CHAPTER III

CONCRETE AND OTHER CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS

Concrete

 In a construction material, the properties of which maybe predetermined by design, selection of constituent
materials, and quality control.

The constituent materials are:

 Cement;
 Aggregates;
 Water;
 Admixtures

Cement

 Is also called as hydraulic cement, is finely pulverized material that develops its binding property as a result of its
reaction with water.

Hydrated lime [Ca(OH)₂]

 which is the product of reaction between quicklime (CaO), and water, is not stable in water and is nonhydraulic,
but it can slowly carbonate in air (reaction with CO₂) to form a stable product, limestone [CaCo₃].

 Is also called as hydraulic cement, is finely pulverized material that develops its binding property as a result of its
reaction with water.

 The product that results when quicklime is finely crushed, slaked with a minimum amount of water, and then
ground to form a fine homogeneous powder;

 Is white in color and has a specific gravity of 2.08;

 Is often added to portland cement mortars in varying proportions to increase their plasticity and workability.

Portland Cement

 Is used to described a hydraulic cement produced by pulverizing clinkers consisting essentially of hydraulic
silicates.

Brief history of the manufacture of portland cement

Joseph Aspdin, a bricklayer of Leeds, England, describe a patented cementitious product formed by heating a
mixture of clay and mixture of limestone to a temperature sufficiently high to drive off carbon dioxide. The term portland
was used because the appearance of the mixed concrete resembled natural stones in the Isle of Portland, Dorset County,
England. He calcined his raw materials only until the carbonic acid was removed entirely. David Sayler of Allentown,
Pennsylvania, who was granted a patent in US and credited with the manufacture of cement in the United States. The first
rotary kiln for the manufacture of portland cement was erected in 1886 at Roundout, New York.

Cement and Its Type

Portland cement was first manufactured in the United States in the later part of 19 th century, is produced by heating a
carefully controlled mixture of limestone and clay at a very high temperature, and by grinding the resulting product into
powder. Most of the ingredients for the manufacture of cement are found in nature. Like;

 Limestone;
 Shale;
 Slate
 Clay;
 Chalk;
 Marl;
 Silica sand;
 Iron ore
Each manufacturing plant may use a different combination of raw materials, although limestone and clay are the most
common.

The primary constituents of raw materials in the manufacture of cement

  Lime;
 Silica;
 Alumina
Lime- is obtained from limestone and chalk.

Silica and Alumina – are obtained from clays, shales, and bauxite.

Additional ingredients;

 Iron oxide;
 Magnesia;
 Sulfur trioxide;
 Alkalies;
 Carbon dioxide.
Lime (CaO) and silica (SiO₂), make up 60 and 20% of the ingredients of cement, respectively.

Iron oxide and aluminum oxide – 10% of the raw materials.

Two basic processes in the manufacture of portland cement

1. Wet – the mix in the form of a slurry containing about 30 to 40% water is heated in horizontal revolving kilns to
about 2750ᴼF at which temperature oxides of calcium and silica are combine to form clinkers. The rotation of the
kiln plus its shape allow the mix to flow down the kiln and gradually increase in temperature.

2. 2. Dry – the mix is fed into the kiln and burned in the dry state. This provides considerable savings in fuel
consumption and water usage but is dustier.

In the kiln, water from the raw materials is driven off and limestone is decomposed into lime and carbon dioxide. These
products then undergo a solid-state chemical reaction in the burning-zone portion of the kiln which produces calcium
silicate and other compounds. These products are greenish black in color, are in the form of pellets, called clinkers.

The cement clinkers are hard, irregular ball-shaped particles (about ¼ in. dia.). These are cooled (to about 150ᴼF) and
stored in clinker silos.

When needed, the clinkers are mixed with about 2% gypsum and then ground to a fine powder (particles less than 75µm
in dia.) in ball mills or a roller press.

The cement is then stored in storage bins and bagged for shipment. In the United States a bag of cement weighs 94lb
(42.6kg) and has a volume of about 1 ft³ when packed. These bags should be stored in a dry place on pallets, preferably
covered with tarpaulins or similar water proof covering.

About 75% of cement is composed of:

 Calcium silicates;
 Compounds of aluminum (Al₂O₃);
 Iron (Fe₂O₃); and Gypsum (CaSO₄)
The four major compounds of cement

 Tricalcium silicate (C₃S);

 Dicalcium silicate (C₂S);
 Tricalcium aluminate (C₃A);
 Tetracalcium aluminum ferrite(C₄AF)
Compound Chemical Formula Industry code Percent Amount Rate of reaction
(Abrev.) (range) with water

Tricalcium silicate 3CaO.SiO₂ C₃S 35-65 Medium

Dicalcium silicate 2CaO.SiO₂ C₂S 15-40 Slow

Tricalcium aluminate 3Cao.Al₂O₃ C₃A 0-15 Fast

Tetracalcium 1C₂O.Al₂O₃.Fe₂O₃ C₄AF 6-20 Medium

aluminum ferrite
Cement Types and Uses

Standard chemical requirements

Cement types C₃S C₂S C₃A C₄AF+2CA Uses

(max.) (min.) (max.) (max.)

