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DISEC
BACKGROUND GUIDE
Email: info@imuna.org
Phone: +1 (212) 652-9992
Web: www.nhsmun.nyc
Secretary-General Hello Delegates,

Ankita Bhat
I’m Jared Butler, Director of DISEC Session I. NHSMUN is always one of my favorite events of
Director-General
the year, hosted by some of my favorite people. I am so excited to be able to share this experience
Kathy Li
with all of you! You will be challenged to learn and grow—embrace this. NHSMUN, at least in my
Chiefs of Staff committee, will be a space in which you will be free to be heard and understood by your peers and
Jon Basile in which you will consider the most important and complicated issues of our day. I am immensely
Abolee Raut proud of all the research and study you all have committed to this topic, but DISEC will be a space
Conference Services in which all you need to succeed is an open mind, the courage to let your ideas be heard, and some
Hugo Bordas comfortable shoes!
Sofía Fuentes
I have been doing MUN for a while now. I’m a third-year student at Rice University in Houston,
Delegate Experience
Texas, where I study Cognitive Sciences, Business, and Spanish. Over the past seven years, I’ve
Akanksha Sancheti
Beatriz Circelli participated in MUN conferences all over the country, including NHSMUN. In 2019, I was an
Assistant Director for DISEC, and in 2020, I became Director. This year, I am tasked with bringing
Global Partnerships
my knowledge and expertise from many years of NHSMUN DISEC to create a positive learning
Katherine Alcantara
experience for you all, despite the myriad complications of the lifestyles the COVID-19 pandemic
Clare Steiner
has forced us all to adopt.
Under-Secretaries-
General Both of our topics involve a complex landscape of rivaling factors. Space has always been interesting
James Caracciolo
Ana Margarita Gil hypnotized by the stars, allured by the hope of exploration and colonization, clinging to the hope
Ming-May Hu of humanity becoming a space-faring species. However, each leap in space technology has been
Brandon Huetter
accompanied by a step closer to an all-out war in an all-new theater. I believe that understanding
Juliette Kimmins
Caleb Kuberiet space and its role in the human project will be one of the key considerations for world leaders in
Victor Miranda the coming years. Before you research the topic or even read the rest of this guide, I implore you
Anikait Panikker to look up at the stars and see what you feel. Our second topic is decidedly more terrestrial, but
Frances Seabrook landmines are still a problem that plagues our society. In a way, victims of landmines are victims of
Sharon Tang wars that are up to a century old, still consuming human lives. While space represents our future,
Kylie Watanabe landmines represent our past. Security for people today will require grappling with both in DISEC.
Sophia Zhukovsky
I am so thrilled to have the opportunity to guide you all through the process of understanding
and tackling these issues. I understand that they can be hard to approach, dense, and technical
at times. If you ever feel like you need help explaining your ideas, or you’re not sure how to go
about researching or anything else at all, please reach out to me. I exist solely as a resource for your
education and will have failed if you do not feel supported throughout this experience. Be brave, be
excited! I’ll see you all in DISEC 2022!
Sincerely,
Jared Butler
Disarmament and International Security Committee
Director, Session I
jared.butler@imuna.org
Email: info@imuna.org
Phone: +1 (212) 652-9992
Web: www.nhsmun.nyc
Secretary-General Hello Delegates,

Ankita Bhat
Welcome to NHSMUN 2022 and the Disarmament and International Security Committee (DISEC)!
Director-General
My name is Divali Legore, and I am eager to serve as the Director of DISEC for Session II of
Kathy Li
NHSMUN 2022. This is my second year engaging in substantive matters for the conference. Last
Chiefs of Staff year, I was the Session I Assistant Director for DISEC at NHSMUN, and I was thoroughly inspired
Jon Basile by the innovative ideas that NHSMUN delegates brought to the conference. We, as NHSMUN
Abolee Raut staffers, have been preparing for the great collaboration and debate that you will all deliver in
Conference Services committee. I am thrilled to meet everyone, and I hope each of you is looking forward to an excellent
Hugo Bordas conference!
Sofía Fuentes
Model UN is a great way to engage in conversations about international affairs and a fun way of
Delegate Experience
collaborating with other students! I am from Roswell, Georgia, where I was involved in Model UN
Akanksha Sancheti
Beatriz Circelli throughout middle and high school. I attended local MUN conferences regularly in my community.
However, my favorite conference was NHSMUN each year. I attended NHSMUN three times as a
Global Partnerships
delegate, and each time the conference allowed me to foster relationships with people from around
Katherine Alcantara
the world. I appreciated the opportunity to develop my public speaking skills while discussing a topic
Clare Steiner
that interested me and being heard by fellow delegates. Model UN is a truly riveting experience where
Under-Secretaries- we can understand different perspectives and work to depolarize the public thought surrounding
General
James Caracciolo
Ana Margarita Gil interested in pursuing a law degree in the future or studying diplomacy with other countries. Aside
Ming-May Hu from Model UN and school, I enjoy biking, thrifting, traveling, and painting.
Brandon Huetter
Finally, I want to congratulate each of you thoroughly for your dedication to the topics presented
Juliette Kimmins
Caleb Kuberiet in DISEC for NHSMUN 2022. As you begin to research the potential for disarmament concerning
Victor Miranda landmine elimination and outer space colonization, keep in mind the spirit of the committee and
Anikait Panikker
Frances Seabrook to principled discussion and collaboration in the conference as much as I am! If you have any
Sharon Tang questions or concerns, please feel free to send me an email. I am here to help, and I look forward
Kylie Watanabe to hearing from you all soon!
Sophia Zhukovsky
Best,
Divali Legore
Disarmament and International Security Committee
Director, Session II
divali.legore@imuna.org
DISEC
4| TablE of ConTEnTS
Table of Contents
A Note on the NHSMUN Difference 5
Committee History 8
The Demilitarization of Outer Space 10

Introduction 11
History and Description of the Issue 12
Current Status 26
Bloc Analysis 31
Committee Mission 36
Finding and Eliminating Anti-Personnel Landmines 38

Introduction 39
History and Description of the Issue 40
Current Status 54
Bloc Analysis 59
Committee Mission 61
Important Documents 64
Works Cited 65
DISEC
a noTE on ThE nhSMUn DIffErEnCE |5
A Note on the NHSMUN Difference
Esteemed Faculty and Delegates,
Welcome to NHSMUN 2022! My name is Kathy Li, and I am this year’s Director-General. Thank you for choosing to attend
NHSMUN, the world’s largest and most diverse Model United Nations conference for secondary school students. We are thrilled
to welcome you to New York City in March!
As a space for collaboration, consensus, and compromise, NHSMUN strives to transform today’s brightest thinkers into
tomorrow’s leaders. Our organization provides a uniquely tailored experience for all in attendance through innovative and
accessible programming. We believe that an emphasis on education through simulation is paramount to the Model UN experience,
and this idea permeates throughout NHSMUN.
Realism and accuracy: Although a perfect simulation of the UN is never possible, we believe that one of the core educational
responsibilities of MUN conferences is to educate students about how the UN System works. Each NHSMUN committee is
a simulation of a real deliberative body so that delegates can research what their country has said in the committee. Our topics
are chosen from the issues currently on the agenda of each committee (except historical committees, which take topics from the
actual statements their country has made and the resolutions they have supported. We also strive to invite real UN, NGO, and
students into the UN System so deeply.
Educational emphasis, even for awards: At the heart of NHSMUN lie education and compromise. As such, when NHSMUN
does distribute awards, we de-emphasize their importance compared to the educational value of Model UN as an activity.
NHSMUN seeks to reward students who excel in the arts of compromise and diplomacy. More importantly, we seek to develop
an environment where delegates can employ their critical thought processes and share ideas with their counterparts from around
and experiences, we center our programming around the values of diplomacy and teamwork. In particular, our daises look for
and promote constructive leadership that strives towards consensus, as real delegates do in the United Nations.
Debate founded on knowledge:

facilitate an enriching experience reliant on substantively rigorous debate. To ensure this high quality of debate, our staff members
produce extremely detailed and comprehensive topic guides (like the one below) to prepare delegates for the complexities and
nuances inherent in each global issue. This process takes over six months, during which the Directors who lead our committees
develop their topics with the valuable input of expert contributors. Because these topics are always changing and evolving,
NHSMUN also produces update papers intended to bridge the gap of time between when the background guides are published
and when committee starts in March. As such, this guide is designed to be a launching point from which delegates should delve
further into their topics. The detailed knowledge that our Directors provide in this background guide through diligent research
aims to spur critical thought within delegates at NHSMUN.
Extremely engaged staff: At NHSMUN, our staffers care deeply about delegates’ experiences and what they take away from
their time at NHSMUN. Before the conference, our Directors and Assistant Directors are trained rigorously through copious
hours of workshops and exercises to provide the best conference experience possible. At the conference, delegates will have the
DISEC
6| a noTE on ThE nhSMUn DIffErEnCE
committees and topics. Our Directors and Assistant Directors are trained and empowered to be experts on their topics, and they
are eager to share their knowledge with delegates. Our Directors and Assistant Directors read every position paper submitted
to NHSMUN and provide thoughtful insight on those submitted by the feedback deadline. Our staff aims not only to tailor the
can be heard.
Empowering participation: The UN relies on the voices of all of its Member States to create resolutions most likely to make
a meaningful impact on the world. That is our philosophy at NHSMUN as well. We believe that to properly delve into an issue
and produce fruitful debate, it is crucial to focus the entire energy and attention of the room on the topic at hand. Our Rules of
or skill level. Additionally, unlike many other conferences, we also emphasize delegate participation after the conference. MUN
delegates are well-researched and aware of the UN’s priorities, and they can serve as the vanguard for action on the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs). Therefore, we are proud to connect students with other action-oriented organizations to encourage
further work on the topics.
Focused committee time: We feel strongly that interpersonal connections during debate are critical to producing superior
NHSMUN guarantees that every delegate has an equal opportunity to succeed in committee. In order to allow communication
and collaboration to be maximized during committee, we have a very dedicated team who work throughout the conference to
type, format, and print draft resolutions and working papers.
As always, we welcome any questions or concerns about the substantive program at NHSMUN 2022 and would be happy to
discuss NHSMUN pedagogy with faculty or delegates.
Delegates, it is our sincerest hope that your time at NHSMUN will be thought-provoking and stimulating. NHSMUN is an
incredible time to learn, grow, and embrace new opportunities. We look forward to seeing you work both as students and global
citizens at the conference.
Best,
Kathy Li
Director-General
DISEC
a noTE on rESEarCh anD PrEParaTIon |7
A Note on Research and Preparation
Delegate research and preparation is a critical element of attending NHSMUN and enjoying the debate experience. We have
provided this Background Guide to introduce the topics that will be discussed in your committee. We encourage and expect each
of you to critically explore the selected topics and be able to identify and analyze their intricacies upon arrival to NHSMUN in
March.
The task of preparing for the conference can be challenging, but to assist delegates, we have updated our Beginner Delegate
Guide and Advanced Delegate Guide. In particular, these guides contain more detailed instructions on how to prepare a
position paper and excellent sources that delegates can use for research. Use these resources to your advantage. They can help
transform a sometimes overwhelming task into what it should be: an engaging, interesting, and rewarding experience.
To accurately represent a country, delegates must be able to articulate its policies. Accordingly, NHSMUN requires each delegation
(the one or two delegates representing a country in a committee) to write a position paper for each topic on the committee’s
agenda. In delegations with two students, we strongly encourage each student to research each topic to ensure that they are
be found in the NHSMUN Research Guide. To summarize, position papers should be structured into three sections:
I: Topic Background – This section should describe the history of the topic as it would be described by the delegate’s
country. Delegates do not need to give an exhaustive account of the topic, but rather focus on the details that are most
important to the delegation’s policy and proposed solutions.
II: Country Policy – This section should discuss the delegation’s policy regarding the topic. Each paper should state the
policy in plain terms and include the relevant statements, statistics, and research that support the effectiveness of the policy.
Comparisons with other global issues are also appropriate here.
III. Proposed Solutions – This section should detail the delegation’s proposed solutions to address the topic. Descriptions
potential obstacles to implementation and how they can be avoided. The solution should be a natural extension of the
country’s policy.
Each topic’s position paper should be no more than 10 pages long double-spaced with standard margins and font size. We
recommend 3–5 pages per topic as a suitable length. The paper must be written from the perspective of the your assigned
country should articulate the policies you will espouse at the conference.
Each delegation is responsible for sending a copy of its papers to their committee Directors via myDais on or before March
4, 2022. If a delegate wishes to receive detailed feedback from the committee’s dais, a position must be submitted on or before
February 18, 2022. The papers received by this earlier deadline will be reviewed by the dais of each committee and returned
prior to your arrival at the conference.
Complete instructions for how to submit position papers will be sent to faculty advisers via email. If delegations are unable to
submit their position papers on time, please contact us at info@imuna.org.
Delegations that do not submit position papers to directors will be ineligible for awards.
DISEC
8| CoMMITTEE hISTory
Committee History
The General Assembly First Committee, also known as the Disarmament and International Security Committee (DISEC), was
policy making.1 DISEC centers on topics surrounding “disarmament, global challenges and threats to peace.”2 The committee
aims to maintain international peace and security through governing disarmament and the regulation of armaments. As DISEC
stability and strengthening interactions between states.
DISEC is part of the General Assembly (GA), meeting in New York at the UN Headquarters.3 Like other General Assembly
committees, its membership includes all 193 members of the UN, making it one of the most representative bodies in the world.
Affairs (UNODA), which implements UN policies on disarmament at all levels.4 Each member has one vote in the decision-
making process.5 Governed by the Charter of the United Nations and following its mission of international cooperation in
the maintenance of peace and security, DISEC has worked closely with other entities such as the United Nations Institute for
6
Furthermore, while
consideration.
Through cooperation with these different groups and the supervision of various supplementary committees within the UN,
DISEC leads disarmament and security on a global scale. Among the primary achievements of the First Committee are many
of the United Nations conventions on disarmament and the use of arms. DISEC was also involved in developing the Nuclear
weapon-free zones that exist around the world.8 Although the committee cannot authorize individual state action, sanctions,
9
Its resolutions deal
with some of the most complex topics in the international community. A recent example of this is the seven draft resolutions
approved on November 5, 2019, that helped prevent the militarization of outer space designed for states with extensive space
capabilities. 10
DISEC considers all matters regarding disarmament and international security. These topics may range from biological warfare
to the ethics of surveillance to nuclear proliferation. Although there is quite a range of topics that can be explored in DISEC,
the First Committee’s utmost priority is indeed security. This focus also makes the committee work closely with the UN Security
Council, one of the six principal organs of the UN.11 Indeed, it is the only General Assembly Committee entitled to verbatim
records coverage. Therefore, the First Committee continues to strive for international security through collaborative multilateral
negotiations.
1
2 United Nations, “Disarmament and International Security (First Committee),” Accessed September 18, 2021,
3 United Nations, “Disarmament and International Security (First Committee),”
5
6 “United Nations, Main Body, Main Organs, General Assembly, , https://www.
UNODA,. “Treaty
9 UNGA, “Functions and powers of the General Assembly,”

10 “United Nations First Committee.” Nuclear Threat Initiative - Ten Years of Building a Safer World. Accessed September 16, 2021, https://www.nti.org/
11 Rose, Caroline. “Research Binder Friday: DISEC.” January 22, 2016. https://bestdelegate.com/research-binder-friday-disec/
DISEC
CoMMITTEE hISTory |9
Fast action is imperative to preserve international security. Therefore, forums like DISEC are facing the greatest challenges when
it comes to decision-making. Delegates are highly encouraged to participate in this multilateral debate, preserve international
security, and raise awareness of DISEC’s mission.
DISEC
NHSMUN 2022
Topic A:
The Demilitarization of Outer Space
ToPIC a: ThE DEMIlITarIzaTIon of oUTEr SPaCE
InTroDUCTIon |11
Introduction
technological, and economic resources in outer space. However, every great leap in space exploration
invites new threats to the use of outer space and celestial bodies for strictly non-military purposes.
These threats have taken various forms: the development of space weapons, governments posturing
for space superiority, privatization of modern launch technology, and many others. The United
1
Over half a century
that consider modern threats to space demilitarization and propose sustainable solutions.
At the end of World War II, the United States and the Soviet
Union became locked in a geopolitical standoff known as the on certain celestial bodies.6 These expansive interpretations
Cold War for several decades.2 Both States participated in the result partly from vague or indirect wording in the OST and
partly from many states’ desire to gain the upper hand in the
world power in space exploration during this period.3 While international military landscape by achieving space superiority.
the Cold War would continue into the 1990s, the Space Race To prevent the proliferation of WMD to and through space,
DISEC is challenged with comprehensively understanding
surface in NASA’s Apollo 11 mission.4 The following decades the landscape of WMD proliferation and the varying attitudes
would see Earth’s orbits, closer bodies like the Moon and Mars, on what exactly constitutes militarized actions in space.
and even distant asteroids and moons become the subject of
close study and deep exploratory interest. States like China,
Russia, the US, and many within the European Union have which weapons may be placed and used outside of Earth’s
developed space programs and agencies with the expertise, atmosphere.
capacity, and desire to launch increasingly advanced manned
Despite the vast size and scope of the subject, researchers
and unmanned systems into more distant and precise regions
worldwide have also raised concerns about the increasing
of space at decreasing costs. This boon in space technology
has resulted in many new threats and challenges to the global
Developments in small and micro-satellite technologies,
disarmament regime.5
coupled with the deregulated privatization of launch vehicle
One of the central issues of space demilitarization is the technology, could put tens of thousands of satellites in orbit
proscription of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) in by the end of the decade. While this could lead to great
space. The OST has varyingly strict protocols for the bounds improvements in communication and access to information
of space exploration, including protocols that explicitly ban on Earth, it could also result in a runaway cascade of growing
the use of WMDs in space. However, states have continued space debris that makes Earth’s lowest and most useful orbits
to take up broad interpretations of the OST that may allow completely uninhabitable for either manned or unmanned
1
outerspace/.
2
3 “Space Race Timeline,” Royal Museums Greenwich, accessed June 16, 2021, https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/space-race-timeline.
4 Royal Museums Greenwich, “Space Race Timeline.”
5 Nayeg Al-Rodhan, “Weaponization and Outer Space Security,” Global Policy Opinion. March 12, 2018, https://www.globalpolicyjournal.
com/blog/12/03/2018/weaponization-and-outer-space-security.
6 Wade, Catherine, Anti-Satellite Weapons and the Outer Space Treaty of 1967 (
ac.uk/download/pdf/232686059.pdf.
12|h ISTory anD DESCrIPTIon of ThE ISSUE
missions for decades.8 To prevent Earth’s orbits from within the greater geopolitical context of World War II and
becoming inaccessible and uninhabitable to future generations the Cold War, an “open yet restricted rivalry” between the
of astronauts and satellites, there must be a deliberate effort two superpowers following WWII.13 Following the surrender
by all of the world’s most space-capable countries. These
efforts include cleaning up, maintaining, and regulating the theater of the war in May 1945, the American, British, and
closest regions of space to Earth by state agencies and private Soviet alliance dissolved as the US. Western European countries
companies. now feared “the permanent Soviet domination of Eastern
Europe.”14 As the US and other Western democracies spread
critical economic aid and establishing military initiatives, the

