2021 Manual Adv Phys III

Advanced Physics Lab III
CO-488-A
Fall 2021
When starts - When Ends
Prof. Insert Name

Dr. Insert Name
Group:
Student:
Lab Partner:
This manual will give an overview about the experiments in the Advanced Physics Lab
III in the Fall 2021 semester. It is mainly based on the manuals provided by Phywe
Systeme GmbH - http://www.phywe.de (L.v. Alvensleben, ”Laboratory Experiments
Physics”) and Leybold Didactic GmbH - http://www.leybold-didactic.de, as well as pre-
vious versions of the physics lab manuals at Jacobs University Bremen. In certain parts
of this manual additional literature sources may be found. The authors would like to
acknowledge the students of the former classes for their contribution in improving the
quality of this manual.
CONTENTS
Contents
General introduction 1
Experiment 1 - Wind tunnel 3

Key Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Set-up and Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Experimental Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Frequently Asked Questions for Self-Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Experiment 2 - HeNe laser 17

Safety Precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
frequently Asked Questions for Self-Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Experiment 3 - Solar cell 23

Key Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Experiment 4 - Peltier and Seebeck effect 35

Key Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Experiment 5 - Fuel cell and electrolyser 51

Key Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Jacobs University Bremen, When written, Version F21-R01 iii

CONTENTS
Project experiments 69
P 1 - Stirling Engine 71
Appendix 75
A1 - Further reading 77
General Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Physics Lab and Error Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Electrodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
A2 - Guidelines for writing a laboratory report 79

Structure and Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Format and Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Final Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
A3 - Procedure and grading 89

Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Grading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
iv Prof. Insert Name, Dr. Insert Name

General introduction
The advanced physics teaching lab course is a fundamental part of physics education. All
modern physics is based on the interaction between experiments, their critical discussion
and the theoretical description of the underlying physical phenomena. Experiments give
new ideas for theories, and at the same time they are the ultimate test for validity of new
theories.
The experimental procedures, which are given in this manual, have been established over
the centuries. However, one has to keep enough flexibility and creativity to conduct the
experiments and gain understanding of the underlying phenomena.
This lab course offers experiments in the physics of matter, and it is designed to train
experimental and analytical skills. The physics of the experiments are covered by general
and advanced physics lecture. Self-determined reading is encouraged to increase the
ability for autonomous work in an experimental laboratory. Finally, frequently asked
questions give the students the opportunity for self-monitoring of their knowledge and
understanding.
The laboratory course covers 6 experiments whereby each of them is performed during
two afternoons within a week. The course will end with a final discussion of each group
with the professor.
Prof. Insert Name Jacobs University Bremen

–1 –
Dr. Insert Name When written, Version F21-R01
Experiment 1 - Wind tunnel
Key Concepts
Bernoulli’s law, frictional drag, pressure drag, drag coefficient, streamline body, lifting
force, aerofoil, gliding ratio, characteristics of aerofoil
Summary
Static pressure and flow velocity in Venturi tube will be investigated in dependence on
its cross-sectional area. The dependence of the drag force FR on the body shape will
be experimentally measured for various bodies with the same cross-sectional area A and
the drag coefficient cR of the bodies will be determined. The drag and lifting force of an
aerofoil wing will be measured in a wind tunnel as a function of angle of incidence.
Literature
• Physics, M. Alonso and E. J. Finn, Prentice Hall 1992, Fluid motion, pp. 367–373.
• University Physics, H. D. Young and R. A. Freedman, Addison Wesley 2004, Fluid
Mechanics, pp. 515–546.
• Mathematical Methods for Physics and Engineering, K. F. Riley, M. P. Hobson,
and S.J. Bence, Cambridge University Press 2006, Probability, pp. 1119–1220,
Statistics, pp. 1221–1304.
Theory
In this experiment, the properties of continuous flow are investigated with respect to its
stream velocity, local pressure and resulting forces.
In general, the density of gases and liquids is constant in all regions of the flow, because
the pressure is not high enough to change it considerably. This so-called incompressibility
is valid only for low stream velocities much smaller than speed of sound. As a result,
the gas stream inside of a tube follows continuity equation and a reduction in the cross-
sectional area leads to an increase of the flow speed and vice versa. This continuity
equation is expressed for any position of a tube by:
v·A = constant Continuity equation (1-1)
where v is the velocity of the air flow and A corresponds to the cross-section of the tube.
Because in ideal liquids and gases friction forces can be neglected, each change in the
static pressure (ps ) results in a change of the kinetic energy of the stream and vice versa.
The energy conservation of the total pressure (pt ) is expressed by the Bernoulli’s law:
ρ
pt = ps + v 2 + ρgh = constant Bernoulli’s law (1-2)
2
where v denotes the velocity of the stream, ρ the density of the flowing media, g is the
acceleration due to gravity, and h is the elevation of the tube above a reference plane.
In a horizontal flow, the gravitational forces could be neglected, and Bernoulli’s law is
simplified to:
ρ
pt = ps + v 2 = constant Bernoulli’s law for horizontal tube (1-3)
2
–3 –
The velocity of the stream creates a dynamic pressure pdyn , which is defined by
ρ
pdyn = v 2 (1-4)
2
1. Determination of the air speed using a Pitot/Prandtl tube

Using Bernoulli’s law for horizontal tube (see Eq. (1-3)) one can determine the air speed
by a measurement of the difference between the total and the static pressure pt − ps . This
principle is used in Pitot/Prandtl tube (see Fig. 1-1), which was invented by Henry Pitot
in 1732 and further improved by Ludwig Prandtl in the 20th century. The air velocity
can be determined by the following equation:
s
2(pt − ps )
v= (1-5)
ρ
ps pt
Figure 1-1: Principle of the Pitot/Prandtl tube.
The density of air ρ, assuming ideal gas behavior and neglecting the influence of humidity,
is only dependent on the atmospheric pressure patm and it is expressed by:
patm
ρ= (1-6)
Rsp · T
where Rsp is the specific gas constant (287.058 J/kgK) and T is the absolute temperature
of the gas. The value of the air velocity is finally given by:
s
2(pt − ps )Rsp · T
v= (1-7)
patm
2. Determination of the pressure and velocity profile in a Venturi tube.

Another approach to measure flow velocities is by utilizing Venturi effect in a tube with
varying cross section (see Fig. 1-2). Assuming a tube with a cross-sectional area A1 and
flow speed v1 at the entrance and another cross-sectional area A2 with flow speed v2
4 Prof. Insert Name, Dr. Insert Name

Figure 1-2: Physical properties of a Venturi tube.

(Source: http://www.flowmaxx.com/images/ventur11.gif, 19.08.2013)
at any point, the pressure difference p1 − p2 can be expressed by combining Continuity

equation (Eq. (1-1)) and Bernoulli’s law (Eq. (1-3)):
1 A2 − A2 1 A2 − A2
p1 − p2 = ρv22 1 2 2 = ρv12 1 2 2 (1-8)
2 A1 2 A2
In case A1 > A2 , the right side of Eq. (1-8) is positive and therefore the decrease in
cross-section is accompanied by a pressure drop in the narrow region.
A practical application of Venturi tube is to determine the flow velocity at its entrance by
measuring the pressure difference between two points with known cross-sections. Using
the notation given above, the velocity v1 is given by:
v
u2 p − p
2 1
v1 = t (1-9)
u
2
ρ 1 − 12
A
A2
3. Determination of the drag force and the drag coefficient of different bodies
In an ideal flow, the stream lines are symmetrical around a sphere as it is shown in Fig. 1-
3a. Due to the symmetric pressure distribution around the sphere no resulting force will
be exerted, i.e. no force would be needed to drag the body trough the stream, which is in
contrast to the daily experience. According to the Bernoulli equation, the flow velocity
in points A and C is zero and the pressure reaches the maximum value. The flow velocity
reaches the maximum value in points B and D, whereas the pressure is minimized.
Real flows can be laminar or turbulent depending on the flow velocity. For larger flow
velocities, the inevitable friction at the surface of the body is causing the formation of
vortices behind the sphere as shown in Fig. 1-3b. Vortices occur because the velocity of
the particles is reduced to zero before point C changing the direction of flow behind the
body.
The total air force resistance FR acting on a body flowing in a stream is dependent on
its shape and the surface roughness. The effect of the shape is described by the pressure
drag Fp , while the friction drag FF is caused by the surface roughness:
FR = FF + Fp (1-10)
Jacobs University Bremen, When written, Version F21-R01 5

