REPUBLIC OF KENYA MINISTRY OF TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION ROADS DEPARTMENT ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART Ill MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS CHIEF ENGINEER (ROADS & AFRONROMES) MINISTRY OF TRANSPORT AND. COMMUNICATIONS P.O. BOX 52692 NAIROBI PERIANENT SECRETARY/ ENGINEER-IN-CHIEF P.0. BOX 52692 NAIROBI AUGUST 1987q oe q 5 7 tes teed etal lel net PART 411: Section a 2.4 4.2 ROAD DESIGN MANUAL conrsws CHAPTER 1: GENERAL, Units of Measucenent. Definitions and abbreviations 1.3.1 Pavenent 3.2 General Materials +3.3° Bituminous materials 3.4 Traftic 3:9. abbreviations CHAPTER 2: vRAprrc General, Axle Load Distribution 22.2 Brosent Kenya Zeytstatson 2.2.2 toile Load Distribution Equivalence Factors 2.3.1 Ale Load Equivalence Bactox 2.3.2 Vehicle Equivalence Factor Evaluation of Traffic for Design Purposes 2.4.1 Estimating the Initial Daily Number of Commercial Vehicles 2.4.2 Estimating the Initial Daily Number of Standard Axles 2.4.4 Rerimating the Cumulative Muubee OF Standard Avles raffic Classification 2.5.1 Use of Cumilative Number of Standara nelec 2.5.2 Traffic Classes CHAPTER 3: aie NAWURAT. PRuTpomanm Climate Natural Materials and Soils CHAPTER 4 : EARTHWORKS cuttings 4.1.1 General 4.1.2 ‘ype of Material to be Excavated 4.1.3 waces Tabaw and springs 4.1.4 Determination of the Angle of Slope Embankments General Foundation Conditions end Settlenent Fill Material Stability of Slopes vsacing and Compaction of Fills 22 22. Ea 2, aay carr MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS Page (i) BaDSanapeee Bribe bbeE EEROAD NFSIGN MANUAL PART 111 : MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN OR NEW ROADS conrenrs CHAPTER 5_: DRAINAGE AND EROSION CONTROL GERETER S_i DRAINAGE AND EROSION CONTROL a 5.1 5a 1.1 General Se. 1.2. Side Ditches 5. 1.3. Cut-ort Ditches 5 1.4 Discharge Channels 5 1.5 Collection of Water on Enbanknents 5 16 Rubanlment Toe Divcles 5 5.2 Drainage of Ground Water 5, 2.1 General 5 2.2 3 sik 5 3 5, 3 5. 3. 5, aang oe] io Drainage Remedies General 5 5. bes 8 5.3.2 5.3.2 Protection of Slopes 5.33 CHAPTER 6 : SUBGRADE 6.2 ‘lassification of Kenyan Soils 6 1.1 General 6, 3.2 Clases of Subyrade Rearing strength 6 1,3 Classification of the Most Common Kenyan Subgrade Materials termining the Suhgraae Strength 1 Recommended Subgrade CBR ‘Test Procedure +2 Subgrade Compaction +3 Estimating Subgrade Moisture Content +4 Determining Subgrade Design Strength rade Requirenents for Pavement Design 1 Materials Suitable for Pavement Support 12 Improved aulyeate +3. Influence of Improved subgrade on Subgrade Bearing strength 6.7 6: om g 6.3 § 3.4 ime Treated snhgrade CUAPTER 7: PAVEMENT MATERIALS General, 7a Subbase Materials 12 7.2.1 Natural Gravels 73 22° Clayey and Silty sands 22 Coment and Lime Tuproved Materials 7.2 Graded Crushed stone 73 74 1S ns ns 16 Soft Stowe Materials Natural Gravels Cenant and Time Improved Materials Cement Stabilised Materials 13 a eere = ea es a = ea " ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART Iii MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW_ROADS. conT=NTS Page (1ii) sectnon Page Graded Crushed stone 27 Sand Bitunen Mixes 18 Dense Bitumen Macedan 13 Dense Emulsion Macadan 1r9 Lean Concrete 720 Uther Base Matoriais 7.10 14 facings Fal ‘Prine Coat and Tack Coat pa swreare Dressing 7a Functions and Performance of Bituminous Freuis gaa Types of Bituminous Premix Tas Choice of Surfacing 7.19 gal — Natural Materiais fo. Susbase 1.20 oor coment and Line Inproved Materials for Subbase = 7.24 Gnaxt SB3 - Graded Crushed Stone for Subbase 7.22 Chatt D1 Nagoral ceavele for Base 7.23 Chart B2 - Cement and Lime Proved Materials for Base 7124 Chart B3 - Cenent Stabilised Materials for Base 7.28 fart Bd - Graded Crushed Stone for Base 7.28 Chart aa - Sand Bitumen Mixes for Base 797 Chart 3b - Sand Bitumen Mixes for Base 7.28 Chart 26 - Dense Bitumen Macadam for Base 7.29 Chart 8/ - Lean Cosusete for Bace 7,30 Chart Sia - surface Dressing Ta Chart Sib - Surgace Dressing Design 7.32 hast Ele pressing Design 7.33 chart sla pressing Design aba Chart Sle - Surface Dressing esis 7.35 Chart S2a - Agphalt Concrete Tuble g2a — Gzading Requirensnts ror Auplabt conerote able S2b - Grading Requirements for Asphalt Concrete 7:38 chart S2c - Gap graded Asphalt 7.39 Chart 92a - Saud AaghoLe 7.40 Chart $3 - Zmulsion Slurry Seal var GRADUTe A + THR STRUCTURAL DESIGN METHOD 8. peeign Principles BL vTin Taicknesses and Materials Characteristics aL Design Period aa. Stage Construction BL safety Factor 8.2 Pininising Bace s04 Surfacing Thicknesses 8.2 8.2 ctical and Expe: ‘considezations 83 vse of Flexinle Pavements 8.3 Influence of Subgrade 