9
Does peaceful mean exclusively “not USSR installed communist regimes in and around the region.15
aggressive” or wholly “nonmilitary” acts?10 Do states have This, along with the looming threat of nuclear weapons, made
an obligation to uplift less space-capable countries and invite most of the mid to late 20th century fraught with political
capacity-building in space exploration? Should governments instability and unrest with fears that either country might
have active space divisions or even develop military outposts instigate devastating nuclear war.
in space or on celestial bodies like the Moon?11 The indirect
The Cold War came much to a head following the unsuccessful
and inexact prescriptions and guidelines in the OST, coupled
1948 blockade of West Berlin, a region held by Western
with the complete lack of innovative legislation on the topic,
forces despite it being deep within Soviet-held East Germany.
have left these questions and many more unanswered. Thus,
The following year, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
it is within DISEC’s jurisdiction to offer new legislation that
(NATO) was formed between the US, the United Kingdom,
supports and updates the language of the OST and other
France, Canada, and several other Western powers in reaction
to what Western powers perceived to be a threat to democratic
modern solutions to space demilitarization. Delegates must be
values posed by the growing Soviet forces and alliances. That
responsive to the rapidly changing and advancing landscape of
space technologies worldwide to realize the OST’s principles “the American monopoly on the atomic bomb” that had
of shared human exploration for all humanity. existed following the bombing of Japanese cities Hiroshima
of WWII.16 The Cold War waxed and waned over the next
History and Description of the Issue
several years as the US and USSR backed various opposing
The Space Race: The Cold War and Beyond
War. However, on August 2, 1955, it ignited an entirely new
The Space Race was a nearly 20-year competition between
the United States and the United Soviet Socialist Republics
(USSR), or the Soviet Union.12 This competition existed announcement by the US.
8
9
Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, A/RES/2222 (XXI), December 19, 1966, https://www.unoosa.org/pdf/gares/
10 Wade, Anti-Satellite Weapons.
11
accessed June 16, 2021, https://armyhistory.org/soldiers-moon-armys-strange-true-plan-lunar-outpost/.
12 “Space Race Timeline,” Royal Museums Greenwich, accessed June 16, 2021, https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/space-race-timeline.
13
14 Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cold War.”
15 Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cold War.”
16
Museum New Orleans, August 6, 2020, https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/atomic-bomb-hiroshima.
hISTory anD DESCrIPTIon of ThE ISSUE |13
ultimately launched the world into the Space Race. The USSR
quickly followed up on their early success, launching Sputnik
of a living organism with the dog Laika as a passenger on

the craft.18 The following year, the US responded with the
of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration

(NASA), replacing the National Advisory Committee on
Aeronautics (NACA).19 The countries would continue trading
person into Earth’s orbit in the early 1960s. However, the US

overshadowed previous Soviets advances with the successful
landing of Neil Armstrong and Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin on the
Moon on July 20, 1969.20 This landmark and insurmountable
achievement in the Space Race, coupled with a détente in the
Apollo and Soyuz, the American and Soviet spacecraft used

throughout the Space Race respectively, launched astronaut
Tom Stafford and cosmonaut Alexei Leonov to dock their
Saturn V rocket launching the Apollo 11 Mission
space.21
the US was testing nuclear weapons.22 Despite unilateral

of the Space Race with continued international cooperation
and even trilateral (between the US, UK, and USSR) testing
from both countries’ space programs and a variety of
moratoriums, nuclear weapons tests continued throughout
developing space programs from around the world, including
the late 1950s and early 1960s, with treaty negotiations
the European Union (EU) and China.
halting due to disagreements on the quantity and procedures
The legacy of the Space Race is inextricably tied to the 23
In 1962, the US and USSR
development of nuclear policy throughout the Cold War. In would be brought to the brink of nuclear war with the Cuban
1955, the United Nations Disarmament Commission began Missile Crisis, a “direct and dangerous” political and military
nuclear test ban talks between the nuclear superpowers—the standoff that lasted throughout the latter half of October and
US, Soviet Union, France, China, and the UK. This was only the beginning of November.24 The crisis, largely a frenzied
Royal Museums Greenwich, “Space Race Timeline.”

22 Thomas Graham Jr., “Comprehensive Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty,” United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law, September
6, 1996, https://legal.un.org/avl/ha/ctbt/ctbt.html.
23 Graham Jr., “Comprehensive Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty.”
24
accessed June 16, 2021, https://history.state.gov/milestones/1961-1968/cuban-missile-crisis.
on outer space exploration” and provide recommendations

brought the world closer to the threat of nuclear war than it on its peaceful use by all countries.30 These resolutions would
had ever been or has ever been since. Consequently, being
brought so close to mutually assured destruction caused both Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and
countries to reconsider their nuclear policies and make more Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial
serious steps toward a ban on nuclear weapons testing.25 Bodies,” also known as the Outer Space Treaty (OST) or UN
Resolution 2222 (XXI).31
On October 10, 1963, almost exactly a year later, the Limited
Test Ban Treaty (LTBT) entered into force following 10 days
of multilateral negotiations by the nuclear superpowers and the that outer space, celestial bodies, and their resources should
greater UN disarmament regime, banning all nuclear weapons be free for all states’ peaceful use and exploration. Further,
tests in the atmosphere, underwater, or in outer space.26 This it recognizes astronauts as “envoys of mankind” subject to
the emergency assistance of all states should they require
testing and weapons in outer space. Negotiations on a it.32 Much like the resolutions it was based on, it bans the
placement or use of nuclear weapons and other WMD in
comprehensive test ban treaty (CTBT) would stall for over 30
space. It also holds states liable for all actions, objects, and
years until the establishment of the Nuclear Nonproliferation
persons it launches into or from outer space.33 This Treaty
became the cornerstone of outer space legislation and stands
This event marked the dawn of a new era in global nuclear
to this day as the primary deterrence to the militarization of
policy and became the cornerstone of the international
outer space and celestial bodies. However, the Outer Space
nuclear disarmament regime. However, the establishment
of the LTBT would not mark the end of international outer
many countries to interpret it expansively and take up actions
space legislation but the beginning.
in outer space and on Earth that threaten the precarious but
Though the UN had begun talks on the peaceful use and necessary disarmament landscape it established. Furthermore,
exploration of outer space as early as the 1950s, the USSR’s considering the close relationship between space developments
showed resistance to such talks as they were preparing to and the nuclear arms race, it becomes crucial to consider the
military and combative history of space exploration to address
ballistic missile.28 the barriers and future threats imposed against peaceful and
after establishing the LTBT, the UNGA adopted Resolution cooperative use of outer space.
1884, banning the use or placement of nuclear weapons
WMD in Space: A Global Threat
and other weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) in outer
space.29 On December 13 of the same year, the UNGA First One critical consideration of the OST and the foundational
Committee (DISEC) session adopted Resolution 1962 and resolutions it is based on is the placement or use of WMD
25 Foreign Service Institute, “Cuban Missile Crisis.”

26 “Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space, and Under Water,” Opened for signature August 5, 1963,
, https://www.armscontrol.org/treaties/limited-test-ban-treaty.
accessed June 16, 2021, https://www.un.org/disarmament/wmd/nuclear/npt/.
28
outerspace.
29
http://www.worldlii.org/int/other/UNGA/1963/5.pdf.
30 Arms Control Association, “Outer Space Treaty.”
31
of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies,” accessed May 28, 2021, https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/
spacelaw/treaties/introouterspacetreaty.html.
32 UNOOSA, “Outer Space Treaty.”
33 UNOOSA, “Outer Space Treaty.”
categories of weapons as WMD: atomic explosive weapons, vaguely, requires multilateral consultation on endeavors that
radioactive material weapons, and lethal chemical and can reasonably be perceived as “potentially harmful.”40 To the
biological weapons.34 extent that the deployment of such a weapon would harmfully
Affairs goes on to specify that WMDs are generally any interfere with the peaceful use of space, its use or placement
weapon that can lead to a “catastrophic” event that could in outer space or on celestial bodies would constitute a
“kill millions of civilians, jeopardize the natural environment, violation of the Treaty’s principles and require a request for
and fundamentally alter the lives of future generations.”35 consultation, likely with the UN itself in some capacity.
Despite a wide variety of multilateral treaties that legislate the
research and development, production, trade, and usage of The OST’s second objective was encouraging cooperation
WMD, there were nearly over 300 chemical attacks reported between states and holding states liable for their actions in
during the Syrian Civil War as recently as 2018.36 North space. Articles VI, VII, and VIII hold states liable for all
Korea has actively tested intercontinental ballistic missile actions undertaken by their governments in outer space and
(ICBM) technology and “advanced” thermonuclear weapons for all objects under their jurisdiction—and those objects’
Existing treaties and resolutions have effects on other states—that they launch into space. These
objectives outline general ways the OST may encourage the
ending WMD proliferation, even by non-state actors. Some of peaceful use of space and hold states accountable for its
the same limitations to WMD legislation on Earth also apply misuse. However, the third objective, “to prevent the arms
to the laws imposed on WMD in space. race from spreading to outer space,” is both more relevant and
The OST outlines some critical situations in which actions by a whole.41

a given state may constitute a violation of international law.
The OST is quite stringent in its measures preventing the
guaranteeing “that outer space…remains the heritage of all
mankind,” several articles of the Treaty specify the reciprocal Article IV is primarily concerned with the stationing, testing,
and public nature in which states should share technologies, and installation of WMD in outer space.42 This is known as a
38 “clause of partial disarmament.” It prohibits the use of nuclear
weapons and other WMDs but not conventional weapons.43
that their actions in outer space might harmfully interfere This partial disarmament clause states that countries may
with those of another state to seek “appropriate international not “place [WMD] in orbit around the Earth…install such
consultation before proceeding” with those actions.39 These weapons on celestial bodies, or station such weapons in outer
space in any other manner.”44 Interpreted in the context of
for the use and placement of weapons in space as it, rather the rest of the Treaty, this clause seemingly totally bans the
34
2021, https://unrcpd.org/wmd/.
35
36
nuclear/.
38
39
40 A/RES/2222 (XXI), 12-15
41 Wade, Catherine, Anti-Satellite Weapons and the Outer Space Treaty of 1967 (
ac.uk/download/pdf/232686059.pdf.
42 Wade, “Anti-Satellite Weapons.”
44 A/RES/2222 (XXI), 12-15
a WMD and to what extent they can be deployed into space,

some states have continued to test the boundaries of the
OST and develop WMD technology designed to work either
Ronald Reagan formed the Strategic Defense Initiative

(SDI), a ballistic missile defense organization within the US
Department of Defense (DOD) responsible for developing
technologies to counter and defend against ballistic missiles.
Later, that organization would become the Missile Defense
Agency (MDA) which contracts with various scientists,
organizations, and universities to fund more advanced
missile defense systems.48 As recently as 2020, the MDA
advancements in directed-energy weapons, weapons that

employ “technologies that produce a concentrated beam of
electromagnetic energy and atomic or subatomic particles.”49
Though these devices are already in use on Earth, states like

China, the US, and Russia have all been actively developing
directed-energy weapons for use in space. With the US Space
Force Chief of Space Operations, General John Raymond,
outright stating that the development of such technologies
would be critical to the maintenance of “American space
placement of WMD in outer space in any capacity. Whether
superiority” in a June 16 congressional hearing.50 However,
it be orbiting Earth or some celestial body or stationed on the
their deployment may constitute a violation of the OST
Moon or in space, any actions taken by a State to place a WMD
under the proscription of the partial disarmament clause.
in outer space is a violation of the OST. This theoretically
Directed-energy weapons typically project a destructive beam
created the largest denuclearized zone in the universe, making
of “particles that have been atomically charged through the
51
Thus, many international lawyers
banned throughout the universe outside Earth’s atmosphere.45
The second paragraph of Article IV describes the principles to be nuclear weapons and therefore subject to all applicable
of using outer space for exclusively “peaceful purposes.” restrictions.
However, the nuances of this will be described in more detail
Since Article IV explicitly bans the deployment of any nuclear
later in this paper.46
weapons or any analogous weapons in space, directed-
energy weapons—which are designed for anti-satellite
45
and Celestial Bodies,” United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law, December 19, 1966, https://legal.un.org/avl/pdf/ha/tos/
46 A/RES/2222 (XXI), 12-15
Gould, Joe, “30 Years: Strategic Defense Initiative — A Controversial Legacy,” DefenseNews, Sightline Media Group, October 25, 2016,
https://www.defensenews.com/30th-annivesary/2016/10/25/30-years-strategic-defense-initiative-a-controversial-legacy/.
48 “Agency in Brief,” United States Missile Defence Agency, United States Department of Defense, accessed June 16, 2021. https://www.
mda.mil/about/about.html.
49 United States Department of Defense, United States Joint Chiefs of Staff, Joint Publication 3-13.1 Electronic Warfare. February 8, 2012,
https://fas.org/irp/doddir/dod/jp3-13-1.pdf/.
50 Nathan Strout, “The Space Force wants to use directed-energy systems for space superiority.” C4ISRNet, Jun 16, 2021, https://www.

purposes but could target locations on Earth—could be a They started researching early aircraft designs that would
violation of the OST.52 Nonetheless, states have continued to
develop such technologies, among others. DISEC is tasked research toward ballistic missile technology that could give
with comprehensively understanding the technologies in them the upper hand against their Soviet opponents.56
development that may threaten the partial disarmament laid
Simultaneously, the 1950s also saw a growing interest in
out in the OST and undertaking the task of holding states
accountable for expansive interpretations of the OST that may
by NACA would inform some of the earliest stages of the
increase the likelihood of WMD use in outer space. Delegates
US space program. On the other side of the world, Soviet
should consider ways that the OST has been circumvented or
capable militaries and how new or adapted legislation can

deliver nuclear payloads to the other side of the globe but to
security. “hurl a spacecraft into orbit.”
the backbone of the Soyuz program, launching Sputnik I
Space Force: Militaries in Space into orbit and serving as the basis for Soyuz rockets still in
use today to take international crews of astronauts to the
The history of space exploration is inextricably tied to that of International Space Station (ISS).58 American missiles have a
similar legacy with US military contractor Northrop Grumman
Age—was, after all, an extension of the greater geopolitical
tension between the US and USSR during the Cold War. ICBM, powering their Minotaur rocket family to launch
Evidence of this link can be found in the origins of their various payloads into space as recently as early 2021.59 The
respective space programs. NASA, the program that brought tie between state militaries and space agencies is evident from
humans to the Moon, started as NACA, an advisory committee their inception to their modern applications.60 To that end,
commissioned by the US Congress and signed by American
53
When it was established in 1915,
forces within the core structures of their militaries. The three
the committee had a budget of only USD 5,000 per year and
primary military powers being those of Russia, China, and the
was chaired by the chief of the Army’s Signal Corps, Brigadier
US (there are others, but the size and scope of their programs
General George Scriven.54 The committee’s remaining unpaid
are far inferior in current and projected scale).
members consisted of civilian researchers, industry leaders,
with the government, collaborating with the US Air Force to Aerospace Forces (VKS), combining and replacing the
Russian Air Force (VVS) and the Russian Aerospace
The NACA and the
55
Defense Forces (VVKO).61 This third branch of its military
US Military would continue to collaborate into the Cold War. is responsible for all of the traditional roles of an air force
53 The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics : An Annotated Bibliography, Monographs in Aerospace
History 55
Bibl.pdf.
54 “NACA Overview,” National Aeronautics and Space Administration, accessed June 16, 2021, https://history.nasa.gov/naca/overview.
html.
55 “Bell X-1 Glamorous Glennis,” Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum, accessed June 16, 2021, https://airandspace.si.edu/
56 “NACA Overview.”
“Military Origins of the Space Race,” Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum, Accessed June 16, 2021, https://airandspace.si.edu/
exhibitions/space-race/online/sec200/sec250.htm.
58
59 “Minotaur Rocket,” Northrop Grumman, accessed June 16, 2021, https://www.northropgrumman.com/space/minotaur-rocket/.

60 “Military Origins of the Space Race.”
61 “Military Origins of the Space Race.”
Combat utility uniform of the US Space Force
while also researching, managing, and launching spacecraft.62 China, another superpower in the space militarization
This restructuring was based on a series of military reforms arena, has taken an altogether different approach. In a 2015
due to inadequate military funding over the last decade. The
VVKO has proven to be largely unambitious in its posturing
66
toward space supremacy.63 Rather, Russia has largely acted to
became responsible for all “nuclear and conventional missile”
maintain the “condition of strategic parity” that underlies its
relationship with the US. Thus, the development of Russia’s
took on all aspects of “strategic space, cyber, electronic, and
space force has been slow, maintained to preserve the balance
psychological warfare missions and capabilities.” Much
of power between Russia and the US.64 The extent of the
VVKO’s presence in space has been that of installing “early managed [China’s] space programs,” with the SSF now being
warning, optical reconnaissance, communication, navigation, responsible for “nearly all [Chinese] space operations.”68 China
and signal intelligence” systems into orbit.65 has consistently espoused the policy demilitarization of outer
62 “Space Forces,” Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation, accessed June 16, 2021, https://eng.mil.ru/en/structure/forces/cosmic.
htm.
63 “Russian Federation Aerospace Forces (VKS),” Global Security, accessed June 16, 2021, https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/
russia/vks.htm.
64 Russian and Chinese Response to U.S. Military in Space (Cambridge: American Academy of Arts and Sciences,
65
66
services/index.htm.
Military and Security Developments Involving the People’s Republic
of China,
68 USDOD, “Military Developments China.”
space, even advocating openly in the UN for a more serious their disposal, governments of these states can and have
demonstrated the propensity to use them for defensive or
offensive strategic advantage. Furthermore, several countries
have developed or even tested so-called missile defense
such as nuclear and cyberspace.69 systems that precariously may have the capacity to also serve
as anti-satellite (ASAT) missiles. This could have profound
Most aggressive in this regard, perhaps, has been the actions
implications for existing space weaponization legislation and
of the US in recent years. In 2019, the US Air Force Space
the global disarmament regime as a whole.
subsuming the focus on “missile warning, launch operations, Most of these technologies use a “hit-to-kill” system, in which
satellite control, space surveillance and command and control projectiles “use sheer force to collide with and annihilate
for national leadership” and expanding with the goal of their targets instead of any explosives.” This technology is
“gaining and maintaining space superiority.” As part of the in use in a range of ways. The US Standard Missile-3 Block
IIA (SM-3) conducted a successful test against an ICBM in
2020. China achieved the same milestone in 2021 with its
Dong Neng-3 (DN-3) missile. Although the applications are
different, the Israeli Iron Dome defense system, armed with
Tamir interceptor missiles, still uses the same basic concept.
By the estimation of some in the disarmament community, Hit-to-kill systems have two risk factors that gravely impact
this strategy has led Russia and China, among other countries,
the current disarmament regime. First, missiles like the
to pursue space weaponization as a deterrent to US supremacy
SM-3 and DN-3 can intercept ICBMs and destroy satellites.
more seriously.
Therefore, these missiles reduce the threat of a nuclear attack
These policies, strategies, and military reorganizations do not from another country. While this may seem like a good thing,
exist in a vacuum, however. Direct actions by certain states it also breaks down the idea of nuclear deterrence. Security
have accelerated the race to space superiority, recursively experts use this term to describe each country’s reluctance
causing other States to pursue similar paths. Countries such as to use nuclear weapons out of fear that other countries will
France, the UK, and Japan have entered the Space Age with retaliate with their nuclear weapons before they are destroyed.
Therefore, the idea of nuclear deterrence suggests that
already underway, notably reconnaissance, communication, countries are encouraged not to use nuclear weapons so long
and navigation. With satellites or even satellite systems at as this threat exists. If deterrence breaks down, states could
69
“USSF History,” United States Space Force, accessed June 16, 2021, https://www.spaceforce.mil/About-Us/About-Space-Force/
History/.
https://aerospace.csis.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Trump-National-Space-Strategy.pdf.
Nayeg Al-Rodhan, “Weaponization and Outer Space Security,” Global Policy Opinion. March 12, 2018, https://www.globalpolicyjournal.
com/blog/12/03/2018/weaponization-and-outer-space-security.
Al-Rodhan, “Weaponization.”
The Diplomat. March 4,
2018, https://thediplomat.com/2018/03/china-and-the-united-states-worry-about-each-other-missile-defense-intentions-so-why-not-talk/.
United States Department of Defense, “U.S. Successfully Conducts SM-3 Block IIA Intercept Test Against an Intercontinental Ballistic
sm-3-block-iia-intercept-test-against-an-intercontinen/.
Joseph Trevithick, “China Claims It Has Conducted A New Midcourse Intercept Anti-Ballistic Missile Test,” The Drive, Brookline Media,
February 4, 2021, https://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/39093/china-claims-it-has-conducted-a-new-midcourse-intercept-anti-ballistic-
missile-test.
Henry A. Obering III, “Should the US rely on Iron Dome for the long term?” Defense News, November 10, 2021, https://www.
defensenews.com/opinion/commentary/2020/11/10/should-the-us-rely-on-iron-dome-for-the-long-term/.
develop more advanced or destructive nuclear arsenals.80