Figure 1-3: Formation of vortices
The influence of both parts on the total resistance is illustrated in Fig. 1-4. In Fig. 1-4a
Figure 1-4: Resistances in flows.
a thin long plate is placed in the stream. Only frictional drag FF is the force acting on
the flow due to friction at the surfaces of the top and bottom side of the plate. The
change from laminar to turbulent flow after a certain length of the plate depends upon
the shape of the front side and the roughness of the surface. Figure 1-4b shows the plate
positioned perpendicular to the stream, which is producing a lot of vortices on the back
side. According to the Bernoulli equation the large velocity of the particles will create a
dynamic pressure difference between the front and the back side resulting in the pressure
drag Fp . The friction drag now does not play an important part. Finally, for a spherical
body both effects will contribute to the total air resistance force (see Fig. 1-4c). Pressure
and friction drag are both present in the most cases of different bodies in a flow.
For high flow velocities the frictional drag (FF ) can be neglected and the total drag force
is given by only by pressure drag:
ρ
FR = Fp = cR v 2 A (1-11)
2
where v is the velocity of the air, the A is the cross sectional area of the object and ρ
is the density of the air. The proportionality constant cR is the drag coefficient, which
can be determined from experimentally measured velocity v and the total drag force FR .
The drag coefficient is constant only at high flow velocities.
2FR
cR = (1-12)
ρv 2 A
The drag coefficient can be experimentally determined in a wind tunnel.

4. Investigation of airfoil characteristics

An aerofoil combines different shapes with a goal to produce a lifting force that acts on
it. If the shape of the airfoil influences higher flow velocity at its upper side then a higher
pressure will occur at its bottom side (Bernoulli law). The dynamic lifting force FL is
analogous to the pressure drag Fp :
ρ
F L = cL v 2 A (1-13)
2
where A is the maximal projection area of the aerofoil perpendicular to the flow direction
and the proportionality constant cL is the lifting coefficient. The resistance force FR and
the lifting force FL are perpendicular to each other and depend on the angle of incidence
α. As illustrated in Fig. 1-5, the angle of incidence is the angle between the flow direction
and the tangent to the aerofoil on the bottom side.
The resulting force F0 is the vectorial sum of FR and FL . To optimize an aerofoil the
Figure 1-5: Forces acting on an aerofoil in an air stream
resistance force should be low compared to the lifting force. The ratio between both is
given by the glide ratio :
FR cR
= = (1-14)
FL cL
Either a plot of FL against FR or a plot of the glide ratio against the angle of incidence
describes the lifting characteristics of an aerofoil.

Equipment
Part Leybold No. Quantity
Wind tunnel 373 12 1

Blower with spacebore 373 04 1
Venturi tube with 7 measurement points 37309 1
Aerofoil model 373 70 1
Measurement trolley for wind tunnel 373 075 1
Measurement section for aerodynamics 373 06 1
Measurement accessories aerodynamics I 373071 1
Measurement accessories aerodynamics II 37308 1
Pitot/Prandtl pressure probe 373 13 1
Sector dynamometer 373 14 1
Small stand base 300 02 1
Saddle base 300 11 2
Stand rod, 47cm 300 42 1
Stand rod, 25cm 300 42 1
Multiclamps 301 01 1
Pressure sensor 70 hPa incl. connecting cable 529 040 1
B-Box 524 038 1
Cassy 524 010 1
Laptop 1

Set-up and Procedure

1. Determination of the air speed using a Pitot/Prandtl tube
Assemble the air blower (373 04) with the small nozzle (100 mm) and the pressure sensor
with the pressure head as shown in Fig. 1-6. Plug the pressure sensor S, ±70 hPa to
Figure 1-6: Set up to determine the air speed with a Pitot/Prandtl tube and a differ-
ential pressure sensor.
the Input A of the Sensor CASSY. Measure the pressure difference (dynamic pressure)
between both openings of the Pitot/Prandtl tube, for 1/3, 2/3, and full power of the air
blower which is achieved by turning the speed knob by 90◦ . Measure the atmospheric
pressure and the temperature of the air and calculate the air velocity. Repeat the mea-
surements 5 times within ≈ 5 min to determine the stability of the air blower. Plot
the measurements into a diagram velocity v vs. time t. For the full power switch the
air blower off and on again to test for the repeatability of the achieved air flow velocity
(conduct again 5 measurements within 5 min).
2. Determination of the pressure and velocity profile in a Venturi tube

Equip the air blower (373 04) with the small nozzle (100 mm) and the Venturi tube (373
09). Set up these devices horizontally like shown in Fig. 1-7. For this purpose, support
the Venturi tube using the stand base, metal stand rod of sufficient height and Leybold
multiclamp. Do not overtighten screw of the multiclamp because plastic holder on the
Venturi tube can break. Plug the pressure sensor S (524 040), ±70 hPa to the Input
A of the Sensor CASSY (Fig. 1-7). Connect the tubes from the pressure sensor the
the connecting metal nipples. Press the connecting nipples firmly into the measuring

Figure 1-7: Set up for Venturi tube.
openings on the Venturi tube. To measure the static pressure at the given position of the
Venturi tube, connect one metal nipple to all measuring points one after another, while
other is not connected to the Venturi tube (think about what you are measuring using
this approach). To measure the pressure difference of e.g. p1 - p4 between measuring
point 1 (diameter d1 = 100 mm) and measuring point d4 (diameter d4 = 50 mm) connect
the overpressure and underpressure sides of the pressure sensor using both tubes. During
the measurements, close the unused holes of the Venturi tube using adhesive tape and do
not switch off the air blower. Conduct the measurement for 1/3 and full power of the air
blower.
Plot the static pressure profile as a function of the position at the Venturi tube. Calculate
the velocity at all measurement points an plot them into a diagram vs. the position at
the Venturi tube including the error bars. Calculate the product v · A where A is the
cross-sectional area of Venturi tube (entry position - area 78.5 cm2 , position 2 - area
72.4 cm2 , position 3 - area 36.3 cm2 , central position - area 19.6 cm2 ) and plot it against
position on Venturi Tube. Comment on your results.
3. Determination of the drag force and the drag coefficient of different flow
bodies
The set-up of the apparatus is shown in Fig. 1-8. Proceed in the following order:
• Secure the metal stand rod in the stand base.
• Then place the nozzle with a diameter d = 150 mm on the air blower. Place the
blower on its holder so that the securing nut on the nozzle is located at the top.
• Using the securing screw, mount the guide rail (1) on the nozzle and then attach it
to the stand rod. Horizontal alignment of the guide rail is achieved by a spirit level
(wasserwaage) with readjustment of the clamp at the standing rod side.