8.3 wiour of Pavement Materials a4 8.3 Strain, Deflection and Layer 8.10 Calcuiacios UF Susees, Cteain ans Naflection 8.10 petarnination of Layer Thickness 8.101o.1 20.2 20.3 ROAD “DESIGN MANUAT MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DES! *uction Principles 4 Minimum Layer thickness o42 Mintoum oiguarieece ‘Thicken Increments 8-43 compliance with Specification ise opmierd Pavement structures ante y ogllt® Of Other Tree of Pavement Standard Pavenent serusten gcandard Pavenent Seructace Bfandera Paveucue Stractens srandard Pavenent. Structece siandard Pavement Structace Standard Pavement sem siandard Pavenent Structure saindard Pavement Struceace Standard Pavement strusmne Seanuaetl Favenont Structure 5 seamdard Pavenent. structure seandard Pavonent Structane Tupe 1 Standard Bavement structiee Type 15 SHAPTER 10 + suompens, PAVEMENT DRAINAGE ane Ee aes PRVET op TONS Shoulders i221 Functions of shontaeue loa Dice 10-1.3 Shoulder Requixeuents for faci favutent Cross-Sections 10.3.1 Bago Restratme 10.3.2 Recommended Cross-nections 2. a1 9. ESSSSS5s555 DoREREE ESP SS BEROAD DESIGN MANUAL FART 117 | MATERIALS AND PAVEMEN! DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS conrenrs Page (v) Section Page CHAPTER 11 : ROADS ON EXPANSIVE clays CBASTER LL + ROADS ON EXPANSIVE clays a Problems associated with Mpancive Clays ALL 11.1.1 General Ut 11.1.2 Volume Changes due to Moisture Variations 1a 11.1.3. Bearing Capacity aaa 11.1.4 susceptibility to Erosion 21a 1.2 Recomended Design and Construction Procedures 11.2 11.2.1 General n2 Biog) e 1 7 11.2.3 Rxcavation and Replacement na 111214 treatment with Line 2 11.2.5 Mininising Hotstura Changes and Conocquent - Movements nea 11.2.6 Type of Pavenent Recommended over Expansive : ne 24.2.7 siopes an expansive Clays 16 11:2:8 Culveres and Drainage Piges ue i SRAWIEX J/ : LOW STANDARD BINH SURFACED ROADS Goneral, Low Standasd Surfacings 12.2.1 Single surface Dressing | 12.2.2 sand Seal +3. Gravel Seal +4 Envision Slury seal 5 Road Oiling and Mixed-in-Place surface Treatuent | aaa wom Suamard Bases 12.3.1 Thicknesses s 12.3.2 Natural Gravels 12.3.3 fament or Time Treated duty 4 Low Standard Subbases 12.4.1 thicknesses 12.4.2 Natural Materials 12.4.3 Conent or Lime Treated soils 12.5 Dry Compaction 13.1 Materials for Gravel Wearing Course aa 13.4.1 macerial Requirements 13,1 ‘feagtic Limitations 13.2 Construction Procedures 13.3 13.2 Design of Gravel Roads 12.3 13.2.1 Design method 13.3 13.2.2 Minimum Thickness Requixed 13.3 13.2.3 Gravel toss asia 13.2.4 Total ‘thickness Required 13.4 13.2.5 Shoulders and Cross-Section 13.4 : Chart Gi = Gravel. Wearing Course ialROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART itl: MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS i comrsss Page (vi Page GUAPTER 14 : MATERIALS SAMPLING AND TESTING PROGRAMMES - 2 General 14.2 14.2 Feasibility study 14.2 Table 14.2.1 ~ winimim Mase of Sample Requized 142 = 14.3 Preliminary Design 14.3.1 Alignment Soile 14.3.2 Existing Gravel Wearing Course Soil and Gravel Borrow Pits Stone Quarries 1s i bestgn : Pee i Existing Gravel westloy Course I Sooo aa Eee ee oes 15 + StWDRRO verEoDs oF aESTTNG . eee Soils and Gravels 15.1 a ee ees isis ba soot ae = oe | Se a | oe meee ee |e ioT ROAD DESIGN MANUAL FAK 117 | MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS CHAPTER 1 : GENERAL Page Lit La INTRODUCTION The Road Design Hanual sets forth the policy and standards to be adopted for the design of roads in Kenya. ‘he manual a2 divegea into rour parts: Part Geometric Design of Rural Roads Past, Gwuuwexic Design of Urban Roads* Part Materials and Pavement Design for New Roada*® Part IV: Brfage Needgnt (neludlny vuier major structures) Fart V Pavement Rehabilitation and overlay Designt oath recently, the structural design of new bitumen surfaced yoads in Kenya vas based on a combination of Road Notes 29 end 31, published by the Deitioh Teansport and Road Rescecoh [uboratory. These notes were not opecfically designed to cater for the current needs of Kenya. par pa the Period 1977 to 1960 an extensive research programe has been carried out into the performance and characteristics of Kenyan aterials and pavements. ‘the results of this programe can be found in Ue Materaais Branch Reports listed 47 Appendix a, It is now possible to publioh a peveueut aveign manval with particelar reference to the conditions and materiale in Kenye, his manual adopts an integrated approach in that full details of Possible materials for the pavement Iayere are given es seat $k Rho detatis as to how these may be combined, and in what thicknesses to form a satisfactory pavenent for a given teaffic volume. The pavement designs are given in the fore of ‘The