kilometers. As the height of the orbit decreases, the object’s
The threat of violent use of these technologies is not merely
speed necessary to keep it in orbit increases. Objects in LEO
must move much faster than objects in GEO to both maintain
“hit-to-kill” DN-3 missile) to successfully target and destroy
their orbital trajectory and cancel out the effect of Earth’s thin
one of its weather satellites. This created a tremendous amount
atmosphere causing atmospheric drag and slowing down the
of debris in the Earth’s orbit. The act resulted in substantial
object until its orbit “decays,” and it falls back to Earth.85 This
criticism from the international community, but China has
continued to test the SC-19 missile.81 The second major risk
factor of these “hit-to-kill” systems is their deployment all
short-term and long-term effects on the ability of a satellite to
over the world by a select few countries as “‘all-up round’ (the
remain in orbit. Thus, most satellites need constant tending,
designation for completely assembled weapons)” packages.82
guidance, and orbital corrections to maintain a stable orbit
Systems like THAAD have been sold by the US to countries
around the Earth. Due to this effect, meteoroids are natural
like Israel, South Korea, Turkey, and the UAE. By empowering
satellites that primarily orbit the Sun, while most debris
itself and its allies with these uniquely capable systems, the 86
Because of their high
US simultaneously increases its national security. However, as
velocity, these satellites can have severe consequences for all
discussed earlier, this undermines the effect of deterrence and
may destabilize the global disarmament regime.83 To properly
those we depend on for daily life.
face the complexity of this issue and prevent an arms race
in space, DISEC is tasked with critically considering how the The different orbits have different characteristics that make
ASAT and ICBM interceptor systems will continue to play them more or less desirable for certain kinds of projects
in the international aerospace defense regime. The committee in space. For example, most of the satellites in GEO,
must also contemplate steps to disincentivize states from the region wherein satellites orbit the Earth in exactly
progressively advanced space warfare infrastructure. one day and thus occupy the same region in the sky, are
weather and communications satellites. This orbit allows
Earth
meteorological events or communicate consistently with a
The vast majority of all human space activity has taken place
within the relatively small 36,000-kilometer region above by navigation and specialty satellites for various reasons,
Earth’s surface, where high-velocity objects can resist the pull
of Earth’s gravity and take on a circular trajectory around the
planet. There are three main types of Earth orbit, low Earth as NASA’s Earth Observing System and the ISS. According
orbit (LEO), medium Earth orbit (MEO), and high Earth to the Union of Concerned Scientists, over 3,000 satellites
orbit.84 What differentiates these regions is their distance from are in orbit, serving various purposes from communications
Earth’s surface, with LEO being the closest at 180–2,000
80
81
82
83
84 Holli Riebeek, “Catalog of Earth Satellite Orbits,” NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, September 4, 2009, https://earthobservatory.
nasa.gov/features/OrbitsCatalog.
85 “Satellite Orbital Lifetimes,” Australian Space Academy,” accessed June 16, 2021, https://www.spaceacademy.net.au/watch/debris/
orblife.htm.
86
Riebeek, “Earth Satellite Orbits.”

Computer generated simulation of space debris in Earth orbit
alone.88 These satellites form a tightly interconnected network

of technologies that form the backbone of modern society by material also orbit the Earth at extreme orbital speeds.
providing us with constant information about Earth and space
and connecting people worldwide. Uncoincidentally, this is activities: jettisoning spent rocket boosters, deactivating
also a huge source of military reconnaissance, surveillance, old satellites, “mission related debris,” and “fragmentation
navigational coordination, and target tracking.89 To maintain debris.”90 Fragmentation debris is caused by the breaking
this dense web of satellites, special care needs to be taken to apart of another satellite, usually from a collision, creating
more orbital debris that can later cause further fragmentation.
According to NASA, there are 23,000 pieces of debris the
and orbital debris.
size of a softball, half a million pieces the size of a marble,
and hundreds of millions of pieces the size of a millimeter or
88 “In-depth details on the 4,084 satellites currently orbiting Earth, including their country of origin, purpose, and other operational details,”
Union of Concerned Scientists, December 8, 2005, https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/satellite-database.
89 Bruce McClintock, “Space Safety Coordination: A Norm for All Nations,” The Rand Blog, April 16, 2019, https://www.rand.org/
blog/2019/04/space-safety-coordination-a-norm-for-all-nations.html.
90 Garcia, “Space Debris.”
smaller orbiting Earth.91 What is concerning about this amount Space Force 18th Space Control Squadron has taken on the
of debris, despite the vastness of space even in LEO, is that responsibility of all “conjunction assessments,” mathematical
calculations on the likelihood of a collision between satellites,
can be destructive to spacecraft and account for the “highest and running the international conjunction assessment
mission-ending risk to most robotic spacecraft orbiting in
LEO.”92 With this in mind, along with the possibility for program available to all countries. Despite these efforts, the
fragmentation to cause destruction and fragmentation of
other satellites, a system can arise in orbit in which debris which underfunding or lack of access to radar time and critical
steadily increases. This phenomenon of the chain reaction of ground-based infrastructure has led to large blind spots in the
exponentially increasing space debris and collisions, known as kinds of debris that can be reliably detected and tracked within
the Kessler Effect or Kessler Syndrome, could already be in LEO. Among its most fervent recommendations, it calls for
effect as orbital debris has risen over 50 percent in the last “international collaborative efforts to mitigate orbital debris
93
including active debris removal and timely end-of-mission
this process once it has begun, one factor that could help disposal of spacecraft.”98 Since international agreements have
satellite orbits via atmospheric drag forces. This would work efforts to slow the Kessler Effect, proponents for stricter space
eventually, but it would take several years for satellites even debris regulations look to those sections of the OST which
in LEO and much longer for those in MEO and GEO.94 hold states accountable for potentially disruptive actions in
Another factor that might interrupt the looming danger of space. This argument is ultimately unpersuasive, as countries
the Kessler Effect is the use of robotics or other retrieval and such as Russia, China, and a host of smaller countries have
deorbiting technologies to “salvage derelict satellites” and continued to participate in unfettered satellite proliferation.99
collect other forms of space debris.95 While this could help
slow the steady increase in space debris or even decrease the political, economic, and technological hurdles to decluttering
total amount of debris in orbit, several countries would take LEO of harmful space debris for the safety of all humankind
and its future as a spacefaring species.
over several years. Barring such lengthy and expensive reactive
measures, international regulations and protocols are the best Celestial Bodies: The Moon, Mars, and Beyond
way to prevent the further cluttering of Earth’s orbits.
Organizations such as NASA have taken the lead in this area, on the Moon, but it will not be the last. While Moon samples
creating tools like the Earth Observation System, the Tracking and research on the Moon’s surface during Apollo brought
and Data Relay Satellite System, the Space Object Catalog, and back a wealth of knowledge, the program was more an
the US Space Surveillance Network. These are responsible for expression of humanity’s desire to prove that it could safely
take humans there and return them to Earth. Now, missions
in orbit so that their relative positions can be well understood seeking to return humans to the Moon as soon as 2024 have
and collisions can be prevented.96 More recently, the US the explicit goal of establishing a permanent human presence
93 European Space Agency, “The Kessler Effect.”
94
the-kessler-syndrome/.
95 European Space Agency, “The Kessler Effect.”
Garcia, “Space Debris.”
98 NASA’s Efforts to Mitigate the Risks Posed by Orbital Debris,
nasa.gov/docs/IG-21-011.pdf.
99 McClintock, “Space Safety Coordination.”
on the Moon and using it to extend our reach to Mars and
the solar system beyond. In its Artemis Lunar Exploration
the knowledge gained through 50 years of robotic deep space

exploration and 20 years of continuous human presence on
the ISS to “prepare us for the next giant leap, the exploration
of Mars.”100 Work is already underway on critical aspects of
the program, including developing the Space Launch System
(SLS), the Orion spacecraft, the Human Landing System (HLS),
and various parts of the Gateway. The last one is a research
station in a lunar orbit similar to the ISS that seeks to serve
as a waypoint from which astronauts can conduct research
experiments or descend to the lunar surface. NASA has
ostensibly taken up a policy of “international interoperability,”
Space Agency (CSA), the Japanese Aerospace Exploration

Agency (JAXA), the ESA, and ROSCOSMOS. It will enable True color image of Mars taken by the OSIRIS instrument on the ESA Rosetta
international use of Gateway and the future Artemis Base spacecraft
the 2030s. These missions all seek to send crewed landers to

on the lunar surface.” If these missions are successful, it will
101
various strategic locations. It aims to establish the necessary
mark a new era for space exploration and open the door for infrastructure for a permanent human colony on the Moon
human colonization of extraterrestrial land. that can launch spacecraft to nearby asteroids and eventually
Mars.105 This opens up a wide range of questions that have
While NASA bills Artemis as a “globally unifying endeavor,”
yet to be deeply considered by the disarmament community.
it cannot be denied that strategic, primary, or exclusive access
How do colonization and exploitation of the Moon and
to any resources on the Moon or other celestial bodies serves
other celestial bodies align with the OST and other guiding
principles on space exploration? What guardrails exist to
against all other countries.102 Russian media sources discussing
prevent the militarization of research or even civilian outposts?
the Luna-Glob (Luna 25) lander mission noted that “leading
The answer to both is complicated, and conversations on the
space powers will expand their rights to convenient lunar
subject are rife with misunderstanding and ambiguity.
footholds” from which “future opportunities for practical
use” might be derived.103 While the program does have some
international collaboration, it is largely seen as a Russian steps beyond the bounds of partial disarmament as described
attempt to “put a manned colony on the Moon” by the early
2030s.104 This is not altogether dissimilar to NASA’s Artemis, the Moon and celestial bodies for “peaceful purposes” might
the Chinese National Space Agency’s (CNSA) Chang’e be realized.106 The Moon Treaty outlines that “the Moon and
project, or JAXA’s proposed mission to the lunar surface in other celestial bodies shall be used…exclusively for peaceful
100 National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Artemis Plan: NASA’s Lunar Exploration Program Overview, September 2020, https://www.
101
102
103
104 Moscow Times, “Russia Colonize Moon.”

105 Dominic Basulto, “Why it matters that Japan is going to the moon,” The Washington Post, April 20, 2015, https://www.washingtonpost.
com/news/innovations/wp/2015/04/30/why-it-matters-that-japan-is-going-to-the-moon/.
106 A/RES/2222 (XXI), 12-15
purposes.” It further explains that the establishment of any door for states to establish military objects in outer space, on
bodies derived from other celestial bodies (perhaps a large
“testing of any type of weapon and the conduct of military area of asteroidal rock or ice mined from a comet), or even
maneuvers on celestial bodies” is expressly forbidden. Again,
on the surface, this seems like comprehensive disarmament of state governments to do so have existed since Apollo and
the Moon and celestial bodies, but a deeper analysis of the have persisted today.111 Like many other aspects of the issue,
text illuminates possible loopholes and ambiguities. First, what
sustained human presence on the Moon to spread to other
celestial bodies, including Mars, within the next decade. If
or “nonaggressive” acts.108 If the former, then any activity humans are to colonize the Moon and other celestial bodies as
conducted on the Moon would be prohibited. However,
if the latter, then military activities may be conducted the ambiguities and disagreements regarding the “peaceful
freely in such circumstances so long as it is not an act of purposes” clause.
aggression towards another state. The language of the OST
Inequality: Asymmetric Access and Capabilities
these frameworks, and indeed states such as the US and Russia
As previously discussed, Article I of the OST outlines that the
have taken varying views on the legally valid interpretation of
“exploration and use of outer space” to be “carried out for the
the text in this context. Since the partial disarmament clause
does not comprehensively prohibit the use of conventional
basis of equality.”112 However, the distillation of power among
weapons on the Moon and celestial bodies, it would require a
a few space-capable states has caused this doctrine to be more
nonmilitary interpretation of the “peaceful purposes” clause
theoretical than practical. The extremely high up-front costs
to prohibit such activity.109
of space exploration, coupled with the unequal distribution
one’s country subscribes to, there is considerable ambiguity
of its downstream effects, have led many states that did
that has led states such as the US to take an expansive view
not participate in the Space Race to take a backseat in outer
of the doctrine, announcing detailed plans for nonaggressive
space endeavors. Since this stands blatantly antithetical to the
military objectives on the Moon and celestial bodies.
prescriptions of the OST, several international organizations,
Besides the ambiguity of the “peaceful purposes” doctrine,
further disagreement exists on whether the clause prohibits have sought ways to increase capacity building. Such efforts
any of the activities mentioned above in outer space since include developing comprehensive programs meant to
only the Moon and celestial bodies are explicitly enumerated
in the clause. In fact, a proposition to include outer space in
the “enumerated environments” in which military activity is space exploration, and the development and production of
prohibited was rejected in the Legal Subcommittee of the space technologies. Through “capacity-building” programs,
UNOOSA and related bodies seek to enfranchise developing
in light of the argument that such a prohibition should exist
within the context of “general disarmament” rather than the technologies and research as those states that have conducted
partial disarmament outlined in the OST.110 This opens the 113
UNOOSA, “Outer Space Treaty.”

110 A/RES/2222 (XXI), 12-15
111
accessed June 16, 2021, https://armyhistory.org/soldiers-moon-armys-strange-true-plan-lunar-outpost/.
112 A/RES/2222 (XXI), 12-15
113
These capacity-building projects are necessary, in part, due to while being disproportionately affected by its potential
the sheer up-front costs of space exploration programs and harms. Space debris remains an issue that the entire space
the infeasibility of such investments for various economies. exploration community must address if humanity continues
During the Space Race, it is estimated that NASA spent 482
billion USD to get Apollo astronauts to the Moon. Further can be disproportionately affected by this phenomenon. For
analysis of NASA budget trends during the period shows that instance, a 2009 collision between a defunct Russian satellite
most costs were “from research and development,” peaking that had not been deorbited per regulatory standards and a
before humans were on the Moon, and declining somewhat US commercial spacecraft released over 10 percent of the
once the “production and operations” stage was reached.114 trackable space debris currently in LEO.120 States like the US
While estimates indicate that ROSCOSMOS spent only a and Russia have powerful spacecraft capable of detecting and
fraction of that amount, costs for the manned lunar Soyuz avoiding debris like this, but they are only marginally affected
program still numbered in the hundreds of billions.115 The by space debris in LEO. Meanwhile, developing states
most technically and economically prohibitive investment deploying small communications, weather, or navigation
in this sector is propulsion systems, which are used to get a satellites may have their only active spacecraft irreparably
payload into space. These were the primary costs in the Space damaged by such debris. Additionally, these states with
Race and have continued to be the determining factor in a
State’s overall space capabilities, despite the relative plateau in with many other satellites from other States that have been
rocket technology in recent decades.116 The rocket technology shown to interfere with the accurate transmission of some
required for propulsion systems is similar to that of ICBMs. signals.121 Finally, industry-based regulations often come from
Fewer than 10 states have developed ICBM technology, with the industry leaders, meaning that a developing state may be
access shared almost exclusively between the US and its
allies, Russia and China. This same dynamic plays out in by the few space-capable States when they have satellite arrays
the space exploration sector as developing countries pay other only a thousandth the size.122
states or private companies for space on their rockets. While build capacity amongst developing states and states without
having a somewhat democratizing effect on general access an existing presence in space, many communities will continue
to space, this growing business can be expensive, with costs to get left behind while incurring all the same risks of space
for even the cheapest government contracts with the most exploration that the rest of humanity is burdened with.
cost-effective rockets exceeding USD 100 million.118
However, the most dangerous prospect of inequality in outer
with the hundreds of millions to billions of dollars needed to
space in the short term is asymmetric warfare using space
develop valuable satellites. It is easy to see how many States
can get left behind under this regime.119
will either rise to meet the challenge of reliable and advanced
space exploration not experienced by most other countries. deterrent. For instance, China, seeing the US “space control
strategy” as a sign of “forceful domination of space” to
ourwork/topics/capacity-building.html.
114
cost-of-apollo.
115 “Race to the Moon Overview,” History Shots, accessed June 16, 2021, http://www.historyshotsinfoart.com/space/backstory.cfm.
116 Guglielmo S. Agletti, “Current Challenges and Opportunities for Space Technologies,” Frontier Media, June 16, 2020, https://www.
frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frspt.2020.00001/full.
factsheets/missiles.
118 Jason Davis, “How much does space travel cost?” NBC Universal, October 15, 2018, https://www.nbcnews.com/mach/science/how-
much-does-space-travel-cost-ncna919011.
119 Agletti, “Space Technologies.”
121 Agletti, “Space Technologies.”
122 Union of Concerned Scientists, “Satellites Orbiting Earth.”
26|C UrrEnT STaTUS
the exclusion of other states, has interpreted US interest in direct approach to space weaponization by developing direct
space weapons as a “hegemonic interest” that “will seriously Earth-to-Space and Space-to-Space weapons systems.126 These
undermine the effectiveness of China’s limited nuclear systems come in various forms, affecting various targets in
[defense] capability.”123 China sees US space dominance different ways, and are in varying stages of development by
as a direct threat to the nuclear deterrent that it sought to different states. Countries such as the US, Russia, and China
establish through the production of its ICBM-mounted
nuclear warheads during the Cold War. To this end, China has Other States like India, Japan, and North Korea have similar
modernized its nuclear arsenal to increase the survivability and
mobility of its missiles.124 This is one example amongst many development stages. The disregard of previous international
of the negative effects a comprehensive, space-based missile agreements has raised distrust and diplomatic uncertainty
defense system, other space weapons, and ASAT technologies between states, leading to increased investment in space
can have on negotiations related to disarmament.125 With this weapons infrastructure.
in mind, it is within the jurisdiction of DISEC to legislate
Two classes of space weapons are currently in development
the nature by which space exploration might be more free
by various world militaries: direct-ascent and co-orbital ASAT.
and equitable to prevent the negative downstream effects
Direct-ascent weapons destroy a target satellite with an Earth-
on world economies, geopolitics, and the global nuclear and
to-space interceptor whose trajectory intersects with the
general disarmament regimes. Delegates are encouraged to
satellite without ever being in orbit. Co-orbital ASAT weapons
consider both the short-term and long-term challenges and
opportunities facing their respective countries in the space
[maneuver] to strike.”128 Direct-ascent weapons are a more
exploration sector. A comprehensive understanding of these
conventional technology, ballistic missiles or missile defense
dynamics will help inform DISEC member states in their
interceptors already in use for decades. For instance, in March
attempts to maintain their security interests while expanding
the collective human experience of space exploration and all
Defense Vehicle Mark II missile defense interceptor against