Figure 1-8: Set up for measuring the drag coefficient
• Mount the hook and 14 cm long L-shaped holder for the flow bodies (2) on the
measurement trolley and place it on the guide rail. The trolley on the rail should
not move without acting forces.
• Secure the holder for dynamometer at the start of the guide rail, mount the sector
dynamometer and set the pointer to zero. Hook the cord of the dynamometer arrow
pointer onto the hook on the measurement trolley.
• Connect the pressure sensor with two hoses to the Cassy sensor device in order
to measure the dynamic pressure as the difference between the total and static
pressure.
After finishing the set up, set the blower to maximum power and switch on. For all mea-
surements, first place the flow body on the L-shaped holder. Then move the measurement
trolley towards the nozzle so that the distance is approx. 15 cm away from the nozzle
outlet. Read off and note the air drag force from the sector dynamometer after the flow
body moves to equilibrium position.
Conduct this measurement for all flow bodies with a diameter of 56 mm. Do not switch
off the blower between the measurement.
After completing the series of measurements, leave the air blower switched on, remove
the L-shaped holder from the measurement trolley and attach the Pitot/Prandtl tube
connected to the pressure sensor instead. Determine the dynamic pressure using Cassy.
Calculate the drag coefficient cR and discuss your results.
4. Determination of characteristics of an aerofoil

In the first part of this experiment the model of an airfoil is used to measure the dynamic
pressure distribution at the surface of an airfoli section in an air flow.
The airfoil is pivoted in a bracket on a rod and mounted on a base (see Fig. 1-9. Angles of

incidence between -50 and 50◦ can be adjusted. Connect one end of the CASSY pressure
Figure 1-9: Experimental setup (left) to measure the pressure profile (right) of an airfoil
model.
sensor ±70 Pa to the holes on the airfoil model and measure the pressure profile at full
power of air blower for at least two angles of incidence (0 and +20◦ ). Make a sketch
showing the pressure profile of the airfoil model like in Fig. 1-9. Discuss the results.
Set up the wind tunnel with blower as shown in Fig. 1-10 and proceed in the following
order:
Figure 1-10: Experimental set up to measure the resisting force FR and FL of an aerofoil
• Remove the protective grille on the suction side of the air blower (it is not attached
with screws). Push the suction side of the air blower into the wind tunnel diffuser

(1) so that the air is sucked in through the wind tunnel during the experiment.
Ensure that there is a space of approx. 1 m in front of the intake nozzle and behind
the blower so that the air can be sucked in through the tunnel without turbulences.
The wind tunnel should have the flat base (2) attached below the plexiglas cover
fixed the four screws.
• Mount the lift balance (3) on the measurement trolley. The hook should be already
attached to the trolley. Place the trolley on the rail at the top side of the plexiglas
cover of the wind tunnel. Set up the measurement section horizontally by adjusting
the leveling screws on the base of the intake nozzle (5). The measurement trolley
should not move without acting forces.
• Mount the sector dynamometer on the top side of the input gate (5) and set the
pointer to zero. Attach the cord of the dynamometer arrow pointer to the hook on
the measurement trolley and move the trolley along the line so that it is approxi-
mately in the center of the measurement section.
• Insert the aerofoil wing in the wind tunnel through the intake nozzle.
• Push holding rods through the slot in the plexiglas cover. Using the wooden holding
clamp, clamp the aerofoil wing so close to the surface that the holding rods pass
through the holes of the holding clamp (item (3) in Fig. 1-11).
Figure 1-11: Mounting the aerofoil on the lift balance; (1) Front knurled screw, (2)
Rear knurled screw, (3) Holding clamp, (4) Measurement trolley
• Rise the measurement trolley and lift balance a little and push the aerofoil wing
holding rods through the appropriate openings in the measurement trolley from
below. Place the trolley on the rails again without releasing the wing. Insert
the holding rods in the coupling block of the plexiglas slide in the lift balance,
and carefully tighten the knurled screws of this block so that the aerofoil wing is
suspended from the lift balance. Remove the wooden holding clamp.
• Adjustment: Hold the aerofoil wing with one hand through the inlet nozzle of
the wind tunnel, unscrew the knurled screws of the coupling block with the other

hand and adjust the wing so that the tips of the holding rods are over the zero mark
of the angle of incidence scale on the plexiglas slide. Tighten the knurled screws
again.
Put the angle of attack scale (6) (see Fig. 1-10) in the wind tunnel through the
opening on the top. After undoing the knurled screw, align the bottom of the wing
rear edge with the zero marking of the angle of attack scale. This is achieved by
moving the front end of the wing (left side in Fig. 1-10) and the angle of attack
scale in a vertical direction. Tighten the knurled screw again.
Note: When adjusting the angle of incidence during a series of measurements,
always unscrew only the front knurled screw of the coupling block in the lift balance.
The settings are lost if the rear screw is undone.
Carrying out the experiment:
• Set an angle of incidence of 15 degrees by unscrewing the front knurled screw on

the coupling block and tilting the aerofoil wing so that the rear edge touches the
15-degree mark on the angle of attack scale. Then tighten the knurled screw again
and remove the angle of incidence scale from the wind tunnel.
• Starting at 15 degrees, measure the drag force Fr by the sector dynamometer and
lifting force FL by lift balance. Adjust the speed of the blower, so that the lifting
force or the drag force do not exceed the scale limit. Lower the angle of incidence
step-by-step and carry out the measurement in each case. Always adjust the angle of
incidence when the air velocity is zero (switch off the blower at the main switch; do
not change the position of the potentiometer for adjusting the air velocity; remove
the angle of incidence scale from the wind tunnel during force measurement). Wait
for at least 30 seconds after switching on the blower before each force measurement
to enable the blower to reach its maximum speed. Calculate the glide ratio
including error. Give an estimation of the error in the angle of incidence ∆α. Plot
the glide ratio as a function of the angle of incidence α.
Experimental Tasks
1. Determination of the air velocity using a Pitot/Prandtl tube.
(a) Measure the differential pressure between both openings of the Pitot/Prandtl
tube in front of the air blower outlet equipped with the nozzle and the static
pressure using the pressure sensor of the CASSY® system for 3 different set-
tings (1/3,2/3, full power) of the air blower.
(b) Repeat the measurements at least 5 times within the ≈ 5 min to determine
the stability of the air blower. Only for the full power switch the air blower
on and off between the measurements.
(c) Measure the temperature and the atmospheric pressure of the air with provided
sensors.
(d) Calculate the air velocity from the measured pressure values and plot the
values into a diagram over time.

2. Determination of the pressure and velocity profile in a Venturi tube.
(a) Measure the static pressure at every hole of the Venturi tube for 1/3 and full
power of the air blower.
(b) Measure the difference in static pressure ps between the center hole and all
other holes for 1/3 and full power of the air blower.
(c) Plot the pressure profile into a diagram ps vs. position at the Venturi tube.
(d) Calculate the velocities of air flow v for each position at the Venturi tube and
show it in plots.
(e) Calculate the product v · A for each position at the Venturi tube and show it
in plots.
3. Determination of the drag force and the drag coefficient of different

bodies.
(a) Measure the drag force of all different bodies and the air velocity at the position
of the front of the body using Pitot/Prandtl tube for full power of the air
blower.
(b) Calculate the drag coefficient for the different bodies.
4. Investigation of airfoil characteristics
(a) Measure the pressure profile at the airfoil and discuss the results.
(b) Measure the drag and lifting forces of the airfoil in the wind tunnel as a function
of the angle of attack and plot the results into a diagram.
Experimental Appendix - Working principle of pressure sensors
The sensing of the pressure of a gas is strongly dependent on the pressure range. In the
range from several bar down to some mbar a diaphragm is exerted to the force from the
gas pressure changing its shape. This change could be detected by several methods like
mechanical indicators or electrical properties like resistance, capacitance (see Fig. 1-12),
and inductance. Especially, the electrical signals could be easily detected and amplified.
All these sensors are in principle differential pressure sensors, because at the other side
the diaphragm is working against the static pressure of the medium.
However, at lower pressures the force difference is no longer detectable. Therefore, other
methods like heat transfer from one resistor to the gas is measured by using the resistance
change with temperature. This gauge was invented in 1906 by Marcello Pirani. It has
a simple design as it is shown in Fig. 1-13. For the detection of the resistance change
a Wheatstone bridge could be used (see Fig. 1-13 panel b). Below 10−3 mbar no heat
transfer could be detected anymore, then ionization of the residual air molecules and
their detection of the ion current must be used to determine the pressure.

