Paper One:

The Breeches Role and Gender in Restoration Theater

Kathleen Dunne
Theater History: Baroque to Modern
2/28/2022
 Throughout theater history, there have been moments of change in gender roles and these

shifts often happened because of shifts within societal norms. The majority of human

civilizations in the past structured their societies in a way that gave power to men and left other

responsibilities for the women. The biological strengths and differences aside, gender certainly

is a construct created by men of the past and refined by men of the present to categorize people

within the binary through standards and expectations. These expectations naturally spill into the

arts, affecting the genders differently depending on the culture of the region. It is important to

note that the following examination only scratches the surface, as the binary spectrum of gender

has been widely accepted historically. One of the most notable regions that experienced a major

change in the role of women in theater was England, specifically during the Restoration Period.

The Restoration was characterized by a re-establishment of the monarchy as well as the

theater, after years of the theater being closed. The decision by the “Long Parliament” to ban the

public theater in 1642 was finally overturned after the death of Oliver Cromwell. Charles II was

the first monarch of the Restoration, and this period not only refers to this moment, but also to

the years that followed the original Restoration of the monarchy. Once public theater opened

back up in 1660, audiences were experiencing a much different political system and religious

atmosphere than before the theater ban. This resulted in a lot of change in theater once the

Restoration began.

Women in World Theater

Women have not always fully existed in theater. The theater in ancient Greece included

female characters, as goddesses were a significant part of Greek culture, but they were

exclusively played by males (Women’s Museum of California, 1). According to the Women’s

Museum of California, “Women were strictly prohibited from being onstage, as it was
considered ‘too dangerous’ to give them such a prominent platform” (Women’s Museum of

California, 1). Whether this reasoning is a valid enough reason to keep women out of theater or

not is debatable, but it certainly shows the attitude towards women in society during the time.

The 16th century in Italy brought the opera into the theater sphere, finally giving women

an opportunity to be onstage. Men were still often placed in female roles, as there was

judgement from society surrounding women being performers. More specifically, the Christian

Church made strict attempts to control the actions of women, which created a lot of problems

and scrutiny for women participating in theater at the time (Women’s Museum of California, 1).

It is apparent that women in general have struggled throughout history to find their place in the

theater world, mostly because of the position of women in society as a whole. Factors such as

politics and religion certainly play into the role of women in the arts.

Pre-Restoration Theater

Before the Restoration period began, and before the theater ban of 1642 was set in place,

theater in England was beginning to acknowledge the female population. William Shakespeare

of the Elizabethan Era has been credited for creating some of the most in-depth, brave, and

respectable female characters. However, they were still typically played by males at the time

(Women’s Museum of California, 1). Female actresses began to perform as early as the 1920s,

but they were unfortunately met with harassment and ridicule from audience members and even

non-theater-goers. In general, Elizabethan theater was comprised of tragedy and comedy.

The First Female Actresses and Playwrights

The Restoration period came with a lot of changes in society that ultimately influenced

theater and those involved. Different genres emerged because of conflict in England and the
ever-changing political and religious system. Author Katherine Quinsey illustrates, “In all its

modes, tragedies and comedies alike, Restoration drama focuses on the sexual basis of social

structures – marriage, family, patrilineal succession – in a representation characterized by the

unsettling and reexamination of assumptions” (Quinsey, 2). These topics are seen in practically

all of Restoration theater in some capacity.

Historians believe that the first female actresses were performing on state as early as the

1920s, but women were not permitted to perform for major theater productions until the

Restoration. Scholars explain, “Women on stage aroused curiosity in the audience, and they

were eager to see women on stage and the sensuality they brought with them” (Word Press, 1).

This curiosity unfortunately created an atmosphere that objectified women and encouraged

writers to create female characters that were not equal to their male counterparts, but rather,

acted as sexual props for the audience’s enjoyment. Some of the most notable female actresses

that set the stage for generations of women to come were Katherine Corey, Elizabeth Barry, and

Nell Gwyn. The most famous of these actresses was Nell Gwyn. She was especially known for

her relationship with King Charles II.

Nell Gwyn was one of King Charles’ mistresses and was perhaps the most well-liked of

his mistresses by the public. She was a talented actress, and many enjoyed her onstage

personality, but she of course encountered a lot of judgement, particularly from the religious

community who were repulsed by her relationship with the King (Conway, 18). The perception

of Nell Gywn gives great insight into the social, political, and religious climate of the

Restoration.