its Mircosat-R satellite. This test created over 400 particles of
Current Status
space missions.129 India serves as an example of the many
Renewed Weapons Tests: Threats from Above
and Below existing missile defense systems to have ASAT capabilities.
Despite the prescriptions of the OST and other legislation, The continued development of ASAT weaponry threatens
the development of space weapons has continued into the the greater global satellite infrastructure as more states have
2010s and 2020s. Certain states have invested more in their increasingly democratized access to ASAT technologies. Such
overall space military infrastructure by installing new military access can potentially destabilize the network of satellites in
hardware in orbit, such as reconnaissance satellites or missile LEO, well within the range of many missile defenses or ballistic
guidance and navigation systems. Others have taken a more missile systems. Conversely, co-orbital ASAT weapons, usually
123
124
125
nti.org/learn/treaties-and-regimes/proposed-prevention-arms-race-space-paros-treaty/.
126 Todd Harrison, International Perspectives on Space Weapons (Washington, DC: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2010), https://
Todd Harrison, Kaitlyn Johnson, and Thomas G. Roberts, Space Threat Assessment 2019 (Washington DC: Center for Strategic and
International Studies, 2019. https://aerospace.csis.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/SpaceThreatAssessment2019-compressed.pdf.
128 Harrison, Johnson, and Roberts, “Space Threat.”
129 Brian Weeden and Victoria Samson. “India’s ASAT test is wake-up call for norms of behavior in space,” Space News, April 8, 2019,
https://spacenews.com/op-ed-indias-asat-test-is-wake-up-call-for-norms-of-behavior-in-space/.
CUrrEnT STaTUS |27
space. The OST has stringent measures regarding the use of
arm, pose an entirely different threat. These co-orbital ASAT nuclear weapons and other WMD in various regions of outer
weapons require some form of guidance technology that
allows them to directly or indirectly interfere or collide with the prohibition or even limitation of conventional weapons
a target satellite. They can lie dormant in orbit for extended development.135 Furthermore, existing test bans and partial
periods before being activated.130 In July 2020, Russia launched disarmament agreements fail to account for the development
a “projectile” from its Cosmos 2543 satellite that appears to
many within the international community to have been a test ground-based lasers. These applications, along with a host
of a co-orbital ASAT weapon.131 In line with a series of other of related and unrelated co-orbital variants, have continued
in-orbit tests by Russia, this test has drawn the ire of some to widen the divide between highly militarized space-capable
within the space demilitarization regime as an escalation of states and non-space-capable ones. Additionally, they
the country’s ongoing commitment to increased direct ascent have destabilized the complex interdependent network of
and co-orbital ASAT capability. warfare capabilities that deter states from overly destructive
However, outside of kinetic-kill ASAT technologies, a great engagements that help maintain global security. A persistent
variety of non-kinetic space weapons have been in use for threat from above may undermine this global security and
decades or are in development. Chief among these ASAT the diplomacy that it engenders.136 Delegates must critically
weapons classes is that of electronic and cyber Earth-to-space consider their countries’ public commitments to space
weapons. Some attacks are more theoretical or developmental.
These include directed-energy weapons, high-powered space weapons. Additionally, delegates must consider the
greater geopolitical context of these commitments and how
usually resulting from a nuclear blast.132 Other electronic these interplay with security and defense as a State priority.
ASAT weapons, such as radio frequency (RF) jamming, are DISEC is charged comprehensively considering these
less technologically sophisticated by comparison, utilized aspects of the current disarmament landscape and legislating
by states such as Iran, Egypt, and Libya to interfere with accordingly with UN principles.
satellite signals from ground stations on Earth.133 Outside of
the more generalized access to these technologies, they also Commercial Space Flight: The New Space
Race
They attack at the speed of light in a way that might not be
For the vast majority of the Space Age, the only way into space
noticeable to the satellite operator or easily attributable to
was on a launch vehicle developed by a military contractor
the attacking state, raising a whole host of complications
or government agency. Contractors would develop space
regarding the rules of engagement and accountability in space
technologies commissioned, owned, and operated exclusively
warfare.134
by the government in a model used to launch the most
A new space arms race remains the primary consequence ambitious space programs in history: the Apollo program, the
of the lack of legislation to classify and regulate the use Space Shuttle program, and the ISS. However, the focus on
or development of these technologies for deployment in
131 Hitoshi Nasu and Michael Schmidtt, “A Threat or a Warning: Russia’s Weapons Testing in Space,” Just Security, July 31, 2020, https://

133
135 Michel Bourbonnière and Ricky J. Lee, “Legality of the Deployment of Conventional Weapons in Earth Orbit: Balancing Space Law and
The European Journal of International Law Vol. 18 no. 5
136 Chelsea Gohd, “Everyone wants a Space Force — but why?,” Space.com
every-country-wants-space-force.html
Christian Davenport, “As private companies erode government’s hold on space travel, NASA looks to open a new frontier,” The Washington
28|C UrrEnT STaTUS
air-launch vehicle separated from a NASA B-52 aircraft in

141
A decade
later, commercial space company MirCorp collaborated with
funded space station expedition, to the Russian Mir space

station, which would be deorbited the following year.142
Despite this growing dependence on private companies for
privatization by various governments and corporations, the

use of private launch vehicles to deliver payloads to space
did not become a priority until the mid to late 2000s. This
change came with the undeniably disruptive entry of Space
Exploration Technologies Corp., SpaceX, into the private
SpaceX, an American aerospace manufacturer and NASA

contractor, was founded in 2002 by Elon Musk, with the
colonization of Mars.143 While many other companies that

came before it had similar goals, SpaceX was unique in that
it leveraged “a vertically integrated business model” that
Artist’s conception of Starship HLS landed on the Moon allowed SpaceX to “design, fabricate, prepare and operate
led to an almost nonexistent private launch market in the early a launch system” independently of other manufacturers or
2000s.138 Beginning with the US Communications Satellite Act government agencies.144 This essentially allowed SpaceX to
of 1962, countries like the US began to open satellite operations quickly develop, test, and produce launch-ready vehicles that
to private companies to “establish a [global] commercial were a fraction of the cost of alternatives available at the time.
communications system.”139 In 1980, France and the ESA
followed in the US’ footsteps. They established Arianespace, privately developed liquid fueled rocket to orbit the Earth.”145
The company’s phenomenal success, privately developing a
reliable launch vehicle capable of putting satellites in LEO,
transportation programs in history.140 In April 1990, Orbital coincided with a new contracting model employed by NASA,
Post,
138
139 Louis de Gouyon Matignon, “The Communications Satellite Act of 1962,” Space Legal Issues, February 14, 2019, https://www.
spacelegalissues.com/space-law-the-communications-satellite-act-of-1962/.
140 “Milestones,” Arianespace, accessed June 16, 2021, https://www.arianespace.com/company-milestones/decades/1980/#timeline-
year-1980.
141
www.northropgrumman.com/space/pegasus-rocket/.
142 Louis de Gouyon Matignon, “MirCorp, The First New Space Company,” Space Legal Issues, September 20, 2020, https://www.
143 “Mission,” SpaceX, accessed June 16, 2021, https://www.spacex.com/mission/.

144
falcon-1-5193845/.
145 “Commercial Crew & Cargo: SpaceX Successfully Launches Falcon 1 to Orbit,” National Aeronautics and Space Administration,
CUrrEnT STaTUS |29
146
only need to invest in research and development costs directly

Under this model, NASA would “call for a service” and allow
associated with their satellites as the launch technology
private contractors to “pitch their own ideas and vehicles”
is more widely available and accessible. This has led to the
to meet the requirements. In practice, this model allowed
more widespread proliferation of smaller, more specialized
SpaceX, after the successful launch of Falcon 1 powered by
satellites.152 While this is great for smaller researchers in
a single Merlin engine and proposal of the Falcon 9 to be
need of satellite technology, it has the transverse effect of
powered by nine Merlin engines, to receive the “Space Act
Agreement between NASA and SpaceX for Commercial
Orbital Transportation Services (COTS).”148 This contract internet satellite constellation.153 To date, the company has
berth (dock) with the ISS in May 2012, making SpaceX the its constellation.154 While this project, like other smallsat
constellations such as that of OneWeb, purports to provide
ISS.149 Just two years later, SpaceX would be awarded an over high-speed internet anywhere on Earth, over 2.5 percent of
three billion USD NASA Commercial Crew Transportation the Starlink satellites no longer have operational collision
Capability (CCtCap) contract to develop crewed transport to avoidance systems.155 This means that if SpaceX, OneWeb,
the ISS.150 In May 2020, SpaceX launched the Demo-2 mission and other companies successfully launch their constellations
using a crewed form of the Dragon capsule that had been consisting of several thousands of satellites, the amount of
debris and unpowered vehicles in LEO may increase by orders
of magnitude. This could create a potentially hazardous
launch vehicle to do so since the Space Shuttle was retired in environment for satellites and spacecraft in LEO and prove
2011.151 This string of successes over the last decade, coupled frustrating for ground-based astronomers.156
with similar strides by other US and international corporations,
has marked the dawn of a new Space Race in which private These advancements in the democratization of private
with either lax or nonexistent regulations by state governments
unintended consequences, however. Due to the decreased unique threat of prioritizing capital over the shared human
costs associated with reusable rocket boosters, streamlined effort of human exploration and resisting regulation that
and vertically integrated manufacturing, and private funding,
SpaceX and other similar launch vendors have offered a much
higher volume and variety of payloads for injection into LEO.
146
148 National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Space Act Agreement Between National Aeronautics and Space Administration and Space
Exploration Technologies Corp. for Commercial Orbital Transportation Services Demonstration (COTS), May 30, 2006, https://www.nasa.gov/centers/
149
accessed June 16, 2021, https://www.nasa.gov/content/cots-commercial-partners.
150
gov/content/commercial-crew-program-the-essentials#.VjOJ3berRaT.
151
152
153 Morgan McFall-Johnsen, “About 1 in 40 of SpaceX’s Starlink satellites may have failed. That’s not too bad, but across a 42,000-spacecraft
constellation it could spark a crisis,” Insider, November 3, 2020, https://www.businessinsider.com/spacex-starlink-internet-satellites-percent-
failure-rate-space-debris-risk-2020-10.
154 Ry Crist, “Starlink explained: Everything you should know about Elon Musk’s satellite internet venture,” CNET, June 30, 2021, https://
www.cnet.com/home/internet/starlink-satellite-internet-explained/.
155 McFall-Johnsen, “Starlink Could Spark Crisis.”
156
30|C UrrEnT STaTUS
maintained the current international disarmament regime.

The latest These prospects make it critically important for delegates to
keep the SDGs at the forefront of their considerations as
would react to a low gravity environment. The constant reuse the theoretical principles of disarmament and international
and development of rockets to become more attractive to security coalesce with the practical realities of an entirely new
customers also may eventually assist in going even further domain of human exploration.
into space, improving humanity’s understanding of outer
space. DISEC is charged with comprehensively legislating
and potentially dangerous consequences as a sphere for
the degree and conditions by which private entities may
develop and operate space technologies to bring the best
SDG 9: Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure encourages
out of private space travel. Additionally, delegates are tasked
states to “build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and
with balancing the rights of private vendors and the possible sustainable industrialization and foster innovation.”159 As a
function of space demilitarization, this principle essentially
of free and fair space exploration and safe orbital conditions. tasks states with creating space technologies that “increase
These challenges are even more relevant as private vendors the living standards of all people” and advance the skill-based
are now closer than ever to achieving their ambitions of and technological components of industrial innovation.160
creating privately funded and developed human settlements SDG 10: Reduce Inequalities coincides with SDG 9 as it calls
on celestial bodies like the Moon and Mars. for the “reduction of inequalities in and among countries.”161
Space technologies can increase “connectivity in remote and
Sustainable Development Goals isolated areas,” encourage “remote participation in democratic
In 2015, to address the extant challenges facing human processes,” and create “reliable access to information.”162 In
prosperity as a general goal, the UN and its member states this way, a demilitarized outer space can strengthen institutions
adopted the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda. This and serve as a nexus in which developed and developing
states can establish an equal footing in which historical
that are an “urgent call for action by all countries” to realize
exploration. Similarly, SDG 12: Responsible Consumption
the Agenda’s “shared blueprint for peace and prosperity for
people and the planet, now and into the future.”158 These
consumption and production patterns that promote energy
goals are at the forefront of every UN endeavor and are at
the heart of DISEC’s consideration of the demilitarization
to a better quality of life for all.163 As space technologies
of outer space. Space serves as an economic domain in which
become an increasingly prevalent part of daily life, delegates
must also consider how these changes affect consumption
and production patterns and how they might be leveraged to
Additionally, space serves as a legislative domain in which the
build a more sustainable future.
member states must critically consider the complex networks
of diplomatic and military interactions that created and have Of more obvious concern to DISEC is the interplay of
Rebecca Heilweil, “How bad is space tourism for the environment? And other space travel questions, answered,” Vox
158
159 “Goal 9,” United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, accessed June 16, 2021, https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal9.
160
June 16, 2021, https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/space4sdgs/sdg9.html.
162
ourwork/space4sdgs/sdg10.html,
163
unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/space4sdgs/sdg12.html.
bloC analySIS |31
“make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient,
legislative and collaborative aspects of the global disarmament and sustainable.” There is already a considerable overlap
between SDG 11 and space exploration. Space technologies
Institutions charges member states to promote “peaceful and are useful in urban planning, developing smart cities
inclusive societies…provide access to justice for all, and build dependent on satellite data, waste management systems and
effective, accountable, and inclusive institutions at all levels.”164 other city services, air quality and infrastructure monitoring,
This has been an area in which the global disarmament regime disaster management, and search-and-rescue operations.168
has lapsed regarding space demilitarization. The international Space technologies are already deeply intertwined with human
community depends on the disputed and ambiguous clauses settlements on Earth. Thus it is the responsibility of DISEC
of a 50-year-old treaty to legislate all the modern nuances to understand this interplay between human settlements on
of space exploration. Individual state legislators have been Earth and the space-based services that keep them running.
largely ambivalent if not encouraged by the boom in private However, the prospect of human settlements in space or on
celestial bodies is on the horizon. Delegates must also consider
launches and operations in LEO. Furthermore, space is how these settlements might be sustainably developed to be
proactive in human space colonization rather than reactive. A
well-rounded and comprehensive understanding of the SDGs,
the work of each Member State to realize them through their
space exploration practices and policies, and their interactions
resolutions to space demilitarization that react to the
with practical realities will empower delegates to make more
informed and sustainable resolutions.
law in space to promote a more sustainable and effective
is perhaps the only way to achieve any of the other goals. Bloc Analysis
Tasked with “strengthen[ing] the means of implementation
Blocs are separated primarily by access to space capabilities
and revitaliz[ing] global partnerships,” member states must
and secondarily by using those capabilities for active
work multilaterally to consider the intricate interactions that
military operations. Some states have had access to launch
make up the global disarmament regime and strengthen
vehicles, ground-based infrastructure, research facilities, and
it. Where possible, those relationships may lead to further
massive amounts of funding for space programs since the
global understanding and cooperation towards sustainable
1950s. These countries have much better access to space
development.165 The successful realization of the other SDGs
technologies, including intricate, multi-purpose, reliable
“requires partnerships between governments, the private
satellite constellations and launch vehicles powerful enough
sector, and civil society.”166 By working towards SDGs 16
to send payloads and crews to bodies as distant as Mars, the
Sun, or even the outer edges of the Solar System. The major
that have prevented new treaties, legislation, and international
players of the current space race also are more likely to be the
collaborations on the peaceful uses of outer space.
host country to large private aerospace companies that operate
One of the most important SDGs for the future of space either independently or in conjunction with their governments.
exploration is SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities.
SDG 11 makes it the collective goal of all Member States to younger space programs with far more limited capabilities,
165
166
“Goal 11,” United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, accessed June 16, 2021, https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal11.
168
org/oosa/en/ourwork/space4sdgs/sdg11.html.
32|b loC analySIS
making them less likely to develop military operations in notably expressed in the announcement of the establishment
space. They invest most of their space exploration capital of the US Space Force as an independent branch of the US
into worthwhile ventures such as communications or weather
satellite launches in LEO. They are also more likely to utilize maintain US superiority in outer space. He stated, “when
the services of more space-capable states or private companies it comes to defending America, it is not enough to merely
within them to bolster their own space exploration endeavors. have an American presence in space. We must have American
Finally, many states have not invested in space technologies
at all due to their economic situation or technological and domain.” China and Russia have also made notable progress
in developing their military structure specialized in space,
from space exploration provided by other countries. Members
of each bloc may have varying views on the degree to which in China. In contrast, Russia has received constant international
space should be explicitly excluded from military operations attention and criticism for testing anti-satellite missiles and
dependent on the developmental capacity and public support
for such ambitious and expensive operations. Furthermore, However, despite the constant demonstration of force and
states within each bloc may have varying interpretations of manifestation by government authorities, the development of
existing legal frameworks for space exploration and peaceful militarized structures aiming for so-called space superiority
exploitation of space resources and technologies. is not necessarily a preparation, and much less an invitation,
States with Active Military Space Infrastructure efforts to building a navy in seafaring nations, which resumes
Countries with active military space infrastructure and securing the domination of determinate locations, deterring
operations include the likes of the US, China, and Russia, which threats, and controlling activities of said area. The mentality
have not only been deeply invested in space technologies since
the 1950s but have had all those decades to consider, develop, avoiding losing it through demonstration of strength and
and implement military operations in outer space. Members intent. Nevertheless, the comparisons between space and sea
of this bloc usually have their devoted space agencies such
national claims.
as NASA and ROSCOSMOS and private space companies
such as SpaceX, Blue Origin, and Virgin Galactic. Due to their Many states may fall with the same aspirations as the major
powers when using and exploiting space, including by military
the highest producers of space debris and the greatest investors and weaponized organizations. Several different countries,
in space debris cleanup efforts. Most pressingly, these states some of which are emerging space powers, have also pursued
tend to be the primary actors in military space operations, the military use of space. India is perhaps the best example
developing space weapons, ASAT weapons, and planning of an emerging space power that aims to use its military
outposts on celestial bodies. While they often posture and capabilities within its environment, conducting anti-satellite
weapons tests in the past years. Other countries, such as Iran,
from these blocs conversely propose or develop policies and also have military goals in mind with the use of space, even
programs contrary to these principles, attempting to achieve without having advanced space programs. Nevertheless, this
or display the image of space superiority. bloc would not work together, as military alliances and rivalries
are obstacles to direct cooperation. Even in this condition,
Space superiority is the leading objective that motivates the
their delegations would push for similar liberties on their
increasing investments made to develop and create weapons operation, even different inclinations depending on their own
for use in outer space. This ideology was most recently and
bloC analySIS |33
regional or individual interests. purposes. However, the proposal suffered harsh criticisms for
also permitting the “consideration for the legitimate defense
States with Demilitarized, Active Space interests of states,” which could be used to justify investment
Programs
in space forces. Furthermore, countries such as Brazil,
Countries with demilitarized, active space programs are similar China, India, and Russia are yet to sign the document. They
claim that it could limit the possibilities of the development
sponsored space exploration. However, they may have younger of space programs in developing countries.
and less developed programs which are unlikely to be involved
Japan is another country that has initially received praises
in military operations. This bloc includes Australia, Belarus,
for gaining the label of a space power while also engaging
Belgium, Canada, Germany, Italy, Japan, Ukraine, and other
in peaceful uses of space. The country is known for the use
EU members.169 These states have relatively diverse views on
of robotics in its space missions. While other space powers
space demilitarization with varying geopolitical effects. While
have developed technologies to guarantee their superiority
some may favor demilitarization, others envision some degree
in space, some of Japan’s recent advances in space have
of militarization, mainly for protection from other countries’
included the retrieval of unique fragments and objects from
military forces. These countries may take advantage of the
space to research and innovative ideas to tackle the excess of
They may contract with these companies or other public space debris. The Asian country has also employed “space
space agencies to achieve their space exploration goals. Most diplomacy,” offering to exchange knowledge and technology
states within this bloc do take the stance that peaceful use of with other countries to further develop their program.
outer space and celestial bodies necessitates a ban on military However, the militarization of space programs in neighboring
engagements, hostile or friendly. countries, such as North Korea and China, has prompted
Japan to invest in space technology to protect its national
The European Union, for example, has been the most security. Therefore, it is necessary to spot a similarity between
predominant advocate at the international stage for the peaceful the Japanese and the European Union’s policy on space
use of space and its equitable exploration. The continental exploration. Although focused on peaceful use, both powers
union consistently prevents the export of weapons of mass
destruction and ensures global disarmament, culminating in their space programs. While they may view it as necessary to
In guarantee certain rights of military defense, their worries of
national protection should also prevent them from accepting
on behalf of the European Union emphasizing that “outer proposals to liberal on the use of space weapons.
of mankind, and that preventing a space arms race was Finally, with the further accessibility to technology and the
essential to safeguard humankind’s use of outer space. The necessity, many states have started or had plans to create
their national space programs, aiming to reach international
Conduct for Outer Space Activities, which aimed to reduce relevance regarding the subject and develop economically
orbital debris and freedom of access to space for peaceful and technologically. Australia is perhaps the most recent
169 “New Cooperation Agreement between ESA and Canada strengthens long-term partnership,” European Space Agency, September 4,
European Council, accessed September 1, 2021, https://www.consilium.