Figure 1-12: Pressure sensor made of a diaphragm with capacitive detection of the
pressure change. Source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/twri/twri8a3/images/fig14.gif
Figure 1-13: Pirani gauge based on a wire resistance in vacuum (a) and the detec-
tion by a Wheatstone bridge (b). Source: http://www.bestinnovativesource.com/wp-
content/uploads/2013/01/Pirani-gauge-with-wheatstone-bridge.jpg
Frequently Asked Questions for Self-Monitoring

1. Learn the derivation of the Bernoulli equation using conservation laws.
2. Describe the working principle of the Pitot/Prandtl tube and which pressure is
measured by it.
3. What is causing for the change of laminar to turbulent flow?
4. Describe the drag force caused by the formation of vortices behind a body.
5. Describe the pressure profile around the surface of an airfoil and explain the reasons.
6. Describe the measurement of the pressure with a barometer.
7. Describe how to measure the static pressure in Venturi tube using differential pres-
sure and barometer.

Experiment 2 - HeNe laser
Experimental Tasks
• Align the laser system (tube with active media, two concave mirrors) with help of
the pilot laser that it ignites when it is switched on.
• Measure the output of the laser in dependence on cavity length.
• Set-up a Michelson interferometer and observe the effect of cavity length on the
practical coherence length.
• Replace the high reflective concave mirror by a flat mirror and compare the laser
output in dependence on cavity length with the previous settings.
Safety Precautions
• Use the laser in attenuated mode during alignment and use the safety
goggles for laser light. Never look directly into the laser beam! The
He/Ne laser has a power of 1–5 mW and can cause permanent damage
to the retina.
• Do not touch electrical contacts of the laser tube. High voltages are
applied for the gas discharge.
• When tracing the path of the beam, only use absorbing or strongly
diffusing materials.
• Stand behind your partner if he or she aligns the light beam.
• Do not wear anything that may reflect the light beam (jewelry, watch,
reflecting belt buckle . . .)
• Perform the alignment in a bright room.
Equipment
Part Quantity
Pilot laser (He-Ne, 1 mW) including holder and power supply 1

He-Ne laser tube (max. 5 mW) including holder and power supply 1
Photodiode 1
Mirror Concave(1400mm)/Flat, OC (1.5% Transmission) 1
Mirror Concave(1400mm)/Flat, High Reflection 1
Mirror Flat/Flat, High Reflection 1
Optical bench 1
Diaphragm 2
Holder for optical bench 3
Screw driver 1
Multimeter and cables

–17 –
Additional Information
In the experiments you will have to perform, the basic concept is the creation of coherent
light by lasers. Light is described by electromagnetic waves. Looking to the electric field
only, the wave description is given by e.g.
E = E0 ei(ϕ−ωt) (2-1)
or just using the real part of this equation
E = E0 cos(ϕ − ωt) .
That means that a wave is not only characterized by its amplitude and angular frequency
ω or wavelength λ = 2πc/ω but also by its phases ϕ. Comparing the phases of different
waves determines the relative position of maxima and minima of the amplitude along the
light path. Therefore, interference effects only can take place if the relative phases of the
superimposed waves are well defined and not statistically distributed. In the latter case
the interference patterns would just be smeared out. Most light sources (e.g. light bulbs)
emit light waves at random times. These waves will have an arbitrary phase relation,
they are not “coherent”. In our experiments we use lasers. These emit light waves that,
within a certain temporal and spatial range, have equal phases; monochromatic laser
light is coherent.
Working principles of a laser

A laser consists mainly out of 3 elements: the amplifying medium, an energy pumping
system and a resonator, which partly stores the energy as standing electromagnetic waves.
The amplifying medium is a HeNe gas mixture, where the name of this gas laser type is
coming from. The energy pumping is created by a gas discharge, a gas plasma is created
by applying a high voltage. The emitted light from the gas molecules is reflected back
from the mirror of the resonator into the active medium. However, only a certain number
of standing waves, the resonator modes, are coupled back in a way, that the intensity of
the light wave increases. The photons of these light waves do not leave the resonator like
all other. Passing an excited atom, which could emit another photon of the same energy,
with a certain probability a so-called stimulated emission takes place. In this case the
light is emitted with the same phase between the emitted and the incoming light wave.
The light is coherent. All other light is scattered and/or leaves the resonator.
Coherence of light
We are just making use of interference effects that cannot exist without coherence! As-
sume that the beam of a light source is split into two beams. These parts are then
superimposed after they have travelled different optical path lengths (Remember: The
optical path length is not necessarily equal to the geometrical path length. Different light
velocities in different media also have to be taken into consideration!). If the light waves
of both beam parts have a fixed phase relation, interference patterns can be observed.

For an ideal, perfectly coherent light source, the path difference ∆L can be infinitely long.
However, for a real light wave, the contrast of the interference pattern is reduced if the
path difference is increased.
Coherence length This experiment helps us to define a so-called “coherence length”.

The coherence length ∆Lc is equal to that difference ∆L between the optical pathes
where the contrast of the interference pattern is decreased by a factor of 1e compared
to the ideal case of complete constructive and destructive interference. The coherence
of a light source is directly correlated to its monochromaticity. That can be seen from
equation (2-1). The “phase factor” (ϕ − ωt) is not only determined by the phase ϕ but
also by the angular frequency ω. Hence, waves having different wavelengths will not
interfere. A perfectly monochromatic light wave corresponds to a sine wave which can
be superposed after any path difference and is perfectly coherent therefore. For a light
source with a finite spectral width ∆λ, the resulting interference pattern becomes blurred
and the contrast decreases.
Figure 2-1: Intensity distribution of a spectral line
In a Michelson-type setup like that described above, the variation of the intensity as a
function of the path length difference ∆L can be related to the wavelength spectrum of
the light (intensity as a function of the light wavelength) by a Fourier transformation.
This is the principle of e.g. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. In our case,
the relation between the full width at half maximum (FWHM) ∆λ = λ2 −λ1 = 2(λ1 −λ0 )
of the wave spectrum centered at λ0 and the coherence length ∆Lc can accordingly be
derived by Fourier transformation and is given by (without deviation):
λ1 λ0 λ2
∆Lc = ≈ 0 . (2-2)
2 (λ0 − λ1 ) ∆λ
Using the velocity of light c, a corresponding “coherence time” ∆tc can be defined:
∆Lc 1 λ20
∆tc := = . (2-3)
c c ∆λ
If both the coherence length ∆Lc and the center wavelength λ0 are known, the line width
∆λ and the coherence time ∆tc can be calculated using equation (2-2) and equation (2-3),
respectively.

The minimum spectral linewidth of a light source is determined by the lifetime of the
emitting atomic or molecular state. A typical value for such a “natural lifetime”is 10−8 s.
Taking into account the velocity of light c, the coherence length of the resulting light
emission is ≈ 300 cm. In the visible spectral range, the line width would then be ∆λ <
10−5 nm.
In reality, this value cannot be obtained. A considerable broadening of the lines results
from the Doppler effect, which is caused by the random movement of the emitting atoms.
This broadening grows linearly with the translation velocity of the atoms and therefore,
depends on the temperature. So-called pressure broadening has a considerable effect if
the time between two atomic collisions is shorter than the time of emission. This collision
time decreases when gas density and temperature increase. Under normal conditions, the
line width due to pressure broadening is ∆λp ≈ 0.1 nm.
Practical coherence length of multimode lasers The definition of the coherence

length as given above is only valid if single homogeneous line emissions are considered.
For the lasers normally used in laboratories this assumption is not true.
While the amplification profile of a gas laser (e.g. HeNe laser) is defined by its homoge-
neous Gaussian emission spectrum (FWHM ≈ 0.1 nm), still the laser emission consists
out of narrow modes. The reason for this mode structure of the laser emission is that
within the laser resonator only certain wavelengths are capable of forming standing waves.
Multiples of λ/2 have to fit into the resonator. These modes are called “longitudinal
modes”. This effect is displayed in Figure 2(a). Eigenfrequencies of the resonator are
indicated by vertical lines within the spectral gain profile of the transition. Above a cer-
tain threshold, laser emission is excited for the given modes. The difference ∆ν between
the eigenfrequencies νi is inverse proportional to the length d of the laser cavity. Thus
as longer the laser cavity is the more modes are excited. Figure 2(b) shows a spectrum
(a) Gain profile of a laser transition with res- (b) Spectrum of stable multimode operation of
onator eigenfrequencies (1) HeNe laser (1)
Figure 2-2: Properties of multimode lasers
of a multimode emission of a HeNe laser. If the exact wavelength of a laser becomes