contents of this Manual are partly guidelines and recommendations to be considered, and partly stauidards WRICN ag conten smile should be adhered'to. In sone instances special GonGitions may dewand modifications to these standards, mech dnetances will usually be brought to the attention oF che Seoimex by lhe chier Engineer (Roads and Aercdrones).. fowever, he design engineer shoulé also realise that the adoption of the guidelines and standards given in thie Manual doos now sen abticaily ensure a serviceable and economic road desiim. this fan only be achieved through a careful consideration and balancing of the various controle, criteria and elements invsivea Net yoe aveliauie “*Previously designated “Pavement Design” eaROAD DESIGN MANUAL ~ E PART 111 | MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS : vage 1.2 CHAPTER 1: GENERAL ‘The Road Design Manual forms a part of a set of manuals, sone of which have a bearing on Gesign. ‘These are: ~ Manual on Traffic Control Devices Part T Road Markings#*# Part IT 0: Tragsic signe Part III : Traffic Signals* Part IV Other Traffic Control and Road Safety Devices* Manual on Roadside Develorment and control* ~ Highway Capacity Manual* | Manval on the Form and Layout af Basa Necign Plano and Reports* * Not yet available *eepratt OnlyROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 111 MAIEKIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS CHAPTER 1: GENERAL Page 1.3 1.2 UNITS OP MEASURENEND The standard units of measurement to be used are based on the Intemational System (SI) units. However, the untra appiicstie ty teed desagn also include some units which axe not steictly part of sz, Wultiplen and sub-aultiples of st units are formed ether by the use of indices or prefixes, Definitions of applicable Prefixes are given in Table 1.2.1, The basic units and the derived and suppleuentary units which will normally be required for road design are listed in Table 1.2.2 1_: DEFINITIONS OF PREFIXES STABLE 2.2.1: DEFINITIONS OF PREFIXES iene cia owen to muveasesee” | Kilo | k 1? | | ecto » 102 | | | | = -— | ; a conti : a suns : ae 0 ; | aeROAD DESIGN MANUAL L PART 111: MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS Page 1.4 Volume (solids) Volune (igus) Density Force Pressure and Stxcen Velocity (speed) angle ‘Temperature =e metre | kilogram | kg ae | | equare metre a? { cubic metre 23 | kilogram per kg/m oaalp equers metic | | grade g i AND SUB-MULTIPLES Ym, ma Mg, a, mg day (@), hour (h), minute (nin) nw, nectare (Qha=10,000n2), mn? en, m3 ml, 1 ml=10~5 Litre len 2 Mg/u? — 2 ey /t = 1 g/t Ya. ta (N= 1 kon/s?, Lkg£=9.01N) Wav/n2, N/om2 ko/e (1 kmh = 1 nfs ae minute ("), second (") (360° circle) (4009 circle)l ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 11: MATERIAIS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW HOADS CHAPTER 1: GENERAL [Fase bs 1.3 DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS PEERIITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS 1.3.2 Pavement Figures 1.3.1 and 1.3. Winetrate the tema weed tn auscriping the principal pavement and cross-section components, et wy ground | | i a +. 1 a ii bd oe 7 | | j : gl 2 fea | | Z| 2 | z [3 = ale FIGURE 1.3.1 : CROSS-SECTION TERMINOLOGY 1.3.1: CROSS-SECTION TERMINOLOGY —— Wearing course sorfacing { 7 binder Course Formation Subbese EOE BORER C85 moroves Subgrage | PSs POST (Srtlenatd FIGURE 1.3.2: PAVEMENT TERMINOLOGY aROAD DESIGN MANUAL. PART 111: MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS Page 166 1.3.2 cRnpMRD 1 + ommenar eee pubgrade is ali the material below the pavement and may include in-situ material, £111 and improved subgrade. For design Purposes the following subgrade classes are recognized: Subgrade Class CBR Range Median. sl 82 83 - 5 3.5 10 75 -13 20 be - 18 14 85 = 30 22.5 86 > 20 For assessing any section of subgrade the average should be at east equal to the median for the category selected, and no CBR value should fall below the lowest valve in the range. Improved Subgrade is a layer of selected £111 material, the top Of which is at formation level, placed where the natural in-situ or #811 matordal do wnouilalie fu, tue airect support of the pavement. Formation is the surface of the ground, in its fiaal chape, upon, which the pavenent structure, consisting of subbase, bace and surfacing is constructed. Geetoviny Ls UM uppermost pavement layer which provides the ziding surface for vehicles. Tt will normally consist of one of the following: surface dressing, sand asphalt or asphalt concrete. General Materials Borrow Area is a site from which natural material, other than Bolla Bone, is removed for constiuction of the works. (The term borrow pit is also used.) Quarry te an open ourface