scaling forces to become smaller.
Hydric dilatation after the acid treatment also becomes
smaller. A reduction of around 30% takes place perpen-
dicular to the bedding (Fig. 26b). This can be explained
by the increase of porosity because of the dissolution of
calcite. It might be possible, that swellable minerals can
expand within this free pore space, and therefore, does not
influence any further expansion. The process of clay min-
eral expansion was also observed in the free pore space of
tuff stones (Wedekind et al. 2013). A treatment of the PB
sample with an anti-hygro solution (Remmers Company)
shows a significant reduction of hydric dilatation perpen-
dicular and parallel to the bedding (Fig. 26c).
The experimental treatment test is not being proposed
as a conservation treatment for preserving the decoration
from contour scaling at the Phnom Bakheng Temple. A
controlled treatment with weak acid may be a promising
approach to develop for reducing the thermal expansion of
the material and further weathering due to contour scal-
ing. The acid treatment may also be an option for reducing
Environmental Earth Sciences (2018) 77:735 Page 33 of 36  735
the calcite accumulations within weak zones and cracks
behind the weathering crusts.
More investigations onsite as well as in the laboratory are
necessary to complete the picture and to add further knowl-
edge to our understanding of the weathering mechanisms.
The development of a suitable conservation treatment in
combination with the up-to-date conservation techniques
applied (UNESCO, APSARA 2012) must be developed.
This treatment should be established to reduce the weather-
ing from contour scaling, thus preventing further deteriora-
tion of the decorations at the Phnom Bakheng Temple and
other temples in the Angkor Archaeological Park.
Conclusions
Our investigations confirm the findings of André et  al.
(2011) that the red sandstones of Angkor are the ones which
show the best performance against weathering. The inves-
tigations show that the red Angkor sandstone is the most
homogenous one, because it contains mainly quartz and no
swellable minerals. This sandstone has the highest thermal
expansion of all samples but does not show any anisotropy.
In contrast, the PB sandstone shows a significant amount of
different phyllosilicate minerals and high anisotropic behav-
ior in hydric dilatation as well as in thermal expansion.
Previous studies suggest that hydric dilatation is the
reason for contour scaling at the Angkor monuments. This
study hypothesizes chemical weathering by the precipitation
of iron and calcite at the surface combined with insolation-
affected thermal dilatation as a probable cause for the con-
tour scaling identified. The precipitation and crystallization
of the case-hardening agents (iron and calcite) throughout
the surface rind is a probable formation mechanism for the
crust. Insolation and the increase of thermal dilatation due
to the accumulation of calcite lead to extensional stresses
and cracking within the crust zone. Hydric dilatation is high
in the largely unweathered original PB sandstone behind
the crust zone. Both the thermal expansion of the crust
and the hydric dilatation of the stone material behind the
crust behave in a contrary fashion. This causes extensional
stresses and a detachment of the crust that leads to the
weathering form of scaling.
The results presented in this study are supported by the
findings of André et al. (2012). They concluded that monu-
ments exposed to direct insolation are more affected by con-
tour scaling than buildings surrounded by trees. The map-
ping observations (Fig. 5) shows that the facades of the main
shrine of the Phnom Bakheng Temple exposed to direct sun-
shine is heavily affected by contour scaling. This observa-
tion could be explained by the petrophysical measurements
especially by the high thermal expansion of the crust.
Salt efflorescence and weathering related to bat guano and
single mineral components of the stone material itself is a
serious threat to the monument decorations. Both weather-
ing factors, scaling by thermo-hydric action and salt crystal-
lization can interact with each other and leads to an increase
in weathering processes that are often observed at the tem-
ples of Angkor.
The common conservation method of back-filling cavi-
ties, hollow spots and detached crusts must be questioned
because this increases the resistance under thermal load. If
a crust is formed and the interface is partly unbonded, both
the crust as well as the stone material can interact mostly
independently. When the crust and stone are fixed again by
a back-filling mortar, without at least reducing the causes for
expansion or dilatation, the same forces that had created the
flaking process become active again. Therefore, a sustain-
able conservation is possible when considering these new
findings and the development of a proper method based on
the experimental conservation treatments described in this
study. The dissolution of the calcite accumulations may be
a promising conservation strategy regarding the reduction
of thermal expansion in the weathering crust. More inves-
tigations on the sandstones are necessary and a controlled
treatment on a test area should be conducted. Long-term
observations are necessary at testing sites for evaluating the
suggested treatments. Restoration material that contains a
significant amount of calcite like the investigated PBr sam-
ple from the Preah Vihear Province will show contour scal-
ing effects like the original stone (PB) over a specific time
period. Therefore, stones with a small amount of calcite
or without should be selected for restoration. One option
would be to use the PC-Green sample from Thailand. The
stone contains less calcite and shows a slightly lower thermal
expansion than the PBr sandstone.
The study also shows that CL microscopy is a fast and
suitable tool for detecting reprecipitated calcite (e.g., in the
crust), determining the distribution of calcite in the stone
and in analyzing the mineralogical composition because
of its red to yellow luminescence. Cathodoluminescence
microscopy has been proven to be a useful method in prov-
enance studies of sandstones. This may prove to be a suitable
tool for helping to identify further possible quarry locations
from which compatible, low calcite stones can be found for
restoration purposes.
In regards to the presence of swellable clay minerals, fur-
ther studies are necessary with sufficient sample material
for determining the geochemical composition of the clay
minerals found by the SEM investigation. This is especially
true when considering the weathering crust.
The development of a new measuring device to perform
thermal dilatation experiments shows that petrophysical
properties can be measured even on small-dimensioned
samples of weathering crust close to real conditions. These
13
735 
Page 34 of 36
measurements help in detecting the physical processes
within a material like sandstone and leads to a better under-
standing of the mechanisms involved in contour scaling.
Acknowledgements  We are grateful to A. van der Kerkof for allowing
us access to the cathodoluminescence microscope at the Geoscience
Centre of the University of Göttingen. L. Sousa from the Geology
Department at the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro (Portu-
gal) is thanked for his constructive criticism and thorough review of
the manuscript. The anonymous reviewers are also thanked for their
input and constructive suggestions and comments. B. Schulz and S.
Haser from the TU Bergakademie Freiberg (Germany) are thanked for
the SEM analyses as well as M. Sitnikova from the Federal Institute
for Geosciences and Natural Resources for also providing SEM data.
Special thanks also go to Ch. Pötzl for conducting additional laboratory
analyses and discussions concerning the clay mineral SEM images. The
Artisans Angkor of Siem Reap (Cambodia) are thanked for supplying
the restoration material and also Prum Sokhour, the Customer Service
Manager at Artisans Angkor. We would also like to thank the restora-
tion team of the Phnom Bakheng Temple, the local authorities that
safeguard Angkor (APSARA) and the staff of the World Monuments
Fund for their friendly cooperation.
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