important for an experiment, additional components have to be used to select a single
mode. The line width of a single mode beam can correspond to coherence lengths up to
kilometers.
In the given experiment a multimode laser is used. In the Michelson set-up, the com-
bination of different modes in one beam results in a smeared interference pattern at

much smaller length differences. Therefore, we have to introduce a practical coherence

length Lpc that corresponds to the path difference at which the contrast of the inter-
ference pattern of the multimode beam is reduced to 1/e of the initial contrast. The
Fourier transformation of the multimode spectrum shows a beat and the contrast of the
interference is increasing after a local minimum. The practical coherence length can be
determined by the distance of two minima or maxima of contrast.
Figure 2-3 is a schematic representation of the interferometer setup according to Michel-
son, which allows to determine both the wavelength of light and the coherence length.
Figure 2-3: Beam path in a Michelson interferometer
The beam emitted by the light source is divided into two equal parts by a semi-transparent
50% beam splitter BS. The perpendicular partial beams (BS under 45◦ ) impinge on a
fixed mirror M1 and on a mirror M2 that can be shifted along the optical path way. After
being reflected by these mirrors, the partial beams are reunited by the beam splitter BS
(50% of the overall intensity are lost by this setup). The interference pattern resulting
from the superposition can be observed on a screen.
For a parallel laser beam, the interference lines can be observed. If to divergent rays
are superimposed, concentric rings are formed. A variation of the length of beam path 2
(M2 ) results in a periodic change of the rings, best observed in the center, which changes
between dark and bright, depending on the relative phase shifts of the partial beams. If
the center of the interference pattern is dark, the path difference is an uneven multiple
of λ/2. The wavelength λ of a laser beam can be measured by this procedure if mirror
M2 can be moved with a precision smaller than λ/2.
With the given setup, the wavelength cannot be determined. However, the practical
coherence length ∆Lpc is measured by observation of the contrast of interference pattern
in dependence on the position of mirror M2 . The path difference 2∆x obtained from this
experiment can be used to estimate ∆Lpc . Assuming a minimum contrast ratio of 5%
that still can be observed, we get:
√ √
2∆x ≈ 2 ∆Lpc ⇔ ∆Lpc ≈ 2 ∆x (2-4)
frequently Asked Questions for Self-Monitoring

• What is stimulated emission?

• What is the principle of a laser?
• What is the general set-up of a laser?
• What cavity arrangements can be chosen with the provided mirrors and what results
for the laser characteristics?
• Explain the coherence length of a laser.
Further reading
1. Demtröder, Laser spectroscopy: basic concepts and instrumentation, Springer, 3rd
edition, 2003.
2. Meschede, Optics, light and lasers: an introduction to the modern aspects of laser
physics, optics and photonics., Wiley-VCH, 2004.
3. Hecht, Optics, Addison Wesley, 4th edition, 2004.

Experiment 3 - Solar cell
Key Concepts
Energy conversion, solar energy, electrical energy, semiconductor, band theory, valence
band, conduction band, forbidden zone, acceptors, donors, p-n junction, energy-band
diagram, Fermi energy level, internal resistance, conversion efficiency.
Summary
The solar cell is an electrical device, which converts electromagnetic energy, i.e. light,
into electric energy. Electrical energy created by solar cells is created with zero emission
of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, excluding the solar cell fabrication process or their
disposal.
In this experiment the properties of the solar cell are investigated using different halogen
lamps. Also, computational skills are trained, to fit the measured data and determine
the solar cell parameters.
Literature
1. S.M. Sze: Physics of Semiconductor Devices, (2nd edition, Wiley, 1981), section
1.5.2 and chapter 14.
2. Peter Würfel, Physics of Solar Cells: From Basic Principles to Advanced Concepts,
2nd Edition
Theory
The solar cell is in principle a large-area photodiode, which is operated as a current
source. This type of diode is formed by putting a p- and n-type semiconductor layers
together, the so-called p-n-junction (see Fig. 3-1). Pure silicon has normally at room
temperature a low charge carrier concentration, so it must be deliberately “impurified”
(doped) with tri- and pentavalent impurity atoms to make a p- or n-type semiconductor.
Whereas in the n-type region electrons in the conduction band are the charge carriers for
transport, in the p-type region positively charged holes (lack of electrons) in the valence
band are responsible for the charge carrier transport.
To determine the performance of a solar cell the electrical properties of p-n-junction are
important. In equilibrium (with no external voltage) the Fermi characteristic energy
level EF will be the same throughout. Because of the difference in the concentrations
of electrons and holes in the p- and n-regions, electrons diffuse into the p-region and
holes into the n-region. The immobile impurity atoms create a space charge region where
the diffusion current and the field current offset one another in equilibrium, i.e. the net
current is zero.
The diffusion or built-in potential Vbi in the p-n junction depends on the amount of doping
and corresponds to the original difference between the Fermi energy levels of the separate
p- and n-regions. The distance between the valence band and the conduction band in
silicon at room temperature is E = 1.1 eV, and the diffusion potential is Vbi = 0.5...0.7 V.
For practical reasons, pn-junction in silicon solar cells is formed with n-layer that is
doped significantly larger than p-layer (see Fig. 3-2). Consequently, space charge region
–23 –
Figure 3-1: p-n junction in thermal equilibrium. (a) Space charge distribution. (b)
Electric field distribution. (c) Electrical potential with built-in potential Vbi . (d) Energy-
band diagram.
is mainly located in the p-layer of solar cell and silicon solar cells are fabricated with thin
n+ -region (so-called emitter), and thick p-layer (so-called base). In such configuration,
it is practical that light enters the solar cell from the emitter side. Due to the small
thickness of the emitter, the photons that enter the solar cell are mainly absorbed in the
p-layer of solar cell. P-layer of the solar cell is partially depleted (space charge region),
and partially intrinsic (see Fig. 3-2). The absorbed photons will excite electrons from
the valence and transfer them into the conduction band, thus creating electron-hole pair
or exciton. If photons are absorbed in space charge region, the built-in electric field will
dissociate excitons into free electrons and holes that will move towards n- and p-layer,
respectively.
However, photons are also absorbed in the intrinsic part of the p-layer creating free

Figure 3-2: Cross section of silicon crystalline solar cell (left) and energy band diagram
(right). EC marks bottom of conduction band and EV marks the top of the valence band.
holes and electrons. The electrons produced in p-layer are minority charge carriers. This
means that probability for their recombination is larger and thus their contribution to the
photocurrent is reduced. To increase the efficiency of solar cells, it is necessary to increase
the collection of minority charge carriers. This is achieved by limiting the thickness of the
p-layer, such that the intrinsic part thickness is equal or slightly higher than the diffusion
length of minority charge carriers (electrons).
A current density generated by a solar cell is given by:
j = e · (exp(eU/kT ) − 1) · (n0 De t/L2e + p0 Dh /Lh ) − e · g (3-1)
where g is the is the number of electron-hole pairs produced per unit area per unit
time, U is the voltage applied across the pn-junction, e is the elementary charge, k is
Boltzmann’s constant, T is the absolute temperature, L is the diffusion length of electrons
and holes, De/h are the diffusion constant for electrons and holes, n0 and p0 are equilibrium
concentrations of the minority carriers. The photogenerated current density (U = 0) is
therefore:
jph = −e · g (3-2)
Since the number of electron-hole pairs produced per area is proportional to the intensity
of incident light at a fixed temperature, jph is also proportional to the intensity of the
incident light in this case. g becomes slightly greater (less than 0.01 %/K) when the
temperature rises.
The voltage U can increase up to the diffusion potential Vbi (open-circuit voltage UOC ). At
open-circuit voltage the electric field in the space charge region is zero, i.e. the electrons
and the holes are not separated and can recombine by sending out a photon with the
energy of the band-gap or by creating a crystalline lattice vibration (phonon). As the
temperature rises the open-circuit voltage decreases typically by -2.3 mV/K, since the