woikiny C1um whten stone 18 removed by rilling and blasting, for construction of the works. Taproved Materials are naturally occurring gravels and clayey Sands which are deficient in desirable properties and which may be "improved" by the addition of either lime or Portland comente Engineering properties such as strength and plasticity axe improved Yul Lue waverial Still remains flexible. Improved waterials may be suitable for either subbase or base (specitied in Charts SB2 and 22). Cement - Stabilized Material is suitable for base and consists of S mixture oF natural gravels or coarse clayey sand with approximately 5 - § per cent of ordinary Portland cement such what a rigid material is produced. Acceptance criteria inoludes wnconfined compressive strength. (Specified in chart B3)-ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 111: MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FUH NEW ROADS CHAPTER 1; GENERAL Page 1.7 Henn Concrete iss high quality, vell graded gravel and Portland Genet aixture, mixed ina stationary plant and laid by eee Te fe weed ac a Liv quaticy pase. (Specified in Chast a7) Rock#ill is rock material of such particle size that the naterial gan only be placed in layare nr compacted thichucom waueeany 2adun+ “Boulders with volunes greater then 0+2n? are not normally used. Spades Crushed stone is a base or subbase material, conforming to Ehe grading, strength, shape and soundness exitersa given in Charts SE3 or Bd, o is = term applied to crushed stone which has been Produced by crushing rounded alluvial material, Such c names Material must contain particles areatar than the required product maxim. These oversize particles are normally removed ang erushed, The crushing ratio is the weight of this oversized, erushed fraction divided by the total weight of alluvial material, caysensed as a percentages If for any reason the oversized, crushed fraction is not completely returned to the uncrushed material, the above percentage should be adjusted ty Multiplying by tha percentage actually wceumeds Gravel Wearing ourse is top surfacing course made from gravel and appifed to a road formation where no pavenent or bituminens surfacing axe to be placed. The term “gravel” includes one on a combination of the following materials: lateritic gravel, guartzitic gravel, calcersous gravel, some forms of parvly Aecomaces xouk, segt gtvic, cura] Fag, Giayey sands and Yeushed rock. (Specified in chart ewe) 1.3.3 Bituminous Materia Bituminous Binders are petroleum derived adhesives used to stick ‘chippings Gn to a road surface, in surface dressings or to nite fogcths. a layer of surtacing Gr base material. There are theca principal types used in road work: Straloht-nun Ritwmen te + bitumen whvoe viacuity oF composition has not been adjusted by blending with solvents or any other substance. (utrack Bitumen ig a bitumen whose viscosity has been reduced by the addition of a volatile diluent. Short Positus Bitumen. Is Ue primary product of the refinery before the aiz-blowing procass, and is a bitumen of variable viscosity whose penetration can be measured, approximating to a slow-curing cut-backs Bitumen Emulsion is « binder in which petroleum bitumen, in Finely-divided droplets, is dispersed in water by neane of an owstoityiny ayent co romm a stable mixture.ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 113 | MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS Page 1.8 CHAPTER 1 + cmumpar, Sustave vressing is a meth of providing a running surface to a Pavenent and consists of applications of bituminous binder and Single sized stone chippings. The usual form of this method on a Rew road is = deubie ouréace deenaiuy with tne second lages oF chips being half the nominal size of the first. Single and triple surface dressings are also used. (Specified in charts Sia, by c and a) Euulsion Slurry Seal is a surfacing material, used by itself in one oF two layers, or on top of a single surface dressing. Tt veneiote of fine augregate, mineral filler and bitumen aualsions Fog Spray is a Light application of bitumen emulsion ox cut-back, on top of a surfana Arnesing. Zee purpooe do tw dmptove che waterproofness of the surfacing and to assist in holding the chippings. Asphalt Voncrete is a group of bitumen ~ bound materials used as Bavenent surfacings. They normally consist of a mixture of soarse aggregate, fine aggregate and filler bound with Straight-run bitumens he yrupu:livas and grading of the coarse aggregate may be varied to produce different types of mix with iffering properties. (Specified in Charts S2a and S2b) Sand Asphalt is a surfacing material consisting of a'hot-nixed, Bot-Iaid, plant mixture of natural sand and, in some cases, mineral