europa.eu/en/council-eu/preparatory-bodies/working-party-on-non-proliferation-and-arms-exports/.
https://www.un.org/disarmament/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/19-Oct-EU-OuterSpace.pdf.
Micah Zenko, “A Code of Conduct for Outer Space,” Council on Foreign Relations, November 30, 2011, https://www.cfr.org/report/
code-conduct-outer-space.
The Diplomat, January 25, 2020, https://thediplomat.
34|b loC analySIS
example of a new yet ambitious space program that, while countries’ space programs. The most obvious examples are
part of the military division of its government, is not aimed countries that, despite having small, new, or no active space
at participating in the space arms race. With its operations programs or organizations, have constructed launch sites to
only starting in 2020, the Australian Space Agency was created send rockets and satellites to space.
This is the case with New Zealand, Kazakhstan, and the

economy and coordinate Australia’s already existing satellite
Marshall Islands, where launch sites were constructed with
network, which are currently used for activities such as
other countries’ investments with more extensive programs
mining and farming. Mexico is another example of a more
or private companies in the New Zealander case. Apart
recent space program that, although established in 2010, still
from allowing the launch of their very own small satellites,
has no infrastructure and is used mainly for educational and
the sites offer a source of income from the use of these
research purposes. However, Mexico has recently created
locations, but most importantly, provide a unique opportunity
more audacious plans to become a regional space power,
for technological exchanges that may boost structural and
proposing a Latin American and European Space Agency.
economic development domestically. Brazil, for example,
Those are only two examples of countries that, despite not
has recently invested heavily in its launch site, the Alcântara
having a widely structured space program, have aspirations
Launch Center, planning to turn it into the predominant
launch site for small rockets and satellites due to its cheaper
countries would certainly keep in mind the need to protect
costs and equatorial location.180 Recently, the Brazilian
their own programs in the long run, they would be interested
government closed a deal with one of the biggest private
in fostering a peaceful environment to grow their space
space exploration companies, Virgin Orbit, to improve their
programs. However, they would not agree to many limitations
launch capabilities.181 Argentina, on the other hand, has taken a
that could impact their growth.
different approach. Instead of partnering with private entities,
it has closed an agreement with the European Space Agency
Exploration and China to build space research and exploration stations
in its territory. The inclusion of China led to accusations of
While investments in space exploration and funding of large-
espionage by the United States.182
scale space programs remain a very restricted activity for most
to get into, the current integration of the global economy has
caused many countries to indirectly become involved in the explicitly used for space missions and launches, other
“space economy.” Furthermore, while few countries have
developed all the checklists needed for a total space expedition, services needed to prepare and develop a successful space
the widespread technological advancements of the area have operation. Space programs need a plethora of products and
resulted in some countries playing essential roles in other services that include spacecraft and launch materials, fuel,
“Australian Space Agency opens in Adelaide,” Australian Government Department of Industry, Science, Energy and Resources, February 19, 2020,
https://www.industry.gov.au/news/australian-space-agency-opens-in-adelaide.
Belinda Smith, “What is Australia’s space division, and why is it in the military?,” ABC News, May 12, 2021, https://www.abc.net.au/
Mitú, September 29, 2020, https://
wearemitu.com/wearemitu/things-that-matter/mexican-space-program-wants-to-be-the-hub-of-latin-americas-space-industry-and-this-is-
their-incredible-plan/.
NBC News, May 3, 2021, https://www.nbcnews.
com/science/space/latin-america-looks-space-limitations-ground-rcna814.
Michael Greshko, “See all the world’s active rocket launch sites,” National Geographic, October 4, 2018, https://www.nationalgeographic.
com/science/article/news-spaceports-cosmodromes-maps-world-space-week.
180 Loren Grush, “Brazil’s Launch Site Is In A Great Location, But Will Us Rocket Companies Want To Use It?,” The Verge, March 21, 2019,
181 “Virgin Orbit selected to Bring Orbital Launch Capabilities to Brazil,” Virgin Orbits, April 21, 2021, https://virginorbit.com/the-latest/
virgin-orbit-selected-to-bring-orbital-launch-capabilities-to-brazil/.
182 Cassandra Garrison, “China’s military-run space station in Argentina is a ‘black box’,” Reuters, January 31, 2019, https://www.reuters.
bloC analySIS |35
communication systems, and software, creating a network from liquid hydrogen.189 Canada, a global leader in hydrogen
of commodities exchanges that connect many countries to
the overall success of space exploration.183 In this regard, demand, especially due to its proximity to the United States,
the production of aluminum and titanium became a vital as most space fuel is produced close to the launch site.190
part of space exploration and its use for natural security, as Other countries such as Chile, Norway, and South Korea were
they provide the mainframe for rockets and missiles since already preparing hydrogen-based fuels initially to produce
they are both resistant and lightweight.184 As a result, primary green energy. However, hydrogen-based fuels also create new
aluminum and titanium exporters are essential players in the opportunities to assume an important position in the global
“space economy.” Even though some of the biggest producers space market.191
also have expansive space power, such as China, India, and
Russia, countries like the United States and private companies
from increased space operations, and strategic location,
expertise in determining service, or abundance in particular
space economy.
resources are all factors that might include countries in the
Under this aspect, the United Arab Emirates and Australia, space supply chain. Countries in this bloc would be more
willing to accept bigger liberalization in the occupation and
use of space, especially by players that would include them in
with Australian businesses among the largest exporters. South the network of services, whether states or private companies.
Africa is the second-largest titanium producer in the world, Nonetheless, the bloc would not be open to complete
only behind China.185186 Other countries such as Bahrain, the liberalization to global powers, as they would be harmed by
seventh-largest aluminum producer worldwide, consider the uncontrollable abuses such as the insecurity of an exacerbated
export of this commodity to be a crucial part of their economy space arms race or the crash of excessive waste. They also
want to explore and make use of what outer space has to
Additionally, while some countries are not producers of the offer.
materials, they have mines of their own explored from overseas
States Without a Space Presence
from their increased value, as with African countries such as
Finally, there is a bloc of states that lack a considerable space
Kenya, Madagascar, Mozambique, and Senegal.188
presence or any sort of space capabilities. These states are
Metal raw materials are not, however, the only products needed becoming increasingly rare as space technologies, at least
to launch a spaceship or satellite. Fuel is another crucial piece in a limited sense, are becoming more affordable and easily
of the puzzle that is intrinsic to the operation of any space accessible. Additionally, there are projects underway by
or military vehicle, and for space exploration is extracted UNOOSA and other organizations to increase capacity-
183 Bureau of Industry and Security, U.S. Space Industry “Deep Dive” Assessment: Impact Of U.S. Export Controls on the Space Industrial Base
(Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Industry and Security, 2014), https://www.bis.doc.gov/index.php/documents/technology-evaluation/898-
184 U.S. Department of Commerce, The Effect of Imports of Aluminum on the National Security (Washington D.C.:Bureau of Industry and
185 Investing News, April 29, 2021, https://investingnews.com/daily/resource-

investing/industrial-metals-investing/aluminum-investing/aluminum-producing-countries/.
186 “Mine production of titanium minerals worldwide in 2020, by country,” Statista, accessed September 1, 2021, https://www.statista.com/
188 “Mine production of titanium minerals worldwide in 2020, by country,”

189 “Liquid Hydrogen--the Fuel of Choice for Space Exploration,” NASA, accessed September 1, 2021, https://www.nasa.gov/topics/
190 The Canadian Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Association, accessed September 1, 2021, http://
191 Power, February 1, 2021, https://www.powermag.
com/countries-roll-out-green-hydrogen-strategies-electrolyzer-targets/.
36|C oMMITTEE MISSIon
building in space exploration to increase accessibility to the Members of this bloc tend to be broadly in favor of the
skills, facilities, and technologies necessary to conduct space existing more stringent interpretations of international
expeditions.192 Countries within this bloc include, among space law, namely the prohibition of military activities in
others, Armenia, Cambodia, Myanmar, Serbia, and Uruguay. space, including the deployment of space weapons or even
Like those in the previous bloc, these states may contract ASAT systems. Additionally, they tend to favor measures that
with other countries’ space agencies or private companies more equally distribute the products of space travel, such
to establish space infrastructure like communications and
weather satellites.193 However, these systems are rarely
developed in-house and are much more limited than states
with more advanced space programs. for capacity-building programs to help mentor and support
their path to space infrastructure research and development.
Although countries in this bloc are far from being space
Countries in this bloc might also give bigger legitimacy, power,
and importance to previous UN treaties and positions, such as
that does not mean that they do not have policies regarding
those of the UNOOSA, that space is meant for the common
space exploration. Many of them have plans to establish
good of all and should be explored peacefully equally.
Countries such as Costa Rica and Nicaragua, for example, have

already started legal and logistical processes to create their Committee Mission
space program, even without the expectation of becoming
The First Committee is responsible for “disarmament, global
global powers.194 Ghana, Gabon, Ethiopia, and Nigeria are
challenges and threats to peace that affect the international
among some of the countries that followed the same steps,
community.”198
and foreign investment from smaller countries helped double
discussion, and resolution drafting on all matters of
global government spending on space programs in the past
disarmament and international security within the scope of
the UN Charter. Thus, any international issue or situation
billion in the start of the previous decade.195Investment in
that threatens the international disarmament regime or global
space technology has been appointed to address developmental
peace and security is within the First Committee’s jurisdiction.
challenges, primarily by facilitating the deployment of satellites
DISEC is obligated to discuss and hopefully resolve any such
that might be used for communication, trade, environmental
matter following the principles of cooperation and engagement
protection, and many other purposes. Many also argue that
creating a space program might give the opportunity to
a unique domain in that it is both effective and available to all
be included in international space policy and agreements
life on Earth, yet it has only been directly accessible to a select
concerning the use of outer space, even though most small
few States throughout history.
countries share the position that any country can be harmed
by irresponsible use of space, be it by international tension or Despite the best efforts of twentieth-century legislators, both
fallen debris, and therefore any country should have legitimate States and private companies alike have continued to consider
space in the discussion.196 and utilize outer space as if it were a resource to be claimed
192 “Capacity- Building,” UNOOSA, accessed September 1, 2021, https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/topics/capacity-building.
html.
193 Akshat Rathi, “How can poor countries afford space programmes?,” The Economist, November 4, 2013, https://www.economist.com/
the-economist-explains/2013/11/04/how-can-poor-countries-afford-space-programmes.
194
195 The Moguldom Nation, April 18, 2016,
https://moguldom.com/123539/why-are-poverty-stricken-african-countries-investing-in-space-programs/.
196
UNOOSA, accessed September 2, 2021, https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/
ourwork/copuos/index.html.
198
CoMMITTEE MISSIon |37
and conquered by any entity powerful enough to reach and
defend it. This stands antithetical to the rules of engagement
acknowledged by all countries that restrain state forces from
inhumane or catastrophic practices and the principles of
space exploration that most states prescribe to. Earth’s orbits
have been clogged with debris, satellites, and even potential
weapons that could wreak havoc on the network of satellites
that support nearly all large-scale infrastructure on Earth.
This poses a direct threat to the security of states without
well-developed space military infrastructure and to the entire
global system of military posturing that prevents states from
adopting overly warlike attitudes. DISEC faces a litany of
challenges to a sustainable resolution. Some of these are: several
highly space-capable states are resistant to regulation and
demilitarization, transparency and accountability within and
between states regarding space weapons development are low,
discourage states from advocating for increased regulation.

However, DISEC delegates must face these challenges from
a diplomatic perspective, seeking to understand other states’
circumstances and propose sustainable solutions for the entire
domain for humanity to explore and exploit. Without clear

guidance on how exactly humankind should go about that
exploration, it could lead to war and inequality on an even
grander scale than anything hitherto experienced on Earth.
DISEC
NHSMUN 2022
Topic B:
Finding and Eliminating Anti-Personnel Landmines
ToPIC b: fInDIng anD ElIMInaTIng anTI-PErSonnEl lanDMInES
InTroDUCTIon |39
Introduction
ten million stockpiled mines that need to be destroyed, impacting land use and protection for
communities worldwide.1
exploded by the presence, proximity or contact of a person and that will incapacitate, injure or kill
one or more persons.”2 This Convention banned the use of landmines internationally, but to this day,
some states continue to contribute to the proliferation of anti-personnel landmines.3 This ongoing
production and distribution of landmines must be addressed to protect the health and wellbeing of
the international community.
Landmines buried in the ground during times of war can over time. For example, Israel has proliferated landmines in
Egypt, Lebanon, and Syria without providing maps of the
They are usually delivered by aircraft or projected from a device 8
on the ground and scattered across vast stretches of land or

4
Over time, landmines move farther and time-consuming. In addition, the equipment used is not
underground if they are not detonated.5 Because they vary always totally successful.9
for landmines may still have some that remain a threat to
and often go unnoticed by children and adults. Blasts from surrounding communities, especially if those communities
landmines are devastating, especially when detonated below a believe the region to be safe following the treatments.10
civilian’s foot, often leaving them paralyzed or deceased.6 As
Increases in reporting strategies for landmines have reduced
a result, they put countless human lives, infrastructure, and
civilian homes at risk.
personnel landmines remain a threat to innocent civilians,
with an estimated 40 million mines destroyed and large
consuming undertaking that can be especially challenging tracts of land now declared available for productive use.11
for developing states with limited economic resources to Organizations for eliminating landmines, including the
dedicate to locating and destroying anti-personnel landmines. Cluster Munition Monitor, have collaborated with the United
States who deploy landmines will usually withhold their Nations (UN) to address this pertinent threat.12 The Cluster
location from other governments, causing them to be lost Munition Monitor has helped completely clear landmines and
1
landmines/.
2
convention%20antipersonnel%20mines.pdf.
3 Document 44.
4 Document 44.
5 Monitoring and Research Committee, ICBL-CMC Governance Board, Cluster Munition Monitor 2020 (Serbia: International Campaign to
6 Document 44.
Gregory L. Bier, “The economic impact of landmines on developing countries,” International Journal of Social Economics 30(5) (May 2003):
8 Cluster Munition Monitor 2020.
9 BBC Future
10
11
clusters of munitions out of many states, including Croatia states to protect equipment, territory, or a military base from
and Montenegro.13 However, without accurate information an enemy during international disputes. Anti-personnel
mapping, the precise location of anti-personnel landmines landmines resulted in an estimated 6,500 deaths and injuries
remains challenging to determine. The varying compositions in 2015 alone.18 Unlike other weapons, anti-personnel mines
of landmines also pose barriers to detection. For instance,
landmines made out of plastic materials go unnoticed by requires extensive personal protective equipment, although,
metal detectors, which are most commonly used to identify in some cases, even this equipment cannot protect trained
the location of these weapons.14 Other challenges include individuals from the impact of ruptured mines.19 As many
landmines were distributed.15 Given the gravity of these issues, of existing landmines are either nonexistent or incomplete,
it is imperative to act quickly to identify remaining landmines the UN recommends considering the impact of mines on
and prevent further obstacles to development. communities to hold a productive discussion rather than
focusing exclusively on quantities of landmines.20
Eliminating landmines in the ground and stockpiles will place
the global community closer to achieving the Sustainable
Development Goals by 2030.16 undischarged in the environment. If pressure or force is
measures and landmine monitoring can help destroy remnants applied to the cap of a landmine, the mine detonates. This
of war and move societies towards peace-building. In addition creates a tremendous explosion directly beneath the individual
to the prevention and elimination of anti-personnel landmines, or device that triggered the mine.21 More than 22,000 civilians
the international community must treat and support the annually face death or injury by explosive weapons and
victims of landmine accidents as an essential community remnants of war, including improvised explosive devices
health measure. A mine-free world requires partnerships (IEDs) and landmines.22 The blast from a landmine can
and solutions that implement safety measures and prevent execute entire platoons, groups of civilians, and even children.
landmine incidents in the future.
where young children and civilians walk in agriculture or
History and Description of the Issue the victims of tragedy from landmine accidents.23 Moreover,
children who encounter anti-personnel blast mines often
Anti-Personnel Landmine Composition
face numerous health conditions, including amputation.24
Anti-personnel landmines hold powerful explosive capabilities The impacts of landmines on civilians and society, especially
and can be found below or on the surface of the ground. The
the destructive nature of anti-personnel landmines.
14 The New York Times, November 4, 1999, https://www.nytimes.
15 “Egyptian desert: new technologies for landmine detection,” North Atlantic Treaty Organization, April 3, 2014, https://www.nato.int/cps/
18
19 The United Nations Mine Action Strategy 2019-2023,
20 “How many landmines are in the ground worldwide?” United Nations Dag Hammarskjold Library, December 10, 2019, https://ask.
un.org/faq/14494.
21 LANDMINES, EXPLOSIVE REMNANTS OF WAR AND IED SAFETY HANDBOOK (New York: United Nations, 2015), https://
22 UNICEF
protecting-children-from-explosive-weapons.
23 A study of the military use and effectiveness of anti-personnel mines
24 A study of the military use and effectiveness of anti-personnel mines.
A stockpile of anti-personnel landmines
These explosive devices belong to two categories: anti- encounter when walking.28 Considering that the fragmentation
personnel blast mines and fragmentation mines.25 Anti- mines are larger, the impact from detonating the mine can be
personnel blast mines are typically hidden beneath the ground fatal to multiple individuals simultaneously.
or surrounding shrubbery to conceal them from the foot
soldier. Its compact size allows military groups to deploy mines
1, 1999. It “prohibits the use, stockpiling, production, and
for simple dispersal.26 As a result of the small size of these transfer of anti-personnel landmines” and demands that all
landmines, the impact from the explosion is typically not fatal, states party eliminate their anti-personnel landmines within
but the shock could result in injury or the loss of extremities. four years and holdings within 10 years.29 The Treaty allows
On the other hand, anti-personnel fragmentation mines are countries to have an extension of up to 10 years to achieve
similar to grenades since they are composed of metals with a such a goal. As of 2018, 36 countries, including China, India,
30
detonator, internal striker, and an explosive charge. However,
fragmentation mines are inserted below the land’s surface with These states have anti-personnel stockpiles that could be
wood dug into the ground. The wood is then attached to a detrimental to their cities or others nearby if dispersed and
tripwire found at the top of the landmine, which foot soldiers detonated.
25 Robert Keeley, “Understanding Landmines and Mine Action,” Mines Action Canada, September 2003, https://web.mit.edu/demining/
assignments/understanding-landmines.pdf.
26 Keeley, “Understanding Landmines and Mine Action.”
A study of the military use and effectiveness of anti-personnel mines.
28 Keeley, “Understanding Landmines and Mine Action.”
29 Arms Control Association
www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/ottawasigs.
30
Various non-governmental organizations such as the a more exact sensor. Anti-personnel landmines were initially
International Campaign to Ban Landmines (ICBL) have used defensively to protect anti-tank mines, safeguard crucial
tried to estimate the number of mines active at this time. areas, and restrict the enemy’s movement.38 These modernized
However, it is challenging to determine the exact number devices were far more precise and deadly and have been in
circulation since.
of devices.31 The locality and range in which landmines can
Mechanics developed new technologies in the mid-1950s
land causes it to be challenging to have an exact count on
that dug trenches in the soil and mechanically placed mines
the amount of undeployed weaponry remaining in the soil.
there.39 During the North African Campaign in World War
Self-destructing anti-personnel mines have also been used
II, anti-personnel landmines were laid throughout North
develop.32 Of the 11 countries currently producing landmines, Africa and Europe.40 Land mines were employed copiously
only a couple are working on self-destructive landmine by both sides of the war to help seize control of the region.
technology. These countries include the US and China. Self- From France to Russia, the metals in uncleared landmines left
destructive landmines are less harmful to the population
because the destruction period is between 4 hours and 15 cultivate and threatening citizens.41 Moreover, in the North
days.33 This brief period before detonation is more conducive
34
States with high numbers of prompted forces to use pre-planned landmines to guard
landmines present in their land, as calculated by the ICBL, their military positions. After World War II, maps of mined
including Finland, Greece, Sweden, and Turkey.35 Considering areas were handed over to governments and used to detect
where mines remained. Unfortunately, many of these maps
Mine Ban Treaty, they will likely disperse more mines in were inaccurate upon visiting the documented locations
the next few years.36 These dispersions will result in further and thus did not help detect landmines in states involved in
casualties. As landmine technologies continue to increase and the war.42
change, the international community must put greater effort mines laid throughout Egypt and Libya in 1942, and many
into addressing the threat of landmines. remnants remain today. The sand movement and other natural
movements have shifted many of these mines away from their
Historical Use of Landmines original positions, and thus they have become lost over time.
Landmines have become more advanced over time. Engineers As technological advancements unfolded, anti-personnel
landmines were distributed in alternate ways. These methods
in the 1800s during the United States Civil War. However, ranged from simply planting them into the ground to
dropping them over a region by aircraft or artillery shells.43
during World War II, which used more metal and featured For instance, during the Vietnam War from 1958 to 1968,
33
34
35 “Disarm,”
aspx.
36
“A History of Landmines,” International Campaign to Ban Landmines, accessed September 12, 2021, http://www.icbl.org/en-gb/
problem/a-history-of-landmines.aspx#:~:text= , .
38 International Campaign to Ban Landmines, “A History of Landmines.”
39 International Campaign to Ban Landmines, “Disarm.”
40 International Committee of the Red Cross, Anti-personnel Landmines Friend or Foe? (Geneva: International Committee of the Red Cross,
41 Anti-personnel Landmines Friend or Foe?