equilibrium concentrations n0 and p0 increase with the temperature:
n0 ∼ exp(−∆E/2kT ) (3-3)
The solar cell could be described using a equivalent circuit diagram (see Fig. 3-3) con-
Figure 3-3: Equivalent circuit of a solar cell consists of a current source, a diode, and
resistors in parallel and in series.
sisting out of a single diode with resistors in parallel RP and in series RS , which has the
generated photocurrent Iph and the current through the diode Id . In the case of an ideal
solar cell the parallel or shunt resistance Rp is infinite, whereas the series resistance Rs
goes to zero. In this ideal case the following equation corresponds to eq. (3-1):

eU
I = Iph − Id = Iph − Is exp −1 (3-4)
nkB T
where Is is the saturation current of the diode, n the ideality factor and kB Boltzmann’s
constant. However, to describe a real solar cell the parallel and series resistance has to
be taken into account.
• The parallel or shunt resistance RP will be defined by defects in the material, like
crystalline defects or non-ideal dopant distributions.
• The series resistance RS sums up all the additional resistances like the material,
contacts and all connections to the solar cell.
Including the effects of RP and RS , the formula for the solar cell gets a recursive shape
and must be solved numerically.

UP e(U + RS · I) U + RS · I
I = Iph − Id − = Iph − Is exp −1 − (3-5)
RP nkB T RP
From the first derivatives of this current-voltage characteristic, the parallel and series
resistance can be derived:

1 ∂I 1 ∂I
≈− ≈− (3-6)
RS ∂U I=0 RP ∂U U =0

For applied voltages close to zero value (U = 0), the current-voltage characteristic of
solar cell can be approximated by:
U
I=− + ISC (3-7)
RP
where ISC is the short circuit current (current value when no voltage is applied to solar
cell). Similar approximation is valid when the solar cell current is close to zero value
(I = 0):
V = −I RS + UOC (3-8)
where UOC is open circuit voltage (voltage across the solar cell when no current is coming
out).
The point of the maximum generated power PM P P is important to determine the energy
conversion efficiency of solar cell, and it represents the maximum value of the current-
voltage product:
PM P P = max(U I) (3-9)
The efficiency of the solar cell is defined as the ratio of the maximum generated power
and the power of the incoming light:
PM P P
η=
Plight
For practical considerations it is also needed to define the fill factor F F of the solar cell
as the ratio of the maximum power and the product of open circuit voltage UOC and the
short circuit current ISC :
PM P P
FF =
UOC · ISC
The fill factor represents how much the solar cell behaves as the ideal power source with
the rectangular current-voltage characteristic.

Equipment
Phywe Part No. Quantity
Solar battery, 4 solar cells (2.5x5 cm2 ) 06752-04 1

Universal measuring amplifier 13626-93 1
Rheostat, 100 Ω, 1.8 A 06114-02 1
Rheostat, 33 Ω, 3.1 A 06112-02 1
Rheostat, 10 Ω, 5.7 A 06110-02 1
Optical bench with two slide mounts 08282-00 1
(bench length 1 m, mounts height 30 mm, 60 mm)
Leybold Part No. Quantity
Cassy Sensor 524 010 2

NiCr-Ni adapter S, type K 524 0673 1
General Quantity
Thermopile, Moll type 1

Thermocouple probe 1
Hair drier 1
Laptop 1
Universal clamp 1
Square support rod 1
Circular support rod 1
Triangular base 1
White lamp 1
Green lamp 1
Connection cord as needed
Right angle clamp 1


1. Determination of intensity of a light source
The energy conversion efficiency of the solar cell can only be determined if the intensity
of the light source is known. The light source is calibrated using Moll thermopile with
sensitivity of 22.69 µV/W/m2 . As a light source a filament lamps are used. Because of
a large opening angle of the lamp, the intensity changes with a distance. Therefore, a
calibration curve (light intensity versus distance) is first recorded.
Figure 3-4: Experimental set-up for lamp calibration.
For this task, the lamp and Moll thermopile are mounted on the optical bench (see Fig. 3-
4), and the distance is varied by moving the Moll thermopile away from the lamp. The
front glass window marks the position of the thermopile. The minimum distance between
the lamp and the thermopile should be at least 30 cm, since the angular aperture of the
thermopile is only 20◦ .
The output voltage of the thermopile is in the range of mV, and amplifier is used to
increase the signal. The amplifier is used in the ’Low drift’ mode. The amplification
can be adjusted from the factor 1 to 105 . Note: the maximum output voltage of the
amplifier, where it is behaving linearly, is 10 V. When the output voltage exceeds 10 V,
the amplification range must be changed to the next lower value. If the range is changed,
the zero adjustment must be re-calibrated. For this purpose, make a short-circuit with
a cable at the amplifier “Low Drift” input and rotate the -0- potentiometer, until the
output reading is zero as precise as possible.
2. Determination of current-voltage characteristic of a solar cell

To measure current-voltage characteristic of the solar cell, the solar cell should be illumi-
nated by a light source and connected to electrical circuit as shown in Fig. 3-5.
To measure the current and voltage generated by the solar cell, Cassy’s inputs A and
B should be used, respectively. The range should be set to ±0.3 A for the current, and
±3 V range is for the voltage. Use automatic mode measurement with 100 ms averaging
time and 100 ms measurement interval. Measurement should start from short circuit
conditions when all rheostats are set to 0 Ω position. After you start the measurement,
move the rheostat slider slowly and continuously from one end to other starting from

Figure 3-5: Electrical circuit for determination of current-voltage characteristic of a

solar cell.
Figure 3-6: Experimental set-up for measurement of solar cell current-voltage charac-
teristic.
10 Ω, continuing with 33 Ω, and finally with 100 Ω. At that point, solar cell is at open
circuit conditions, and you can stop the measurement. After the measurement is finished,
return all rheostats back to 0 Ω position. You can remove data points at the beginning
or the end of the measurement when rheostats value were not changing.
2. Temperature dependence of current-voltage characteristic of solar cell

The current-voltage characteristic of the solar cell depends on solar cell temperature. To
measure this dependence, the white lamp is used a light source and the distance between
the lamp and solar cell is fixed to 30 cm. At this distance, the temperature of the solar cell
will increase above room temperature. To control the temperature of the solar cell, a hair
dryer is used. The hair drier is used only to cool down the solar cell with its heater being
turned off for all measurements. In order to get a homogeneous and constant cooling
rate, the hair dryer should be mounted using triangular base, square base support rod,
right angle clamp, and universal clamp. The overall setup is shown in Fig. 3-6.
To measure the the temperature, a thermocouple is used. The temperature should be
measured directly in front of the solar cell, but be careful not to touch the cell with the

thermocouple as the solar cell can be easily damaged. Thermocouple can be fixed using
tape. Connect the thermocouple to second Cassy unit and measure the temperature with
Cassy software.
The current-voltage characteristic should be measured for three different temperatures.
The highest temperature is achieved when hair drier is off. To cool down the solar cell, set
the fan speed to lowest and highest value which provides two more temperature values.
The current-voltage characteristic should be measured once the temperature is stabilized.
3. Current-voltage characteristic of solar cell in dependence of the light in-

tensity
The current-voltage characteristic of the solar cell depends on the light intensity. To
measure this dependence, the white lamp is used a light source and the distance between
the lamp and solar cell is varied so that solar cell is illuminated with different light
intensities. To exclude the influence of the temperature, solar cell should be cooled down
with hair dried (heating off) using highest fan speed. The current-voltage characteristic
should be measured at several distances at which the intensity of the white lamp is known
or can be determined.
4. Measurement of a solar cell using a different light source

In this task, the solar cell should be illuminated with green lamp. To avoid influence
of the temperature, the solar cell should be cooled down with hair drier (heater off) at
highest fan speed. The solar cell current-voltage characteristic should be measured at a
distance where the intensity of the green lamp matches the intensity of the white lamp.