filler and crushed fine aggregate, Hound with eteeivlit-sun bitumen, it 1s not suitable for heavily trafficked roads. (Specified in Chart 524) GaprGraded agphait te = hot Ista, plant mintuce uf yay-gracea aggregate, filler and straight-run bitumon, used for pavement. surfacing. (Specified in Chart $2c) Binder Course is the lover layer when two-course asphalt concrete is used as @ surfacing. It usually differs from the upper, wearing course, in having a slightly lower bitunen content, lower Sand Bitumen is a base material consisting of a cold, nixed-in-place combination of sand for clayey sana) and either bitumen emulsion or cut-back. This material is intended for use in areas with little or no gravel deposits. (Specified in chats BSa and BSb) Dense Bitumen Macadam is a hot laid, plant mixture of well graded aggregate, filler and straight-run bitumen, used for base construction. The resulting mix mst conform to ctahility and flow criteria. (specified in Chart 36) Dense Emulsion Macadam is a cold laid, plant mixture of well ‘Graced aggregate, filler and bitunen emulsion, used for base construction. The specifications are very similer to dense bitumen macadam. (Specified in Chart 36) EB =PART a4: ROAD DESIGN MANUAL MATERIALS ANU PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS CHAPTER 1: GENERAZ Page 1.9 Zxime Coat is an application of low viscosity bituminous hinder So an Ghevsleut surtace, usually the top of the base. ste purposes are to waterproof the surface being sprayed and to help Bind it to the overlaying bituminous course. Tack Coat is a light application of bituminous binder to a Bituninous or concrete surface to provide a bond between chig surface and the overlaying bituminous course.ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 111 : MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS Pace Lota il cnaeaen 4 omwonay 13.4 Traffic Private Cars (Cars) are all passenger motor vehicles seating not more than 9 persons, including the driver. Light Goods Vehicles are all goods vehicles of not more than 15kiT Unladén weight. Buses are all passenger motor vehicles seating more than 9 Persons, including the driver. Medium Guvds venicies are all two-axle goods vehicles of more ‘Than 15 MN unladen weight. Heavy Gholi Vehicles are all geod vehicles having auc Ulan UA axles Comercial, Vehicles includes buses and goods vehicles of more than I5-EN unladen weight. Equivalent Standard Axle (E.5+A.) is a design concept to enable ‘Tho damaging effect of q bauye ad uiwer or qirzerent axle loads, to be considered in the structural design of a pavement. ‘The equivalent standard axle imposes a load of 80 kN (8,200 kgf). Equivalence Factor of an axle (or vehicle) is the number of Passage of an Equivalent Standard Axle which would cause the same danage to a road as one passage of the axle (or vehicle } in uuestion, Resign Period is the period during which the proposed pavement Gust carry the ectimated cumulative number of cyuivalent suandasa, axles without the need for major reconstruction work, except for revsealing, At the ond of this period the pavement should still be in a sufficiently good condition that strenathening will result ina further period of satisfactory traffic-carryings Traffic Classes In this Manual the predicted cumulative numbers of equivalent standard axles are divided into the following classes: Class Cumulative number of standard axles (60 kN) nm 25 ~ 60 million 72 10 = 25 million 7 3 = 10 million v4 L- 3 million 75 0.25 - 1 million a8 = es feee ae aaa ROAM DESIGN MANUAL PART 111: MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS Page 1.11 CHAPTER 1: GENERAL aa.s Abbicebattuns AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. ACV Aggregate Crushing Value Alu Average Least Dimension BS British Standard CBR California Bearing Ratio cr crushing Ratio BSA - Equivalent Standard Axle rr wlaminess index ae Hubbard - Field TSO‘ Tnternational Standard organization LAR Log Angeles Abrasion Fa Liguid himit MoD Maximum Dry Density ONC Optimum Moisture Content PL Plastic Limit Pr Plasticity Index bat Diackioity Modulue (Meeduct of PE and % passiny 06829 sin sieve). sc Specific Gravity ss Standard Specification for Road Construction "8 Tensile Strength ue Uniformity Coefficient UCS —_Unconfined Compressive Strength va Vibrating Hamner The material toobiny preccdurce Lo which Ue aluve ebuseviacions relate are specified in Chapter 15.ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 111; MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS Page 2,10 canpren >. mearrze | he gv {Aree classes correspond to the following initial @aily numbers of standard axles: canes E53/day in Year One | Tl 2,500 - 6,000 2 1,000 = 2,500 Ea i 300 ~ 1,000 ™ 100 = 300 5 25 ~ 100 taking into account a consté ant growth rate ef 7.56 over a design period of 15 years. —ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 111° MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FUK NEW ROADS ‘TRAFFIC CLASSIFICATION Use of cumulative number of standard axles Use of cumiative nunber of standard axles. Attempts wore mado to dcfine eale classes based on numbers of commercial vehicles. They have been largely unsuccessful, because axle spectra vary considerably from one road to another. In particular, it has been found that the respective proportions of buses, medium goods and heavy goods vehicles on urban and Suburban sections were completely different from those on rural roads. A nore rational approach is to base the traffic classification on the cumulative equivalent standard axle values. Even thie method. harad on the equation given in Sevtiui 2.4.3 has ite drawbacks in that the initial axle load spectrun is assumed to remain fixed. where it is fairly certain that some future event will alter the distribution of axle lands, thie choula be ‘taken into account. ‘This type of classification enables the effects of unexpected changoo in traffic vwoluues or axie-ioad distributions on che pavement life to be evaluated. Traffic c. Traffic flow and axle-load surveys have shown that the following glasses satisfactorily account for all traffic cateaories iidely Ww pe carried by the bitumen roads of Kenya, TRAFFIC CLASSES Cumulative number ee of standard axles n 25 million - 60 million m iu mitiion - 25 million | 3 3 million = 10 ailtion | 24 Y nition = 3 mtition 15 0.25 million ~ 1 millionROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 111: MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS Page 2.8 reomen 2. anaerae [ ‘| When more precise information is not available, an indication of likely traffic growth will be given by the national trende in the number of vehicles recistered or by the consunption of seter fuel. Alternacively, the growth rate in traffic can be estimated from the growth rate of the Gross National (GNP) OF Domestic Product (GDP). Tt will probably be between 1 and 2 times, the GNP or GOP grawth rate. 2. Choosing a design period tue concept of design period should not be confused with | pavement life, At the end of the "Aeoign yeriud” ce pavement will only require to be strengthened in oréex to carry traffic for a further period, At the end of the "design period" the pavenent will not be completely worn ant nx have detectoxated to the point that reconstruction is needed, During the design period of the pavement, only ordinary meintcneuwe will be carried out, i.e. shoulders and drainage system maintenance, vegetation control, localized patching and periodic resealing. The design aim is, therefore, to minimise the total expenditure on the pavement, including the initial construction costs and subsequent maintenance or strengthening anece @uscounted to present day value. This raises the question of stage construction, Fox the tyres of paveueuts proposed in this Manual, stage construction offers economic advantages and initial design Periods should not exceed 15 years, even if mich longer Overall lives are anticipated stage sonstruction providws an opportunity to choose the structural characteristics of tho Second stage in the light of actual conditions, which may differ substantially from those originally foreseen. 3. Calculating the cumulative number of standard axles The chmulative number of standard axles, T over the chosen design period N (in years) is then obtained by: T= 365 tasNa where: t, is the average daily number of standard:axles in the * first year after opening; i is the annual growth rate expressed as a decimal fraction. cae eePART 411: MATERIALS AND PAVEMENI DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS ROAD DESIGN MANUAL 2.4.3 CHAPTER 2 : TRAFFIC Page 2.7 TABLE 2.4.1 COMMERCIAL TRAFFIC TO BE CONSIDERED IN DEST: Number of Carriageway traffic Comercial Traffic to be Carriageways | wiath pometdered 1 < Tm 7 The total comercial traffic in BOTH DIRECTIONS L >In - ‘The total comercial traffic on the most heavily trafficked lane 2 - 2,000 | the total commercial Sommevel: | teactic In UNE DIRECTION per day 2 - >2.000 | 2 anariad etudy of the Comm.Veh | distribution of traffic will be necessary Notes On single carriageway roads, offeide wheel tracks of vuumerciai venicles tend to’ follow the central part of the road, more so as the carriageway becomes narrower and the traffic Lighter. Where the carriageway width is not more than Jo, st se aeeunod that the ccutral suction of the road is used by 70 to 808 of the comercial vehicles and the sun of the standard axles in both directions is used to allow for the overlap. 