43
landmines were planted in the region formerly known as
Indochina in Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam.44 In these areas, on the Use of Mines, Booby-Traps, and Other Devices, which
landmines were used as a method of defense against land outlines amendments to the CCW, was implemented in 1996.52
were not adequately recorded, there are still potentially active using remotely-delivered mines and those directly placed into
mines in these regions.45 Many of the landmines in Vietnam the earth.53
and neighboring countries have become lost in the jungle-like to use anti-personnel mines which are not detectable.” Thus,
landscape. anyone that deploys landmines must report their use to the
54
The historical use of landmines continues to cause casualties in

46
Military forces dispersed landmines to protect the the present day. The Landmine and Cluster Munition Monitor
territory along the Kashmir border, a region claimed by India is an international organization that documents casualties and
However, the threat posed by these landmines activated mines or explosive remnants of war.55 According
persists, as neither country has signed onto the Ottawa to the Landmine Monitor 2019 report, “the global casualties
Convention, and removal efforts have proved to be both costly total since 1999 has increased every reporting year due to
and dangerous.48 Additionally, from 1960–1994, South Africa new casualties recorded and also to the updating of historical
deployed landmines against insurgent forces during the era data with newly available statistics.”56 This report also states
of apartheid and the movement for Namibian independence
that Afghanistan, Colombia, Iraq, Mali, Nigeria, Ukraine, and
from South Africa.49 The use of anti-personnel landmines
Yemen had over 100 casualties due to landmines in 2019. All
has caused over 250,000 casualties since 1961 among South
of these countries are parties to the Ottawa Convention.58 For
African citizens alone.50 The impact of these weapons often
there remain requirements for monitoring landmines in the

which they were planted.
country. Monitoring landmines include accurately recording
After consistent use of anti-personnel landmines, countries
worldwide adopted the Convention on Certain Conventional the casualties they cause. Countries should continue to record
Weapons (CCW) in Geneva in 1980, which implemented casualties to adequately address the impacts of landmines
restrictions on conventional weapons, including anti-personnel within their borders, which have persisted since their initial
landmines51 Adaptations to the CCW include its second and deployment.
britannica.com/place/Indochina.
Nawal Ali and Fouziya Tehzeeb, “‘A ghost that haunts’: Living with landmines in Kashmir,” Al Jazeera, https://www.
planted,to%20the%20Mine%20Ban%20Treaty.
48 Ali and Tehzeeb, “‘A ghost that haunts’: Living with landmines in Kashmir.”
49 Anti-personnel Landmines Friend or Foe?
50 Alex Vines, Still Killing Landmines in Southern Africa
51 International Committee of the Red Cross, Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, (Geneva: International Committee of the Red Cross,
52 Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons.

55 “Landmine Monitor 2019,” Landmine and Cluster Munition Monitor, accessed September 12, 2021, http://www.the-monitor.org/
available%20data.
56 Landmine and Cluster Munition Monitor, “Landmine Monitor 2019.”
LANDMINE MONITOR 2020 (Geneva: International Campaign to Ban Landmines, November 2020), http://www.the-monitor.org/
media/3168934/LM2020.pdf
58 LANDMINE MONITOR 2020.
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are actively treaty. For example, Greece and Ukraine have missed their
working to support the efforts initiated by these international deadlines for stockpile destruction. The ICBL estimates
treaties. For example, groups such as the International that Ukraine has 4.9 million anti-personnel landmines
Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) have made great 62
Initiatives are currently
efforts to eliminate landmines deployed during civil unrest under consideration, requiring all landmines used outside
in countries like Colombia and Venezuela.59 Furthermore,
the ICBL is heavily involved in the monitoring of the goals mechanisms. The most common landmines are known as
contained in the Ottawa Convention.60 By urging governments “dumb mines,” which are unable to destruct themselves.63
to fund victim aid programs and mine clearances, the ICBL
However, the CCW states that all landmines should have
61
self-destructive capabilities to minimize the harm of “dumb
This movement toward eliminating international stockpiles
mines” across the globe.64 Using mines that do not self-
of landmines hopes to be effective in ending the use of
destruct is harmful to community members long after violent
landmines.
Several countries retain stockpiles, despite being party to the humanitarian effort to save the landscape from the potential
59 The City Paper Bogota, April 6, 2021,

60 “Treaty in Detail,” International Campaign to Ban Landmines, accessed September 12, 2021, http://www.icbl.org/en-gb/the-treaty/
treaty-in-detail/frequently-asked-questions.aspx#:~:text=The%20ICBL%20serves%20as%20the,Meetings%20of%20the%20States%20
.
63 “A History of Landmines,” International Campaign to Ban Landmines, accessed September 12, 2021, http://www.icbl.org/en-gb/
problem/a-history-of-landmines.aspx
64
disarmament/ccw-amended-protocol-ii/.
distractions and deployment of any more landmines. 69
This
Regions Largely Affected by Anti-personnel severely impacted by the existence of landmines.

Landmines
Landmines also have a profound negative impact on civilian
Landmine destruction can come in two variations, as outlined
communities. In Cambodia, there are currently an estimated
by the Human Rights Watch (HRW). Direct impacts include
35,000 amputees injured by landmines. These striking
“effects, alterations, and disruptions caused to the natural
environment and/or its components at the moment and
1992, Cambodia started the Cambodian Mine Action Center
65
Indirect
(CMAC) to uncover remnants of war and remove landmines
impacts, on the other hand, include “those effects, alterations,
in Cambodia. As of January 2020, a total of 542,463 landmines
and disruptions that may take place at differentiated spatial
have been found and destroyed in the country. CMAC and
and temporal scheme from an original location or explosion
individuals in the region are striving to eliminate landmines
of a landmine.”66 Landmines can potentially fall on private
in the Cambodian state to promote and protect the welfare
property due to the ease they can spread with cluster munition
of its citizens. The Khmer Rouge, the party that held power
and remote delivery. This is a concern because many people
living on private property rely on agriculture and livestock
for their household income, placing landowners at risk and push out civilians and claim the land as their own. Landmines
causing unnecessary casualties.
hidden within the natural environment. The CMAC has
Many states around the globe suffer from an active infestation actively worked to end these mines and restore the region’s
environment to its unpolluted state. However, demining
Ban Treaty are essential to maintaining international security is always an unsafe task, requiring precision and accuracy.
Because the direct location of the landmine is challenging
the region of Kashmir, military strife has led to devastation in
both states. From 1999 to 2015, the Landmine and Cluster landmines.
Munition Monitor counted 3,191 injuries or deaths due
to activated mines, IEDs, and explosive remnants of war Additionally, since the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in
throughout India. Many of these victims have not been
compensated for their injuries.68 As a result, citizens are left have released anti-personnel landmines over the territory
with frightening terrain when simply navigating the area that of Afghanistan. For this reason, Afghanistan is home to
surrounds their homes. Brigadier SM Mahajan, Director of millions of landmines scattered across the country due to
Military Affairs at the Ministry of External Affairs in India, “air-dropping.”
stated that implanting the mines was to protect against the estimates that there are 150 landmine casualties each month
in Afghanistan, and an estimated eight of every 10 deaths
65 Claudio Torres-Nachón, ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE INTERNATIONAL CRISIS OF ANTIPERSONNEL
LANDMINES AND THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE 1997 MINE BAN TREATY, (Center for Environmental Law and Economic
Integration of the South-DASSUR, 2000), https://www.hrw.org/reports/2000/landmines/LMWeb-54.htm.
66 Torres-Nachón, ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE INTERNATIONAL CRISIS OF ANTIPERSONNEL LANDMINES
AND THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE 1997 MINE BAN TREATY.
Keeley, “Understanding Landmines and Mine Action.”
summary-report/cmac-s-operational-progress-report-from-1992-to-january-2020.html.
“Khmer Rouge: Cambodia’s years of brutality,” BBC News,
are among children. Unfortunately, funding for disarming landmines for the past three decades, has implemented the
technologies is costly, and governments like Afghanistan are Mine Action Strategy.81 Since ratifying the Convention on
Cluster Munitions treaty, the Colombian army has eliminated
mines. Furthermore, little care is provided for children and many anti-personnel landmines present in the state. The
adult civilians whom these subterranean explosives have recording of the location of landmines has proved to be an
harmed. In a study conducted by the Multinational Medical
more assistance needed from volunteers in heavily forested
patients suffering from injuries resulting from anti-personnel areas.82 Nevertheless, rebel groups continue to plant new anti-
personnel mines throughout the region.83
double amputations. Soft tissue injuries were also common Many states around the world have been affected by anti-
among these individuals, with many of them suffering from personnel landmines. There are many uses for anti-personnel
contaminated soil throughout the tissue above the injury site. landmines that have been part of historical and present
Contamination of bodily tissue is challenging to treat and may 84
The UN has contributed to the implementation of
83 percent of national mine action strategies internationally.85
provinces in Afghanistan, the landmine campaign has helped Nevertheless, the existence of remaining landmines presents a
eliminate roughly 80 percent of the landmines in the state.
Afghanistan has established mine awareness programs and environmental devastation, including deforestation and soil
degradation, impose continued threats and obscure remnant
of Afghanistan has worked with the Afghanistan government landmines’ locations.86 From these examples, it is clear that
landmines produce agricultural and social threats that hinder
However, peace-building efforts in communities that have experienced
landmines remain a problem in the nation, which will require
the continued efforts of similar programs.
Impacts of Anti-Personnel Landmines on
In effect, the United Nations Mine Action Strategy (UNMAS) Individuals and Communities
2019-2023 outlines actions to eliminate landmines.
These actions include access to healthcare for survivors, The impacts of anti-personnel landmines on citizens and
disposal of ammunition, and implementation of national states are extensive. They result in many health concerns and
policies in affected states.80 Colombia, a country where the irreversible pain for victims of landmine explosions. Landmine
Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) and explosions are a genuine public health issue, as increased rates
the National Liberation Army (ELN) have battled using of individuals who are disabled by a landmine explosion will
“Rising landmine blast toll in Afghanistan highlights long-term care needs of survivors,” United Nations News
2019, https://news.un.org/en/story/2019/02/1032141.
Shane Smith, Devine, Melissa, Taddeo, Joseph, McAlister, Vivian,
devices: prospective cohort study,” BMJ Open
Smith, Devine, Taddeo, McAlister,
study.”
PBS NewsHour,
org/newshour/show/in-afghanistan-clearing-landmines-to-save-lives.
“Afghanistan,” UNMAS, June 2021, https://www.unmas.org/en/programmes/afghanistan.
The United Nations Mine Action Strategy 2019-2023.
80 The United Nations Mine Action Strategy 2019-2023.
81 Human Rights Watch
antipersonnel-landmines-and-other-indiscriminate#.
82
83
84
86 Torres-Nachón, ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE INTERNATIONAL CRISIS OF ANTIPERSONNEL LANDMINES
AND THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE 1997 MINE BAN TREATY.
require enhanced medical care and treatment. are scarce, the lack of medical infrastructure contributes
to the challenge of delivering adequate care for the victim.
The success of surgeries and the sustained health of anti-
Usually, patients will require extended care for months or
personnel landmine victims is contingent on the response
years in hospitals or rehabilitation facilities.94 It is safe to
time for aid and medical care.88 The best results occur when
assume that many fatalities would be prevented if adequate
medical professionals arrive within 30 minutes of the injury
healthcare resources were available. These resources include
to correctly remove the metals or plastics from the victim.
A victim of a landmine injury is expected to remain in the
tools for surgery. The technology and resources are often not
hospital for 32 days on average, with four surgical procedures
necessarily available at the injury site in regions with landmines,
in that time.89
and delivery of these supplies can be time-consuming.
period immediately following a blast injury is vital for the
victim’s survival. Correct training for the response members Children are arguably at a higher risk for injury by landmine
is also essential to the health of the victim. For that reason, than adults. The UN International Children’s Emergency
the healthcare workers must carefully address the scene of Fund (UNICEF) estimated that children account for over
the landmine incident without injuring themselves. They also half of the casualties caused by explosives.95 Since they can
must be equipped with the proper medications and resources sometimes lie on top of the ground, children are susceptible
to assist the victim further.90 If the injury is left untreated for to picking up anti-personnel landmines.96 Child mine victims
more than six hours, the victim is probably at risk of other need an estimated 35 prostheses throughout their life.
health conditions.91 Commonly, children who play outside by themselves may not
know how to identify an anti-personnel landmine in open or
Once a victim is rescued from the scene of a detonated
landmine, they will be admitted into the hospital. Often,
of landmine that lies above the ground’s surface and mainly
blood transfusions are needed to ensure that the victim will
attracts children when mistaken as a toy.98 Children are at a
not die from extreme shock and are used to streamline the
higher risk of being injured by a landmine and are more likely
effectiveness of the surgery. According to the ICBL, landmine
to suffer extreme injuries after aerial bombing or shelling.99
injuries require more than six times as much blood transfusion
as injuries resulting from bullets or fragments.92 However, Children and adults alike are victims of physical injury and
in most countries that have been affected by anti-personnel mental trauma. A study conducted by the International
landmines, there are scarce resources available to give adequate Journal of the Care of the Injured evaluated the Bosnia and
care to the victims. For instance, in Mocha, Yemen, Médecins
Sans Frontières (Doctors Without Borders) set up a hospital. of the individuals who were victims of severe injury due to
However, the following closest medical facilities are six to explosives.100
eight hours away by car.93 Where these healthcare facilities an estimated three to six million mines remain uncleared in
International Committee of the Red Cross, Caring For Landmine Victims (Geneva: International Committee of the Red Cross, June 2005),
88 Caring For Landmine Victims, International Campaign to Ban Landmines.
89 Nicolas Walsh and Wendy Walsh, “Rehabilitation of landmine victims — the ultimate challenge,” Bulletin of the World Health Organization,
81 (9) (2003), https://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/81/9/Walsh0903.pdf ?ua=1.
90 Caring For Landmine Victims.
93 “Yemen: Land mines take heavy toll on citizens,” Doctors Without Borders, January 9, 2019, https://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/what-
we-do/news-stories/news/yemen-land-mines-take-heavy-toll-civilians.
95
Caring For Landmine Victims.
99
100 Katherine Ryken, Matthew Hogue, J Lawrence Marsh, Marin Schweizer, “Long-term consequences of landmine injury: A survey of
civilian survivors in Bosnia-Herzegovina 20 years after the war,” Injury
Bosnia and Herzegovina.101 Since 1995, 1,665 individuals Herzegovina, and they present immense physical and mental
have been victims of landmine incidents.102 The longitudinal health threats to children and young adults who encounter
survey of these individuals included 42 landmine survivors them.
who followed up about their status for 22 years on average.
Amputations were performed on 83.3 percent of people with
upper or lower limb injuries. Each individual who responded including location, access to adequate care, and wait times
had undergone one or more surgeries due to their injury, to be seen in the hospital.105 The conditions and availability
and 42.8 percent had had at least three total operations.103
likelihood of recovery because resources can be limited when
multiple victims need care at once and other patients need
depression within the last year. This example presents the
104 care for other illnesses. After leaving the hospital, a mine
reality of injuries and their lasting effects decades after the
explosion. The psychological impact of landmines can result their community.106 The needs for rehabilitation training and
fact is concerning, given the lifelong effects of mental illness.