Experimental Tasks
1. Determination of light intensity of lamps
(a) Build the measurement setup with the white lamp, Moll thermopile and the
solar cell using Cassy.
(b) Measure the thermovoltage Vth of a thermopile for a fixed distance of 30 cm
between the cover glass of the light source and Moll thermopile just before
turning on the lamp and until the stable value of thermovoltage is achieved.
Describe the behavior of the thermovoltage with time.
(c) Calculate the light intensity from the thermovoltage and thermopile sensitivity
(22.69 µV /W/m2 ). Calculate the power that reaches solar cell taking into
account area of solar cell panel.
(d) Determine the light intensity at different distances between the lamp and Moll
thermopile. Measure every 5 cm from 30 cm to 80 cm. Plot the curve into an
diagram. Calculate the power that reaches solar cell and plot it into diagram
versus distance.
(e) Determine the light intensity of green lamp at different distances. Measure
every 5 cm from 30 cm to 85 cm. Plot the curve into an diagram. Calculate
the power that reaches solar cell and plot it into diagram versus distance.
Determine the set of positions where intensities of white and green lamp are
almost the same.
2. Temperature dependence of solar cell current-voltage characteristic
(a) Mount the solar cell at 30 cm distance from the white lamp and measure the
temperature nearby the solar cell.
(b) After reaching the thermal equilibrium, measure the current-voltage charac-
teristic of the solar cell.
(c) Cool the solar cell by means of an hair dryer (heating switched off) at low
blowing speed and re-measure the current-voltage characteristic after thermal
equilibrium is reached (write down the temperature value).
(d) Repeat the experiment but now use the highest speed of the hair dryer. Note
the temperature value.
(e) Plot measured curves into the same diagram and compare them.
(f) From measured curves extract UOC , ISC , RS , RP , PM P P , F F and η and plot
them as function of temperature. Discuss the results.
3. Determination of electrical characteristics of a solar cell for different light
intensities
(a) Measure the current-voltage characteristic of solar cell for five different dis-
tances between 30 cm and 80 cm. Solar cell should be cooled down with hair
dryer (heater off) and temperature noted after thermal equilibrium is reached.
If you have chosen 30 cm distance, you can reuse current-voltage characteristic
from previous task. Plot the data into a diagram.

(b) Extract UOC , ISC , RS , RP , PM P P , F F and η from measured curves and plot
them as a function of light intensity.
4. Measurement of a solar cell with different light source
(a) Measure the current-voltage characteristics of the solar cell under the illumi-
nation from green green halogen lamp for 30 cm distance. Solar cell should be
cooled down with hair dryer (heater off) and temperature noted after thermal
equilibrium is reached. Determine UOC , ISC , RS , RP , PM P P , F F and η.
(b) Plot the measured curve against the current voltage characteristic of solar cell
under illumination of the white lamp of similar light intensity. Compare also
extracted parameters and discuss results.
(c) Voluntary Task (up to +10% extra) Repeat measurements for four more
distances between 35 cm and 80 cm, extract parameters and plot them vs green
light intensity including data at 30 cm distance. This should not be included
in the report, only in your lab notes.

Experiment 4 - Peltier and Seebeck effect
Key Concepts
Peltier effect, Peltier coefficient, Seebeck effect (thermoelectric effect), Seebeck coefficient,
Thomson equations, Thomson coefficient, Joule effect, heat pipe, heat conduction, con-
vection, forced cooling, cooling capacity, heating capacity, efficiency rating, direct energy
conversion.
Summary
The cooling capacity, heating capacity and efficiency rating of a Peltier heat pump are
determined under different operating conditions. Furthermore, the open-circuit voltage
and the short-circuit current of a semiconductor thermogenerator are measured as a
function of the temperature difference. The internal resistance, the Seebeck coefficient,
and the efficiency are also determined.
Literature
1. S.M. Sze: Physics of Semiconductor Devices, (3rd edition, Wiley, 2007), chapter 3.
Theory
Peltier effect
In a conducting material, an applied electric voltage results in the electric current that
flows through the material. Electric current is described microscopically by the move-
ment of charge carriers. Electrons are the only charge carriers in metals, while in semi-
conductors, depending on their doping, charge carriers can be electrons or holes. The
electrons/holes not only do transport electrical current, but they also carry the thermal
energy which depends on the temperature of the conductor/semiconductor.
Figure 4-1: a) Construction of a Peltier semiconductor element. In practice several

elements are generally connected in series (electrically) and in parallel (thermally). b)
Energy band diagram of Peltier semiconductor element in equilibrium state
If an electric current flows through an isothermal and homogeneous conductor, thermal

energy of charge carriers is the same everywhere in the conductor. However, when an
–35 –
electric current flows through a circuit composed of two different conductors, heat will
be absorbed or released at the junction depending on the direction in which current is
flowing. This effect is called Peltier effect named after French physicist Jean Charles
Athanase Peltier, who discovered it in 1834. The underlaying cause of this effect can be
attributed to the difference of the Fermi level energy between the two conductors.
In this experiment, Peltier semiconductor element is used. Here, n-doped and p-doped
semiconductor are two different conductors used to form a junction. The structure of
device is given in Fig. 4-1. As shown in Fig. 4-1a, the junction between n- and p-doped
semiconductor is formed via metal layer to avoid formation of the pn-junction. The metal
is chosen in such a way that it forms low resistivity ohmic contact with semiconductors.
This allows for current to flow through Peltier element in both directions and minimizes
Ohmic losses. More information about contacts between metal and semiconductor can
be found in the literature listed at the beginning. In equilibrium, the Fermi level is
constant throughout the device (see Fig. 4-1b). Conduction band of the n-semiconductor
is energetically close to the valence band of the p-semiconductor, and metal layer allows
for exchange of charge carries between n- and p-semiconductor. In n-type semiconductors
electrons use conduction band for the current transport, while in p-type semiconductors
holes use valence band as shown in Fig. 4-2.
Figure 4-2: Peltier element with a) positive voltage applied to n- doped semiconduc-
tor b) corresponding energy band diagram and c) positive voltage applied to p-doped
semiconductor and d) corresponding energy band diagram.

Figure 4-2a depicts Peliter semiconductor element where positive external voltage is ap-
plied to the n-doped semiconductor. Corresponding energy band diagram and movement
of charge carries are given in Fig. 4-2b. Electrons move towards positive potential (lower
energy), while holes move towards negative potential. Holes actually represent a lack
of electrons in the valence band and they are used to describe collective movement of
the electrons in p-type semiconductors. In other words, movement of electrons in the
valence band towards positive potential (lower energy) is described by a movement of the
empty space (hole) towards negative potential (higher energy). Consequently, whenever
hole goes up in energy, that means that valence electrons go down in energy, and vice
versa. At the interface between p-semiconductor and metal contact on the right side of
Fig. 4-2b, hole goes up in the energy indicating release of energy which is absorbed by the
material resulting in the temperature increase. At the interface between n-semiconductor
and metal contact on the left side of Fig. 4-2b, electron goes down in the energy also in-
dicating release of energy, which results in increased temperature at that contact. At
the metal contact between n- and p-semiconductor (in the middle) electron goes up and
hole goes down in the energy indicating that charge carriers absorb the thermal energy
of the metal, and the temperature goes down. Consequently, the temperature of the top
metal contact in Fig. 4-2a decreases, while temperature of bottom contacts increases.
Figures 4-2c and 4-2d depict Peltier semiconductor element where positive voltage is ap-
plied to the p-doper semiconductor and corresponding energy band diagram. Because
of different current flow, the energy is absorbed at the side contacts and released at the
middle contact. Consequently, the temperature of the top metal contact increases, while
temperatures of the bottom contacts decrease.
The Peltier effect can be used to create a cooler that is compact and has no circulating
fluid or moving parts.
Heating and cooling capacity of Peltier element