2. On dual carriageway roads, the slow-traffic lanes will carry a large proportion (80 to 90%) of the commercial vehicles, as long ao Lue Clow in the cirection considered dees not exceed 2,000 commercial vehicles per day. Estimating the Cumlariva Nnwher 2€-ceandaxd Anica To estimate the total number of standard axles to be catered for by the design, it 1s necessary to forecast the annual growtn rate yf the tragric and to decide what the design period shoula be as described below: 1. Rovecseting the anmuad yeowus cae This is often a difficult and uncertain exercise. Some guidance can be obtained by studying the annual tends in traffic growth indicated by censuses regularly carried out in the region concerned. The study of national and regional Gevelopaent plans and other eccnomic documents is also pevessary. — > ae t— a ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 111: MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS 2a EVALUATION OF TRAFFIC FOR DESIGN PURPOSES Bede, Estimating the Initial Daily Wumber of Com _Sehicles Ht is necessary, as a first step, to estimate tha average daily number of each type of comercial vebicle that will use the road, in both directions, during the flee year ‘The loads imposed by private cars and light goods vehicles ao not contribute significantly to the structural danaqe caused to ‘ pavements by traffic. Therefore, for structural design purposes, cars and light goods vehicles can be ignored. . Poutine teaffle counts acc vascied oul annuaLiy oy the Ministry of Transport and Conmnications at a number of census pointe. i They Gistinguish between cars, Light goods, buses, medium goods and heavy goods vehicles. Where auch vecuite are svatlabic, ene initial daily traffic can be estimated by extrapolations where traffic census data is not available or is insufficient, : seovirie Lracrle counts are required at key pointe and axle load ieveys to ascertain the initial traffic intensity and possible seasonal variations. Xt is essential that these traffic counts differentiate between t buses, medium goods and heavy goods vehicles. ta addition, on = teunk roads, the counting should indicate whether or not a heavy goods vehicle is an oil tanker, and the number of axles. & sample of the total traffic mst also be weighed as indicated i fm Sevtione 9-9-3 and 2+9e2 aluve, (o devermine tne average vehicle equivelence factars. 264.2 Estinating th Initial Daily Nomher of Standard axtoe This operation is concerned with finding the average daily | traffic expressed in terme of equivalent standard axles, which wi12 Ue using tne road in the first year after opening. It will be obtained by multiplying the above average daily numbers of each -type of commercial vehicle hy the appropriate equivalence factor and then by simming up the nunbero of standard axles of all the vehicle types, in accordance with Table 2.4.2. hen the designer {s attenpting to cater for a road caryving avila joads an excess of 130 KN he should consult Materials Branch before attempting to calculate equivalence factors overloaded axles.ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 111 | MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS ‘TRAFFIC Page 2.5 ARTE 7.3.1 + aVRDASE veuzoxe ngurvanones cacrona Rosa Buses Medium Heavy G. on Goods (on-Gil) Tankers Mombasa Nairobi 1 3 10 235 Nairobi - Mombasa a 2 a0 a Natrobi ~ Uaanda 1 1 ao a5 Uganda ~ Nairobi a a qo ao matron. = Sagana (2) 1 a a0 4 Mau Sumit - Kisuma 1 1 ? 25 Kisum = Mau Summeit 2 1 3 25 Other Bitumen Roads (Both Lanes} a a 4 4 At Poasibility Study slave Lt is eitricult to cater for equivalence factors for roads carrying overloaded axles. However it is suggested that the above table will be sufficient for an approximate estimate to he made, hefers an aitle load survey ie carried out. For secondary road projects the above table may be used in the susence or otner information.a PART 114 Page 2.4 203.2 ROAD DESIGN MANUAL MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS ciapren 9 + meabere L EQUIVALENCE FACTORS Axle Load Equivalence Factor The following relationship has been adopted to convert all single axle loads to equivalent standard axles: Er o= bs ab 30 4 whorss BF io Lie eyuivalence ractor of the single axle considered, and Bs is the load in eNom the single axle wuoldereds ‘This relationship was derived by Liddle*, taking a regional factor of 1.0 and a terminal serviceability index of 20. However Liddies formula does not hold for axle weights in excess of 130 kN. Empirical studies show that an equation is similar in form put with « variable powex (iyhes titan 49) depending ov pavement structure and axle load may hold. BLL axles including tandem and triple