To this point, anti-personnel landmines remain in Bosnia and accomplishment, which is why there have been increasing
101 Ryken, “Long-term consequences of landmine injury: A survey of civilian survivors in Bosnia-Herzegovina 20 years after the war,”
2688-2692.
2688-2692.
2688-2692.
2688-2692.
efforts to end the stigma surrounding disabilities due to destruction of agricultural space can also be detrimental to
landmines. However, stigmatization and a lack of resources communities. Spaces where landmines have been deployed are
continue to threaten the health and safety of civilians in not suitable for people to work or travel in safely, causing them
landmine-ridden countries. to become abandoned. 111 Many efforts have been made to
clear various locations of landmines to reverse these impacts
The UN hopes to continue assistance in line with the
the UN removed 1,101 essential civilian infrastructure sites of

and the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).108 The
explosive ordnance using UN funds.112
commitment includes advocacy measures for the victims
development considering the impact that landmines have on
of landmines and their health and expanding employment
both social and medical infrastructure. The effort to demine
opportunities for survivors after their rehabilitation in states
globally helps to eliminate some of the ongoing threats that
with many victims of landmines. Additionally, the UN mine
these explosives pose.
action programs carry out other services to ensure full
participation of survivors in social and economic life. This The presence of landmines can also impact the lifestyle
program considers the lives of the survivors after their injuries that people in these communities rely upon. For example,
by allowing humanitarian agencies to deliver resources to landmines can severely alter the land that agricultural workers
hospitals and aid sites. The administration of these resources
included vehicles and transportation for victims of landmines of income which is worsened by the high cost of alternative
and additional care from emergency responders for the victims farming strategies.113 Since many of the states affected by
landmines remain heavily invested in agriculture as a source
operating territories reported having national mine action of income, the effects of anti-personnel landmines on the
standards in their state.109 These efforts include aid for those land are highly detrimental to society at large. Countries must
injured and support for individuals who have been injured by consider the public health and economic impacts of landmines
anti-personnel landmines and other remnants of war since as they build security and disarmament infrastructure that
most survivors of landmine injuries must rely on others to better supports affected communities.
help them complete daily tasks for years after their injury. This
Expenses and Technology Needed to Eliminate
affected individuals because integration back into society after Anti-Personnel Landmines
recovering can be challenging.
There is an immense need for advanced technology to
Anti-personnel landmines also have extensive impacts on eliminate anti-personnel landmines. First, states must
community infrastructure. Basic facilities and networks that implement demining efforts and the volunteering agencies
or non-governmental organizations committed to removing
common for these explosives to demolish roads, agricultural anti-personnel landmines. The expensive demining costs
space, healthcare facilities, schools, and homes.110 Once include the correct equipment for demining, technical
advisors, and audits and evaluations after the demining
supplies to residents in various locations. Furthermore, the process.114 Furthermore, oversight is needed on various levels
110 LANDMINES, EXPLOSIVE REMNANTS OF WAR AND IED SAFETY HANDBOOK.
111 Bier, “The economic impact of landmines on developing countries,” 651-662.
113
UXO contamination
pdf.
114 Manual Mine Clearance Costings and Sensitivity Analysis (Geneva: Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining, 2005), https://
of government, including regional, national, and international conditions. Considering the potential for excess vegetation
growing due to landmine explosions, there must also be
exact costs for demining due to limited communication during vegetation clearance in some places before the search begins.
115
The overall cost of eliminating landmines is substantial
The demining process begins with a visual inspection, tripwire and requires advanced demining technology. New, more
searches, and removing overgrown vegetation.116 Sourcing
workers to clear the land of the mines with the proper training landmines.122 All in all, the technology needed to address
and background requires time and a team of individuals the global concern of landmines includes many expensive
willing to clear the land. Once the land is prepared, methods that must be available in the regions that are severely
deminers must search the area with metal detectors to expose affected. To make this possible, the precise location of the
the remaining landmines. The deminer, who has undergone
three stages of Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) training, within the budget of the affected state. It is unknown precisely
assesses the land in 25 millimeter increments across and then how much demining efforts cost because there is no concrete
estimate on acres of the affected land. However, individual
different search zone down the lane, deminers investigate any countries may have their estimates of removal costs.123 Thus,
alarms.118 The demining techniques must be able to locate the it will be helpful for countries to investigate national demining
mines accurately. However, many false alarms associated with programs to assess what their capabilities may be.
current generation metal detectors result from high quantities
Determining the direct location of anti-personnel landmines
of scrap metal littered across the countryside in regions that
and marking the sites is also a time-consuming task. The
CCW protocol states that the landmine locations should be
1000 pieces of scrap metal are detected for every individual
marked and last until the explosive is removed or detonated.124
mine found.119 These small fragments of metal threaten the
accuracy of landmine elimination.
of how deep they are in the earth. Moreover, civilians may be
There are currently multiple technologies to eliminate inclined to remove proper signage for housing and livestock
landmines aside from metal detectors. These advanced pens or, in some cases, roof tiles and reinforcement.125 Mine
maps involving multiple states are often inaccurate and varied
across the states. For example, in Angola, mine maps are not
or no metal. Other technologies used for surface laid mines accurate representations of the presence of mines throughout
include microwave radiometry and infrared technology, the land.126 Many resources in the region, including oil and gas,
which can detect landmines on the surface of the land in emerge naturally from the land. To protect these resources
dry areas with lots of vegetation.120 Some states have begun and the citizens in Angola, efforts to correctly map the mines
remaining in the country are imperative. Demining platoons,
from USD 2,000–10,000.121 These devices include technology or military units, are one method of removing mines in
heavily infested regions. According to the Mineral and Mining
115 Manual Mine Clearance Costings and Sensitivity Analysis.
116 Proceedings of SPIE - The International Society
for Optical Engineering,
Manual Mine Clearance Costings and Sensitivity Analysis.
118 Newnham and Daniels, “The market for advanced humanitarian mine detectors.”
123 United Nations Dag Hammarskjold Library, “How many landmines are in the ground worldwide?”
Advisory Council (MMAC), each demining platoon can clear essential to maintain the momentum of this progress and
an average of 1.5 hectares monthly. Nevertheless, this put additional international resources towards mitigating the
threats of landmines.
Future action must also prevent the further dispersal of

remove the same amount of mines.
reducing the number of landmine stockpiles in the state, and

rehabilitation technology for landmine victims is another increasing mine risk education.131 In like manner, prevention at
128
Victims of anti-personnel landmine national and international levels is achievable by emphasizing
incidents often must have physical treatment and therapy
to regain muscle strength and mobility. The International on Explosive Remnants of War.132 Addressing the states
Committee of the Red Cross has developed polypropylene that have not signed the treaty or have not committed to
prosthetic technology, which aids recovering victims in their eliminating landmines in their land requires action from
health and allows them to move the affected limb again.129 state leaders. Several states have not reported utilizing or
Many victims are unable to return to their everyday lifestyle obtaining more mines since the treaty’s signing, even under
after enduring a landmine injury. Care after the damage is permitted circumstances. These states include Burundi,
critical to an individual’s survival. UNMAS has made advances Cape Verde, Cyprus, Djibouti, Nigeria, Oman, Senegal, and
in providing training for demining, explosive ordnance Togo.133 Education about demining and the harmful effects
disposal, IED disposal, emergency medical trauma.130 It is
Deminers use metal detectors to locate anti-personnel landmines
Manual Mine Clearance Costings and Sensitivity Analysis.

129
icrc-002-0913.pdf.
130 “What We Do,” UNMAS, accessed September 12, 2021, https://www.unmas.org/en/what-we-do.
at large. concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land.138
Education efforts include teaching citizens about the dangers Then, The Geneva Conventions of 1949 directly pertained
of anti-personnel landmines and individuals’ part in the to the concern of anti-personnel landmines by addressing the
environment.134 According to the International Committee of destruction that they cause on a large scale. These conventions
the Red Cross, “the goal of Mine Risk Education is behaviour
change to mitigate the risk of explosive devices through to protect persons who are not or no longer participating
creating awareness and education about the risks and safe in combat, including the ill or wounded military personnel,
behaviour.”135 Education on the process of demining and the military forces at sea, prisoners of war, and civilians.139 The
dangers of landmines if left in the land is imperative for the
protection of global citizens, agriculture in the region, and treat wounded soldiers and military personnel due to anti-
the current and continued development of infrastructure.
Assurance that their leadership is actively engaged to reduce the other hand, the third and fourth deal with the treatment
the impact of mine remnants on the populace is also crucial
to citizens. This committee should focus on developing the correlate with a group of disadvantaged individuals as a result
capacity of states with large tracts of landmine-covered land
to better identify, remove, and destroy landmines, including
The Convention explains that the states involved in
creating visible initiatives to protect civilians from landmines.
international war must be held accountable under the
Past Legislature and Treaties Concerning Anti- protocols explicitly stating, “violence to life and person, in
Personnel Landmine particular murder of all kinds, mutilation, cruel treatment,
and torture.”140 This portion of the Convention extends the
There have been many efforts to eliminate the weapons by
request for countries to protect individuals involved in a war.
the UN and other organizations opposed to the proliferation
As a result, when countries consider the lives of civilians, they
of anti-personnel landmines. Both state and non-state armed
must recognize the potential harm ensued by anti-personnel
groups commonly utilize anti-personnel landmines. However,
established protocols intend to eliminate the landmines
not acceded to the convention, all states must protect soldiers
currently being planted and those in place for decades.136 The
in war or call upon a humanitarian organization for aid.141
the ban of land warfare, including anti-personnel landmines. The Convention includes information about establishing
Article 3 of the Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and hospitals and care centers, which are crucial to recovery for
Customs of War on Land and its annex states, “[a] belligerent landmine victims. It supports the creation of medical centers
party which violates the provisions of the said Regulations
shall, if the case demands, be liable to pay compensation.”
Thus emphasizing the importance of the regulations presented
135 Mine Risk Education
t0016-mine-risk-education-nepal.pdf.
136
about-landmines.
Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land,
138 Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land.
140 Security Council, GENEVA CONVENTION FOR THE AMELIORATION OF THE CONDITION OF THE WOUNDED
AND SICK IN ARMED FORCES IN THE FIELD OF 12 AUGUST 1949, (Geneva: United Nations, 1949), https://www.un.org/en/
141 GENEVA CONVENTION FOR THE AMELIORATION OF THE CONDITION OF THE WOUNDED AND SICK IN ARMED
FORCES IN THE FIELD OF 12 AUGUST 1949.
Representatives sign the Ottawa Convention
prisoners of war.
control by one or more Special Commissions.” 142
The hospital
Most directly addressing the impact of landmines, the Ottawa
zones intend to allow the proper conditions for delivering
Convention entails the measures necessary to eliminate
resources and materials to the injured. These zones are critical
landmines for the prolonged safety of citizens and guidelines
considering the urgency with which care must be provided
for assistance that victims of mine injuries require.144 The
for victims of anti-personnel landmines and other injuries
treaty recognizes the efforts that must be made to eliminate
landmines entails destroying all anti-personnel landmines

general protection of populations against the effects of war. in mined areas under the state’s jurisdiction or control.145
The three protocols that the UN has adopted consider the However, many states have acceded to the treaty, which has
legitimacy of the Convention and the religious or political not increased anti-personnel landmines threatening civilians
connotation of the documents.143 It is essential to note the internationally. While the Ottawa Convention directly bans
emphasis placed on civilians in the four installations of the the use of landmines along with prohibiting the stockpiling
and trading of landmines, the Convention is limited with strict
142 GENEVA CONVENTION FOR THE AMELIORATION OF THE CONDITION OF THE WOUNDED AND SICK IN ARMED
FORCES IN THE FIELD OF 12 AUGUST 1949
143 Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Adoption of an Additional Distinctive Emblem (Protocol III)
(Geneva: International Committee of the Red Cross, December 2005), https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/Treaty.xsp?docume
144 A/RES/52/38.
145 A/RES/52/38.
54|C UrrEnT STaTUS
guidelines.146 location in a given state. Typically, the entity that releases the
mines has direct access to the maps created at the time of
their deposition. Often it is not the region’s governing body
may complicate efforts to eliminate landmines. Some
that releases mines in the region or guerrilla groups, but rather
countries that maintain anti-personnel landmine stockpiles
the country’s government. For example, after a six-week
may not be interested in disclosing the total number of
landmines in their possession if they intend to use landmines
Azerbaijan and Armenia in July 2021, which resulted in a deal
This apprehension poses a threat to the
between the two states requiring the conditional release of
safety of the international community and restricts the goal
15 captured Armenian soldiers in exchange for the landmine
of eliminating landmines. Another concern associated with
maps of Armenian-occupied territories to Azerbaijan.149 The
the Ottawa Convention is the cost of removing mines within
maps date back to the Armenian occupation of the region
a particular time frame because eliminating all landmines is
since the Nagorno-Karabakh War in 1994, with the most
recent deposits from the summer of 2020.150 They effectively
for removing landmines and aid for countries that favor
displayed over 92,000 landmines throughout the Fizuli and
Zangilan regions.151 These maps are imperative to redevelop
the elimination of landmines. Despite these challenges, the
and increase infrastructure throughout the region. However,
they are not simple to obtain. The Azerbaijan National Agency
landmines have been eliminated over the past few decades.
for Mine Action (ANAMA) has concluded that 8,509 of the
mines discovered were anti-personnel mines scattered across
33.3 thousand square meters of land.152 This is an exceptional
measures must be taken for countries to eliminate all landmines feat for Azerbaijan, where the country expedited the demining
in their state. Treaties must consider the best implementation
for support against anti-personnel landmines and munitions elimination and initial detection of landmines in the region.
148
The safety of citizens is at the
forefront of the UN and the Geneva Convention. States must There have been additional efforts to demine and eliminate
uphold this principle to pursue landmine elimination. stockpiles of anti-personnel landmines. This goal of removing
reserves has been widely achieved, with 99 percent of the total
global cluster munitions stockpiles having been eliminated.153
Current Status Across 36 states, 1.5 million cluster munitions amounting to
Assessing Location of Anti-personnel Nonetheless, cluster munition has remained prevalent over
Landmines
the past ten years, especially in states that have not yet signed
There has been an increased determination among countries the Convention on Cluster Munitions established in 2008.
to obtain anti-personnel landmine maps in recent years. When Some states wish to proliferate cluster munitions to disperse
detailed, these maps help determine the landmines’ precise “bomblets,” including anti-personnel landmines and other
146 A/RES/52/38.
A/RES/52/38.
148 Protocol additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Adoption of an Additional Distinctive Emblem (Protocol III).
149 “Azerbaijan Hands Over Armenian Soldiers In Swap For Land Mine Maps,” RFE/RL’s Armenian Service
https://www.rferl.org/a/azerbaijan-armenia-prisoners-russia-land-mines/31339591.html.
150 “Azerbaijan Hands Over Armenian Soldiers In Swap For Land Mine Maps.”
151 “Azerbaijan Hands Over Armenian Soldiers In Swap For Land Mine Maps.”
152 Mushvig Mehdiyev, “Azerbaijan Receives Maps of 92,000 Armenian Mines in Karabakh Region,” Caspian News
153 “Alert over growing use of cluster munitions, despite stockpile reductions,” United Nations News
CUrrEnT STaTUS |55
chemical weapons.154 Countries that have not yet acceded to to prohibit the Libyan government’s production, transfer, and
the Convention on Cluster Munitions and currently maintain stockpiling of anti-personnel mines.161
cluster munition stockpiles in their territory include China,
There must be advanced demining efforts to eliminate the
India, Russia, and South Korea.155 Cluster munitions can
devastation caused by anti-personnel landmines globally.
consist of collections of smaller weapons dropped to the
However, this raises a new unease since the location of
land’s surface in one unit.156 The use of cluster munition is
landmines is not usually known, especially in regions where
considered sporadic because the bomblets being released
there is little or no regulation on their use. Additionally,
could occupy the vast area. Despite efforts to eliminate all anti-
various landmines can require different techniques to
personnel landmines and cluster munition stockpiles, there
eliminate the present weapons, which calls for more deminers
planted. Demining anti-personnel landmines have been at the and varied training to demine effectively. Once the countries
forefront of the UN’s efforts to achieve international security.
Notably, António Guterres, the UN’s Secretary-General, has
urged state parties to recommit to mine elimination in hopes Chemical Weapons, decide to sign an agreement, there must
that this will be the last decade to endure the problem. be advances to eliminate the anti-personnel landmines that
remain. However, the likelihood of these countries acceding
Some states remain heavily contaminated with landmines, to a Convention that they have previously declined to join is
despite their accession to the Chemical Weapons Convention. unlikely. Both Libya and Russia are not part of the 164 states
For example, Libya was determined to have involvement that have signed the Convention.162
with the exchange of anti-personnel weapons between
2018 and 2019 with the Russian Federation.158 The UN and States that have eliminated anti-personnel weapons stockpiles
and munitions are primarily committed to eliminating mines
Russian anti-personnel landmines in the region.159 Anti- internationally. As of July 2020, both Croatia and Montenegro
personnel landmines produced by Russia have been found have entirely cleared their cluster munition stockpiles, which
in approximately 30 countries globally.160 However, Libya
faces particular challenges in accessing the precise placement the international community. UNMAS has mainly contributed
of landmines and other weapons of mass destruction. In to the decline in landmines across Africa, the Middle East,
2011, Libya experienced a change in leadership after national and some regions of South America.163 They work with
stakeholders and UN partners to achieve the Sustainable
Libya’s leader. Since stockpiles were left unattended in the Development Goals (SDGs), including the UN Development
region under the past government regime, anti-government
rebels and civilians have mobilized those weapons and used UNICEF, and UNODA.164 Their efforts include education
them for their personal use. Although Libya has signed the on mine awareness and advocacy meetings to discuss
Chemical Weapons Convention, there has been no agreement landmine action. Throughout 2020, UNMAS has eliminated
154 “Cluster Munitions at a Glance,” Arms Control Association,
clusterataglance.
155 “Cluster Munitions at a Glance.”
156 “Alert over growing use of cluster munitions, despite stockpile reductions.”
“‘Complete the work’, rid the world of deadly landmines, UN chief urges,” United Nations News
158 Mark Hiznay, “Russia-Linked Landmines Threaten Lives in Libya,” Human Rights Watch
hrw.org/news/2021/03/25/russia-linked-landmines-threaten-lives-libya.
159 Hiznay, “Russia-Linked Landmines Threaten Lives in Libya.”
163 UNMAS Annual Report 2020 (Geneva: United Nations Mine Action Service, December 2020), https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/
164 UNMAS Annual Report 2020.