I and IA General use: when special

properties are not required

II and IIA 8 General use: has moderate sulfate

resistance and heat of hydration

III and IIIA 15 When high early strength is

required

IV 35 40 - When low heat of hydration is

required

V 5 25 When high sulfate resistance is

required

Setting and Hydration

Setting

When cement is mixed with sufficient water, in the beginning the paste losses its fluidity and within a few hours noticeable
stiffening results, this is called the initial set, and this measured the ability of the paste to withstand a certain arbitrary
pressure.

Further buildup of hydration products is followed by commencement of the hardening process, responsible for the
strength of concrete , which is known as the final set.

Hydration

 A chemical reaction between compounds of cement and water yields products that achieve the binding property
after hardening. This process of reaction is called hydration.

 A chemical reaction within a few hours of mixing the cement and water.

 Is the key for the strength development of concrete.

Portland cement is a mixture of several compounds, all of which can hydrate with water. But all compounds do not hydrate
at the same rate, and as a consequence, the rate of strength development is a function of time and temperature.

Aluminate (C₃A) is the most reactive compound in cement & hydrates at a much faster rate than do the silicates. The
stiffening characteristics and setting times are due largely to the hydration products involving aluminates. The addition of
gypsum to clinkers is to slow down the hydration of tricalcium aluminate.

The silicates, play a dominant role in the hardening process, which is responsible for the strength development.

The tricalcium silicate (C₃S), hardens rapidly & is largely responsible for the early strength development.

Dicalcium silicate (C₂S), hardens slowly & is responsible for strength increase beyond 1 week.

Tricalcium aluminate, also contributes to the early strength development of concrete.

The rate of hydration of any cement depends on:

 Relative proportions of silicates and aluminates;

 Fineness of cement;
 Ambient temperature;
 Humidity.
The calcium silicates (tricalcium & dicalcium), constitute about 75% of the cement, react with water to form two new
compounds:

 calcium hydroxide and calcium silicate hydrate.

The physical properties of the paste and the mechanical properties of hardened concrete depend primarily on calcium
silicate hydrate. This product occupies about 50 to 60% of the volume of solids in a completely hydrated paste.

It is estimated that on complete hydration, 1 cm³ of cement occupies a volume of 2 cm³. (Note: the specific gravity of
cement is 3.25).

Thus, hydration can also be conceptualized as a process during which the space previously occupied by cement and water
is being replaced more & more by the products of reaction between the two.

Heat of hydration

Hydration is always accompanied by release of heat, in other words, the hydration reaction of portland cement compounds
are exothermic.

C₃A liberates the most heat; C₂S liberates the least, causes flash set when mixed with water accompanied by the release of
considerable heat.

C₃S releases twice as much heat as does C₂S.

Type IV cement has low levels of C₃A & C₃S & thus generates less heat of hydration.

In massive structures the heat evolved is dissipated slowly that the temperature of the structure shows a marked increase
followed by thermal expansion.

Uses of Concrete

 is used in a wide variety of application, ranging from piles to multistory buildings, and from railroad ties to dams;
 Used in foundations, pavements, walkways, storage tanks, and many other structures;
 Is one of the most economical materials of construction and is very versatile in nature and its application.
 Is used in building concrete dams, aqueducts, pipes, canals, storage tanks, and foundation.
 Freshly made concrete is used for; shells, folded plates, circular pipes, and arches.
Important Properties of Concrete

 Strength;
 Durability (weather resistance)
 Wear resistance;
 Impermeability;
 Abrasion resistance;
 Resistance to environmental attacks
Not all of these properties are important for every applications, but most are.

For examples, the liquid-retaining structures such as storage tank or dam (impermeability, resistance to chemical attacks
from liquids, & weather resistance); for nonstructural applications, such as facades and sign walls (thermal resistance,
light weight, and pleasing appearance).

Concrete derives its strength and properties from those of aggregates , the type and quality of cement, and the mix
proportions.

It should be noted that the aggregates themselves are not transformed in the concrete mixture, and that the reaction
between cement and water produces compounds that harden with time and bond the individual aggregate particles.

Properties of Concrete

The aggregates make up about 60 to 75% by volume of concrete and the paste constitutes about 25 to 40%. Of the cement
paste, the volume of cement occupies about 25 to 45%, and water makes up the balance.

Fresh concrete also contains air, its volume ranging from 2 to 8% of the volume of concrete.

The strength of the concrete depends on the strength of the aggregate particles and the strength of the paste.

Fresh concrete does not possess any strength.

Good concrete is concrete that has acceptable qualities in the mixing stage as well as in the solid state.