ones shania he wedghod separately and the loads converted to eqivaient standard axles using the above equation. The reasons are that there is some uncertainty concerning the tanden axle equation iteelf and that, An Renyay Caudcm aaies appear to pe improperly loaded (one aris is generally much heavier than the other) and co would not fwlZill the equation requirenents. ‘The equivalence factors depend to some extent on the strength of the pavenent. Nevertheless, it can be considered that the above equation satisfactorily accounts for the danaaina power of Leacese up to axle weights of 130 EN. Yehicle Rguivalence Factor For each trunk road project or for any project where heavy axles are likely to be encountered the commercial vehicle equivalence factors should be evaluated through specific avle load curveys using portable weighbridges. At the preliminary design stage the Gesigner is required to make two tenative Pavement Designs. (a) Asoumtuy Lat the trattic carried by the road in future will be within the Iegal axle load limits of the Traffic Bote (®) Considering the axle loads measured at the time of the survey, and where these exceed 130 kN, in conjunction with Materiales Branch attempt to design for the damaging peony OF such axles. (Not by using Liddles formula as it stands). * Paper presented by W.J. Liddle at Conference on structural Design of Asphalt Pavements, University of Michigan, 1962+PANT 114: i ROAD DESIGN MANUAL MATEKIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS CHAPTER 2 : TRAFFIC Page 2.3 (i) Nalrobi ~ Mombasa road Op average, 25-508 of the axles axe overloaded in the Monbasa~Nairobi @irection, between 3% and 14% exceed 130kY and anls Iueus yreater than ZUUKN were measured: i the other direction, 5% to 228 of the axles are over loaded and less than St exceed 130 na. Axlecweighing carried out after the opening of the of1 pipeline and of the waighbridge station at Mardakan: Suowed that the percentage of oil tankers decreased from 26% to about 8%, but that the axle-load distribution of a2l types of conmexcial vehicles remained practically the (Sv) Nairobi ~ Uganda voad On average, nearly 158 to 45¢ of the axles were overloaded in the Nairobi-uganda direction 1-5% exceed 130 ka and axles greater than 200 ki were measured. In the other direction, around 5-158 of the axles were overloaded, but axle loads above 130 XN do not exceed 36 and probably average 2.58 ta 34 ( other trunk roads Tue percentage of overloaded axles varies around Loe to Be (UL) Ohare vnade Overloaded axles do not represent more than 108 of the total and there were practically ms avle loads in cwccss of 130 kN. f Oo Gao t = ea [] =e =ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 111: MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS Page 2.2 cCHADTER 9 + mnarrre 22a Present Kenya Legislation The Legal Limits in force in Xenya are currently the following with the Traffic Act figures shown in brackets: Maximum Gross Vehicle Weights Vehicle with 2 axles : 160 KN (16,000 xg) Vehinte with 9 antes . 220 A (raga) LZzUUU Ky), 260% (SEMITRAILER) (26,090 Kg) Vehicle with 4 axles : 340 ky (24,000 xg) Vehicle with 5 axles : 400 EN fansnnn wy Vehicle with 6 axles : 460 kN (48,900 Kg) Maximum Axle Loads { Front steering axle (2 wheels) Single axle (4 wheels) 80 kN (8,000 Kg) 00 KN (20,000 Kg) ‘Tandem axla + ico Me (e;caa ng? { Triple axle + 240 KR (24,000 Kg) 2.2.2 Axle Load Distribution { ‘The axle load distribution of commercial vehicles has been : studied during the period 1975 to 1980, by means of mobile wesghhetagoo The rcoults ave Dean presented in Materials { Branch Reports No 208, 316, 321, 333 and 445. Private cars and i Light goods vehicles have not becn taken into account, since their danaging power is almost negligible. all arias dmdudtuy tandem ané triple ones were weighed separately and regarded as two or three single axles as appropriate. : The main avules OF these vehicles weight measurements are : summarized in Appendix B. Tt appears that the wo load dist. tvutivus on a rew trunk roads i and, especially, on the Teans-African Highway ave quite different L from those on the other bitumen roads in tha country. ‘The following findings vere made: (2) on the Trans-African Highway there is a marked difference an exile ived aivucivution setween the tvo directions, This is mainly due to the of1 tankers, which are a overloaded in the direction towards Uganda and empty on the return journey. 7 On the other roads, any such difference was less 7 Pronounced due to the snaller percentage of oi] tankars én lw trarrie tlowe (34) on trunk roads, in particular the Trans~Afeican Highway, a Taran pronnrvion of the axles exe vectioaaeas Ensemneee f overloading is very limited,