56|C UrrEnT STaTUS
A sign posted along a barbed wire fence warns people of the mines in Arabic, Hebrew and English
landmines by spreading awareness of the severe devastation pivotal in the elimination of landmines which affect over 23
that landmines can cause. The Mine Action Service has million people internationally.168
expanded the UN Inter-Agency Coordination Group on Mine
The location of landmines can be highly ambiguous and
Action (IACG-MA) to reach the international community.
complex without the proper documentation of the position
Support for the International Day for Mine Awareness
and Assistance in Mine Action was vital this past year with locations. However, the efforts that UNMAS has put forth
online presentations and socially distanced humanitarian provide excellent examples of the urgency that must be
aid throughout Sudan and other countries.165 In 2020, the taken toward landmine elimination. These contributions
to eliminate landmines, particularly by instituting demining
to eliminate mines, including Afghanistan, Burkina Faso, plans and conferencing with other organizations to eradicate
Colombia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Iraq, the landmines and other forms of munition, are essential
to achieving the landmines globally to create international
South Sudan, Sudan, Syria, Ukraine, and Yemen.166 These
supportive efforts focus on protection, health, education, and proliferation of landmines since some countries rely on
food security about landmine incidents. However, there are
also measures being taken to create landmine maps in regions or ratify the Chemical Weapons Convention or Convention
where the location of mines is unknown. The mine action
strategies that have been put in place in these regions are Stockpiling of Chemical Weapons, may also remain with
UNMAS Annual Report 2020.
CUrrEnT STaTUS |57
landmine and cluster munition stockpiles in their state.169 For have attempted to remove the prior ground explosives, only to
this reason, the consideration of alternate landmine location
assessment techniques should be pivotal to devising a solution. mines. Nonetheless, the Colombian government continues to
Case Study: Anti-Personnel Landmines in

Colombia The effects of remnant landmines have harshly impacted
Vastly polluted with anti-personnel landmines, Colombia

affected by landmines in Norte de Santander, Colombia,
faces an extreme threat to the civilians and infrastructure
between 1990 and May 2021. The government is working to
in the region. Colombia is one of the most heavily mined
reach important mine-clearing goals by the end of 2021 by
regions globally, with the second-highest landmine casualties
clearing landmines, even in light of the danger posed by the
globally, following Afghanistan. Over 11,500 people have
cartels. UNMAS has supported the 2016 peace agreement for
been killed or injured by landmines since 1990, according to
mine action established in Colombia. This peace agreement
the Colombian government.
between FARC and the Colombian government was pivotal
the Colombian government and the guerrilla group known
in the accelerated removal of landmines. The agreement
as the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC),
mainly focused on heavily forested areas and jungle regions.
thousands of anti-personnel landmines were planted over the
The government of Colombia determined that UNMAS is
country.
the leading force in the Humanicemos Desminado Humanitario
few records of the number of landmines present across the
(HDH). The HDH is an organization committed to
country, and the practical application of removing landmines
demining former combatants and current citizens. These
frequently is deterred.
efforts help the Colombian communities that have been
It has been widely recorded that the border region between affected by landmines while also aiding the social reintegration
Venezuela and Colombia has many caseras–homemade ground- of former combatants.180 HDH, in collaboration with the UN
based anti-personnel mines. Unfortunately, the impacted areas
are controlled by those involved in illicit commerce. This management and technology. Although Colombia has
prevents the proper forms of mine-clearing from taking place committed to disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration
(DDR), heavy uses of landmines and weapons of destruction
are willing to protect their investments at all costs. Defenses increased throughout the country.181 The commitment to
include rudimentary yet hazardous explosives made in their disarmament and demobilization works to eliminate landmines
simplest form. These landmines have broken wine bottles that and the proliferation of destructive weapons.182 Disarming
violent combatant groups is particularly important to safe
locate as soon as they are covered with soil or new vegetation. reintegration. Restoring the affected communities also plays a

Anastasia Moloney, “Colombia aims to rid country of landmines by 2021: govt,” Reuters
reuters.com/article/us-colombia-landmines/colombia-aims-to-rid-country-of-landmines-by-2021-govt-idUSKBN15T2FM.
Moloney, “Colombia aims to rid country of landmines by 2021: govt.”
Luis Acosta, “‘New hope’ as 38 more Colombian municipalities cleared of landmines,” Reuters,
https://www.reuters.com/article/us-colombia-landmines/new-hope-as-38-more-colombian-municipalities-cleared-of-landmines-
idUSKBN1XT2FU.
Acosta, “‘New hope’ as 38 more Colombian municipalities cleared of landmines.”
Acosta, “‘New hope’ as 38 more Colombian municipalities cleared of landmines.”
180 Acosta, “‘New hope’ as 38 more Colombian municipalities cleared of landmines.”
58|C UrrEnT STaTUS
social programs.183 UNMAS has created a group between the disabilities, these entities provide funding for the victim’s
FARC and the UN to provide more advanced information- medical expenses.190 These efforts simultaneously help curb
sharing systems between the Government and FARC.184
This bridge for communication is essential for mapping the from landmine presence.191
location of anti-personnel landmines and achieving the peace affected since 1990 up through June 30, 2021, are San Vicente
agreements outlined for FARC.185 The efforts to eliminate anti- del Caguán, Tame, Taraza, Tumaco, and Vistahermosa.192 Due
personnel landmines throughout the region are widespread. to the limited resources and high volume of incidents, these
However, the time spent demining can take decades.
In efforts to eliminate landmines, the Colombian government current status of aid and protection for civilians in Colombia.
Often, there is a delay of one to three months to certify data

will be free of landmines.186 The government hopes to also on the injured in Colombia, which confuses the analysis of
have 200 municipalities free of the suspicion of mines by
those impacted by landmines. It is yet one more indicator
August 2022.
of their sincere efforts to curtail the adverse outcomes from
statement concerning the rapid elimination of landmines
mines.193 This data will assist the government in determining
across the country, there are concerns surrounding the pace
how to allocate funds for assistance in the future, whether
with which landmines are eliminated in the region.188 Colombia
to minors, adults, women, children, or rural or city dwellers.
The statistics also describe ethnicity and bring light to how the
indigenous population is affected by this issue. For countries
with histories of inequity and discrimination against various
continue to proliferate anti-personnel landmines in the region
ethnicities, equitable treatment may involve distributing
and hinder demining progress.
assistance variably to different groups. The Normative System
One statistic indicates that one in four anti-personnel mines in Colombia has created initiatives to provide “victims rights”
results in a fatality.189 While the deadly nature of the devices to those who have suffered injury from an anti-personnel
depends on many factors, including the victim’s age, it is clear mine.194 These apply to all related citizens and include the
that the resulting injuries of personnel mines have not become
less severe. Knowing how many minors suffer from injuries, in 60 percent instead of 40 percent of civilians.195
it is evident that there is a link between the concentration
of anti-personnel mines and access to education, work, and This committee needs to address problems with accurate data
social engagements. To help minimize the numerous collateral collection and mapping while considering how additional
effects of people being hurt by these mines, Colombia has security threats like non-state actors exacerbate the potential
created entities to help these impacted by assisting them to for injury. Like those in mined areas of Colombia, communities
receive monetary funds, depending upon the severity of their need protective equipment and assistance that better support
injury. In response to victims that have amputations or physical victims and prevent future fatalities.
186 GOV.CO
accioncontraminas.gov.co/Estadisticas/estadisticas-de-victimas.
188
189
190 “Colombia: Events 2020,” Human Rights Watch.
191 “Colombia: Events 2020.”
192
193
194
195
bloC analySIS |59
Sustainable Development Goals information and collect accurate data on the impacts and
locations of anti-personnel landmines. Working with various
partners will be essential to protect communities and clear
development, hoping to be achieved by the year 2030.196
mined areas for productive use.
landmines aligns with SDG 3: Good Health and Wellbeing,

SDG 10: Reduced Inequalities, SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Bloc Analysis
The countries discussing this topic will fall into blocs based
desired objectives by 2030, it is essential to consider how on their commitment to eliminating anti-personnel landmines
landmines detract from development. and the status of their landmine proliferation in their
country. Some states have not acceded to The Convention on
The removal of these hazardous mines would promote Chemical Weapons or the Ottawa Treaty. Although it is not
better health for many global citizens under SDG 3. Aside strictly necessary to sign onto these Conventions to eliminate
from the traumatic experience of coming in contact with a
landmines, the consent to the Convention can help prevent
landmine, the damage to national infrastructure presents a
the citizens or militant groups in the particular country from
proliferating anti-personnel landmines and other weapons of
Additionally, fallen buildings and contents from fragments of
landmines can threaten the safety of civilians. Their removal
essential when considering the blocs that will form naturally
would also lessen disparities noted in SDG 10 that grow from
when discussing this topic.
unproductive landholdings while empowering and promoting
social, economic, and political inclusion, irrespective of age,
or another status. Civilians living in regions impacted by

landmines suffer from damaged or destroyed infrastructure, that have eliminated landmines. However, other countries that
which leads to adverse living conditions. are similarly not involved in wars but have previously been
Moreover, the issue of landmines also correlates with SDG 11
because it is crucial to create safe access to cultural and natural may associate with the bloc of countries reporting landmines.
heritage sites for sustainable protection.198 Landmines remain Depending on the regional relations and partnerships, the
a threat to sustainable environments everywhere. They remain
in the ground until detonation and impact public spaces and will encompass countries reporting cases of landmines. The
housing.199 SDG 16 emphasizes building peaceful institutions, second bloc will include countries currently proliferating
landmines with little intention of eliminating them. The third
weapons, including the destruction of anti-personnel
landmines.200 Considering the inclusiveness of national mine cleared anti-personnel landmines in their state. These blocs
should collaborate to understand their country’s policy and
201
To achieve these goals, determine the proper course of action to minimize landmines
globally.
196 LEAVING NO ONE BEHIND: MINE ACTION AND THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS (Geneva: United
LEAVING NO ONE BEHIND: MINE ACTION AND THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS.
198 LEAVING NO ONE BEHIND: MINE ACTION AND THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS.
60|b loC analySIS
Countries Reporting Cases of Anti-Personnel advocate for stronger information-sharing and accountability
Landmines networks that support accurate and thorough demining.
Countries reporting cases of anti-personnel landmines will

Countries Proliferating Anti-Personnel
primarily include states that utilize the Landmine and Cluster Landmines
Munition Monitor and the CWC. States in this bloc advocate
States that are currently using anti-personnel landmines, on
the other hand, will have landmine stockpiles and continue
states and support policies that further comprehensive to trade and transfer landmines. There are some instances
landmine elimination strategies. Being heavily ridden with
landmines, these states may not have adequate funding to zones. States that fall into this bloc are Egypt, China, Russia,
demine despite demining efforts. For example, Zimbabwe and the US, where there has not been an explicit desire to
has established mine action strategies to eliminate landmines eliminate landmines from the state’s governing body. These
by 2025. The measures in Zimbabwe focus on mobilizing states are opposed to removing landmines, and many of them
international support for the government to remove all have not committed to demining efforts. Countries currently
landmines by 2025. Despite the extensive efforts to decrease producing landmines are also in this group, including China,
the number of landmines present in the region, there is
inadequate funding to eliminate landmines in Zimbabwe’s Singapore, South Korea, and Vietnam.205 The country policy
northern and eastern regions..202 There remains a gap between would prevent them from advocating for strict and expansive
policy and realization, widening without technological policies on demining. This bloc will also include all countries
assistance and strengthened security infrastructure. that have not signed the Ottawa Treaty and maintain landmines
in their territory.
Further, this bloc would include all state parties who have
These countries may have regulations in place or lack limitations
on the proliferation of landmines. Despite the importance of
Mines and on their Destruction but have not eliminated protecting civilian lives, landmines continuously perpetuate
landmines from their state. These states have reported the the diminishing health of communities. Additionally, there can
most recent updates on landmine injury incidents. According be alternate allowances for the proliferation of anti-personnel
to the Landmine and Cluster Munition Monitor, countries that landmines by government forces. Depending on the country’s
fall into this bloc will be invested in oversight groups to ensure current status of landmine regulations, there may not be direct
landmines are correctly and frequently reported.203 These
countries will work together to support organizations that are
committed to eliminating landmines for civilian protection. South Korea that continue to manufacture landmines would be
included in this bloc.206 The bloc would also consist of states
United Kingdom, and Venezuela.204 These countries will also that currently proliferate landmines, including Afghanistan,
be invested in the pursuit of landmines planted in their land Colombia, India, and Yemen. These countries will collaborate
to establish methods of maintaining landmines in their state
however, the reporting techniques must be entirely practical for government use. States in this bloc may also justify the use
to ensure accurate demining. Therefore, this bloc would of landmines as a method of civilian protection.
202 Xinhua, “Zimbabwe says it lacks funding to clear anti-personnel mines,” CGTN Africa,
203 CLEARING THE MINES 2020 (Oslo: Mine Action Review Advisory Board, October 1, 2020), https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.
204 “CLEARING THE MINES 2020.”

205 “How many countries produce mines or cluster munitions?” Landmine and Cluster Munition Monitor, accessed September 12, 2021,
http://www.the-monitor.org/en-gb/the-issues/faqs/most-common/how-many-countries-produce-mines-or-cluster-munitions.aspx.
CoMMITTEE MISSIon |61
the utmost importance when creating a safe place for civilians

Thirdly, states that have effectively cleared anti-personnel
in the global community. The UN has made great efforts to
eliminate anti-personnel landmines internationally, as they
that have virtually eliminated landmines in the state and
contribute to the death toll of hundreds of innocent people
have acceded to the treaty must no longer have reports of
each week.212 The presence of landmines remains in states at
mines remaining in their territory. This category includes the
countries that have fully demined in the region and are no
In response to the war that landmines ensue, the UN General
213
Republic of Congo, Costa Rica, Denmark, France, Honduras,
and Uganda. This bloc would also include all state parties While landmine trade has decreased internationally over the
who have signed the Anti-personnel Mine Ban Convention last decade, the munition continues to be proliferated in
and eliminated mines in their state. Other countries in this many parts of the international community. This presents
bloc have not signed the Convention but do not have a history an extreme challenge for deminers to eliminate these deadly
of landmines in their region.208 weapons. Currently, 53 million anti-personnel landmines
have been destroyed from stockpiles.214 This constitutes an
This bloc would determine solutions for mine elimination in
effort to achieve a better quality of life for the victims of
other countries based on their current demining programs.
anti-personnel landmines and a sustainable future for the
States in this bloc should adapt their strategies to the countries
international community. The members of the DISEC
committee must address potential solutions for reducing
preventing comprehensive demining. Considering the size of
the risk of landmine injuries and deaths by collaborating,
this bloc, delegates should assess how their state has handled
discussing, and brainstorming. While the topic covers health
or assisted with landmine situations to determine particular
and humanitarian concerns, the committee should focus
policy focus areas.209 These states may be interested in
on minimizing the security risks posed by anti-personnel
providing aid and resources for resolutions, considering their
landmines and work towards policies that improve global
experience eliminating landmines across their land.
disarmament efforts.
Committee Mission
The Disarmament and International Security Committee
(DISEC) is committed to maintaining security in the
international community. Further, the General Assembly First
Committee is dedicated to eliminating threats to international
safety by facilitating discussion between states.210 DISEC
aids in the creation of conventions and treaties to achieve
disarmament and remove security threats under the UN
Charter.211 Establishing disarmament in a state that relies
“CLEARING THE MINES 2020.”
210 “Disarmament and International Security (First Committee),” General Assembly of the United Nations, accessed August 3, 2021, https://www.
211 General Assembly of the United Nations, “Disarmament and International Security (First Committee).”
212 A/RES/52/38.
213 A/RES/52/38
214 Joane Dufour, “Remembering Landmines,” Unitarian Universalist Association, August 22, 2018, https://www.uua.org/international/blog/
disarmament/remembering-landmines.
DISEC
62|r ESEarCh anD PrEParaTIon QUESTIonS
Research and Preparation Questions

Your dais has prepared the following research and preparation questions as a means of providing guidance for your
research process. These questions should be carefully considered, as they embody some of the main critical thought
and learning objectives surrounding your topic.
Topic A
1. What is your country’s position regarding the rapidly changing and advancing landscape of space technologies around
the world?
2. Is your country party to any treaties involving the demilitarization of outer space? If so, what is its position regarding
the regulations proposed in these agreements, such as OST? Has your country introduced any policy to prevent the
proliferation of weapons of mass destruction to and through space?
3. What space programs or agencies have your country developed, if any? If so, what achievements have they made
towards cleaning, maintaining, and regulating the closest regions of space to Earth?
4. At what level is your country involved in space activities? What mechanisms can be used to include all nations regardless
of whether they can reach space or not?
5.
agreements be created, or can the existing framework be extended and reformed?
6. Has your country produced or is producing any type of “hit-to-kill” systems? Grade the level of involvement your
country has with these weapons and subsequently answer the following question: how do these technologies impact
your country and your country’s position towards the demilitarization of outer space?
What relationship (economic and regulatory) does your country have with private space companies and developers? Is
it a matter of interest for your country to regulate these companies, seeing the lack of regulations by state governments
and international organizations?
Topic B
1. What kind of history does your country have with landmines? What has your government done to combat or assist allies
that face this issue? What legislation and treaties have been passed that focus on landmines? How effective were these
solutions? Are any of your country’s actions applicable to the international community as a whole?
2. Has your country developed any guidelines or regulations regarding landmines? What was the response of the community
and civilians?
3.
country has used landmines, what was their purpose, and were they successful in achieving their military objective?
4. How has your country ensured the safety of its population while undertaking the demining of anti-personnel landmines?
Has it taken any short-term actions towards this ongoing threat to maintaining security?
5.
DISEC
rESEarCh anD PrEParaTIon QUESTIonS |63
6. Where are the landmines in your country most concentrated and why?
Has your state engaged in international cooperation agreements to undertake this issue? How can your state encour-
age accountability on behalf of countries that refuse to acknowledge this threat?
DISEC
64|I MPorTanT DoCUMEnTS
Important Documents
Topic A
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Topic B
A study of the military use and effectiveness of anti-personnel mines. G
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DISEC
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Topic B
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DISEC
72|W orkS CITED
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Nicolas Walsh. Walsh. Wendy. Rehabilitation of landmine victims — the ultimate challenge (Bulletin of the World Health Organization,
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landmines.pdf.
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Shane Smith. Devine. Melissa. Taddeo. Joseph. McAlister. Vivian.

devices: prospective cohort
GOV.CO
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WorkS CITED |73
www.accioncontraminas.gov.co/Estadisticas/estadisticas-de-victimas.
The National High School Model United Nations
Conference (NHSMUN) is a project of IMUNA, a non-
Nations Department of Global Communications

(UNDGC). IMUNA is dedicated to promoting global
issues education through simulation.
Written by Jared Butler and Divali Legore

Edited by Jon Basile, Ana Margarita Gil, Brandon Huetter, Kathy Li,
and Abolee Raut
© 2021 IMUNA. All Rights Reserved.

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DISEC

Secretary-General Hello Delegates,

Secretary-General Hello Delegates,

The Demilitarization of Outer Space 10

Finding and Eliminating Anti-Personnel Landmines 38

students into the UN System so deeply.

Debate founded on knowledge:

stability and strengthening interactions between states.

9 UNGA, “Functions and powers of the General Assembly,”

critical economic aid and establishing military initiatives, the

of a living organism with the dog Laika as a passenger on

of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration

person into Earth’s orbit in the early 1960s. However, the US

Apollo and Soyuz, the American and Soviet spacecraft used

the US was testing nuclear weapons.22 Despite unilateral

Royal Museums Greenwich, “Space Race Timeline.”

on outer space exploration” and provide recommendations

25 Foreign Service Institute, “Cuban Missile Crisis.”

The OST outlines some critical situations in which actions by a whole.41

a WMD and to what extent they can be deployed into space,

Ronald Reagan formed the Strategic Defense Initiative

advancements in directed-energy weapons, weapons that

Though these devices are already in use on Earth, states like

51 Wade, “Anti-Satellite Weapons.”

capable militaries and how new or adapted legislation can

59 “Minotaur Rocket,” Northrop Grumman, accessed June 16, 2021, https://www.northropgrumman.com/space/minotaur-rocket/.

Combat utility uniform of the US Space Force

develop more advanced or destructive nuclear arsenals.80

Riebeek, “Earth Satellite Orbits.”

Computer generated simulation of space debris in Earth orbit

alone.88 These satellites form a tightly interconnected network

the knowledge gained through 50 years of robotic deep space

Space Agency (CSA), the Japanese Aerospace Exploration

the 2030s. These missions all seek to send crewed landers to

104 Moscow Times, “Russia Colonize Moon.”

UNOOSA, “Outer Space Treaty.”

Defense Vehicle Mark II missile defense interceptor against

132 Harrison, Johnson, and Roberts, “Space Threat.”

air-launch vehicle separated from a NASA B-52 aircraft in

funded space station expedition, to the Russian Mir space

privatization by various governments and corporations, the

SpaceX, an American aerospace manufacturer and NASA

colonization of Mars.143 While many other companies that

143 “Mission,” SpaceX, accessed June 16, 2021, https://www.spacex.com/mission/.

only need to invest in research and development costs directly

with either lax or nonexistent regulations by state governments

maintained the current international disarmament regime.

European Council, accessed September 1, 2021, https://www.consilium.

This is the case with New Zealand, Kazakhstan, and the

185 Investing News, April 29, 2021, https://investingnews.com/daily/resource-

188 “Mine production of titanium minerals worldwide in 2020, by country,”

Countries such as Costa Rica and Nicaragua, for example, have

discourage states from advocating for increased regulation.

domain for humanity to explore and exploit. Without clear

on the ground and scattered across vast stretches of land or

A stockpile of anti-personnel landmines

41 Anti-personnel Landmines Friend or Foe?

The historical use of landmines continues to cause casualties in

there remain requirements for monitoring landmines in the

52 Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons.

59 The City Paper Bogota, April 6, 2021,

Regions Largely Affected by Anti-personnel severely impacted by the existence of landmines.

fact is concerning, given the lifelong effects of mental illness.