The figures onstage obviously hold an important role in theater, but it is necessary to

acknowledge the women who emerged into the writing sphere of theater. Literacy during
Restoration England is important to note when exploring the topic of female playwrights.

English professor Gerald MacLean expresses, “‘Writing,’ Spufford points out, ‘was frequently

omitted from the school curricula for girls from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries.’ And

this gender-specific profile seems to hold true for early-modern Europe generally” (MacLean,

311). Given these circumstances, it is incredible that Restoration women were able to create

written works of high caliber. There was only a gradual rise to success and fame among these

women, but it is impressive, nonetheless. The Women’s Museum of California describes, “The

earliest woman playwrights, including Aphra Behn and Susanna Centlivre, brought women’s

voices and perspectives into the spotlight for the first time. These playwrights didn’t shy away

from controversial, women-centric topics” (Women’s Museum of California, 1). As mentioned

previously, it was quite common for male playwrights to use women characters as sexual objects

and placed them in a weak position in the storyline. While there are of course exceptions to this

generalization, it was really the female playwrights who began the push to provide profound

characterization for female characters, giving them depth, personality, strength, and respect.

Breeches Role

With women finally on the public theater stage, a new dynamic among characters could

emerge. The male roles of the Restoration were still at the forefront of storylines, and in the

rarer case that women were given major roles with full characterization, they often still had to

incorporate sensuality into their acting to keep the audience engaged. The emergence of the

breeches role is a significant part of theater history. A “breeches role” refers to a role in a show

performed by a woman, in which they specifically wear male attire, and these roles are often

written for men but performed by women (Bush-Bailey, 1). The breeches role was present in

one of every six plays written during the time, proving its popularity (Prieto Pablos, 70). Male
audiences were typically captivated by these performances, as the male attire, particularly the

pants (breeches), showed the shape of women’s legs.

Author Gilli Bush-Bailey elaborates, “As a device which revealed more of the female

body than conventional dress, the extent to which the cross-dressed actress is an exploited object

of the male gaze or active participant in the disruption of female constructs is the subject of

ongoing debates” (Bush-Bailey, 1). There is an undeniable sexual connotation to the creation of

the breeches role, but there were also female writers who used the trend to challenge gender roles

and expectations. An example of this is The Rover by Aphra Behn, which aimed to present a

new attitude towards gender as a construct and the expected behavior and attitude of women.

A specific play that features a unique interpretation of a breeches role is Sir Anthony

Love, written by Thomas Southerne. Actress Susanna Mountfort performed this role further into

the Restoration period, in the 1690s. Literacy expert outlines, “As Sir Anthony, Susanna

‘performs’ libertine male sexuality, the gold standard of Restoration comedy, but not as a typical

breeches part would do by always suggesting the character’s innate and stable femininity even in

male attire. Instead, her performance de-glamorizes and destabilizes male sexuality and

authority” (Jung, 1). This highlights a clear shift in the perception of gender as Restoration

theater developed.

As women became a regular part of Restoration drama, the idea that female roles had to

be submissive or inferior to their male counterparts began to fade away. Into the 1680s and

1690s, the attitude shift in terms of gender gave women in theater better opportunities to be

successful. University professor Juan Prieto Pablos states, “A general survey of the plays

produced in this period clearly shows that the number of submissive women is far lower than the

number of resourceful ones; and the most outstanding and remarkable female characters, hence
the more attractive ones, correspond to the latter type, at least until the 1690s” (Prieto Pablos,

71). Attractiveness often mattered more than mere talent, but there is still a change gradual

change happening for the female actress.

The breeches role existed beyond Restoration era England, and was even a noteworthy

part of American theater during the 19th century. Experts in the field suggest that especially by

this point in theater history, women who took on these roles were not exclusively taking on these

roles to participate in the “leg show” that was the breeches role, but also to make a political and

social stance (Wilmeth, 1). As society continued to shift towards a more accepting environment

for women to be in the same spaces as men, women were able to make the choice to contribute to

the theater, standing up to the previously set expectations laid out for women.

Conclusion

The arts are often a reflection of what is occurring in society, on a religious and political

level as well. Gender is a societal construct that is ever-changing, and an examination of theater

throughout history can give insight into how the binary gender concept was perceived in

different regions. Restoration theater in England included many characteristics that indicated a

shift in gender expectations and the rights of women. The emergence of the breeches role began

as a way for men to sexualize women through costuming, but it ended up challenging the gender

norms of the time and empowered some women actresses in making political and feminist

stances.
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