The total Peltier heat that can be absorbed/released per unit time is proportional to the
number of charge carriers that flow through the conductor per unit time and the absolute
temperature of the conductor. The total Peltier heat power is therefore given by:
Q
PP = =π·I =α·T ·I (4-1)
t
where π is the Peltier coefficient of the conductor, α is the Seebeck coefficient of the
conductor, I is the current that flows through the conductor, and T is the absolute
temperature of the conductor. The relationship between Peltier and Seebeck coefficient
given in Eq. (4-1) is the consequence of Onsager reciprocal relations (see literature).
If an electric current flows I through a homogeneous and isothermal conductor with
internal resistance Ri , Joule effect occurs and generates additional heat power PJ defined
by:
PJ = I 2 Ri (4-2)
On the other hand, if an electric current flows through a homogeneous conductor that
exhibits a temperature gradient dT /dx, Thomson effect will occur. Carriers with a given
thermal energy at certain position are driven to the hotter or colder side. Thus, they

have to gain or release energy to reflect the temperature of their surrounding. Depending
on the carrier type which is determined by the material, the resulting thermal power is:
dT
PT = τ · I · (4-3)
dx
where τ is the Thomson coefficient. The direction in which the heat flows depends on
the sign of the Thomson coefficient (sign of carrier charge), the direction in which the
current flows, and the direction of the temperature gradient (see Fig. 4-3).
Figure 4-3: Power balance flow chart in a Peltier element. The example illustrated is
for the case where PT > 0, and it is valid for both n- and p-semiconductor.
Because of temperature gradient and the thermal conductivity of the conductor, heat
flows from the hot side (temperature Th ) to the cold side (temperature Tc ). The thermal
power due to thermal conductivity Pλ is given by:
A
Pλ = λ (Th − Tc ) (4-4)
d
where λ is the thermal conductivity, A the cross-sectional area of the conductor, and d
the thickness of the Peltier element.
The cooling capacity of Peltier element Pc is given by thermal power balance on the cold
side:
τ I∆T 1 L · A · ∆T
Pc = −αTc I + + I 2 Ri + (4-5)
2d 2 d
where ∆T = Th − Tc . The heating capacity Ph of Peltier element is given by thermal
power balance on the hot side:
τ I∆T 1 L · A · ∆T
Ph = αTh I + + I 2 Ri − (4-6)
2d 2 d
The electric power supplied to the Peltier element Pel,P can be expressed as:
τ I∆T
Pel,P = Ph + Pc = αI∆T + Ri I 2 + =U ·I (4-7)
d
were U is the voltage applied to the Peltier element. Equation (4-7) shows that electric
power is partially used for creating temperature difference between and partially to com-
pensate for losses due to the Thomson and Joules effects. Equation (4-7) can be rewritten
into:
U 1 τ
= Ri + α− ∆T (4-8)
I I d
which allows for determination of the internal resistance Ri and Thomson coefficient if
Seebeck coefficient is know.
Peltier element - experimental considerations

The heating and cooling capacity of Peltier element should be determined from the change
of temperature of the material that is being cooled/heated. Semiconductor Peltier ele-
ment used in this experiment is enclosed by two nickel plated copper blocks to which
external flow-through brass basins filled with water can be attached. Therefore, Peltier
element in this experiment can be used to to heat/cool copper plate, brass basin, and
water inside the basin. Mass of each copper block is 712 g and specific heat capacity of
copper is cCu = 383 J kg−1 K−1 . The mass of each brass basin is 98.3 g and specific heat
capacity is cBr = 381 J kg−1 K−1 . The mass of water contained in the brass basin can be
determined from the internal volume of the basin and assuming density of water to be
1 g ml−1 . Specific heat capacity of the water is cw = 4182 J kg−1 K−1 .
Properties of Peltier element at constant supply current. The cooling and heating
capacities can be determined directly without attaching the flow-through basins to the
Peltier element. This method is more reliable since water inside flow through basin is not
being mixed. By applying a constant current to the element and measuring temperatures
of the copper plates, the heating and cooling capacity are calculated by:
dTh
Ph = mCu · ccu · (4-9)
dt
dTc
Pc = mCu · ccu · (4-10)
dt
where dTdth and dT
dt
c
are rates of temperature change on the hot and the cold side of
the Peltier element, respectively. Equations (4-9) and (4-10) can only be used for the
evaluation of the process if the rates of temperature change are constant (temperature
changes linearly with time), which requires that used electric power is also constant.
However, from Eq. (4-8) it is clear that used electric power changes with temperature
gradient and consequently with time. Therefore, for the evaluation of the process it is
necessary to use energy quantities:
Qh = mCu · ccu · ∆Th (4-11)
Qc = mCu · ccu · ∆Tc (4-12)

Assuming no heat loss to the environment, the heat at the hot side and the cold side
should add up to the electric energy supplied to the element. However, heat loss to the
environment always occurs, and the efficiency of the overall process is given by:
Qh + Qc mCu · ccu · (∆Th + ∆Tc )
η = Rt = Rt (4-13)
0
P el,P · dt 0
U · I · dt
The heating efficiency is determined as:

Qh mCu · ccu · ∆Th
ηh = R t = Rt (4-14)
0
Pel,P · dt 0
U · I · dt
while the cooling efficiency is given by:

Qc mCu · ccu · ∆Tc
ηc = R t = Rt (4-15)
0
Pel,P · dt 0
U · I · dt
Heating capacity at constant supply current and constant cold temperature.

The constant temperature at the cold end of the Peltier element is achieved by using
flow-through brass basin with constantly flowing water. On the hot end, the heat is
transferred to the copper plate and environment. Therefore, Eqs. (4-11) and (4-14) are
used to evaluate this process.
Determination of cooling capacity at constant supply current and constant

hot temperature. The constant temperature at the hot end of the Peltier element
is achieved by using flow-through brass basin with constantly flowing water. On the
cold end, the heat is taken away from the copper plate and environment. Therefore,
Eqs. (4-12) and (4-15) are used to evaluate this process.
Seebeck effect
Seebeck effect can be described opposite of the Peltier effect. If an electric circuit is com-
posed of two different conductors, and different temperatures are applied to the junctions
between conductors, an electric current will flow through the circuit. To demonstrate
Seebeck effect in this experiment, Peltier semiconductor element is used as a thermogen-
erator. Figure 4-4 depicts the operating principles of semiconductor thermogenerator and
energy band diagrams at short circuit conditions.
Figure 4-4a depicts the situation when the high temperature Th is applied at the junction
between n- and p-semiconductor and low temperature Tc is applied at the other junction.
High temperature at the metal contact between n- and p-semiconductor causes that
electrons have more energy which allows them the easily enter conduction band of n-
semiconductor (see Fig. 4-4b). The empty space left in metal is filled by electron from
valence band in p-semiconductor, meaning that hole moves in opposite direction. This
movement of electron and hole results in a electric current that flows through the circuit.
By reversing the temperature difference, and applying now low temperature Tc at the
junction between n- and p-semiconductor and high temperature Th at the other junction
(see Fig. 4-4c) results in the electric current flowing in opposite direction. Generation of
electron and hole in this situation is shown in Fig. 4-4d for the short circuit condition.

Figure 4-4: a) Construction of a thermogenerator (in practice several elements are

connected electrically in series and thermally in parallel) and b) energy band diagram at
U = 0 V. c) Reversing the temperature difference at junctions results in reversed flow of
the current as explained by d) energy band diagram at U = 0 V.
Seebeck thermogenerator is used to directly convert thermal energy into electrical energy.
Major drawback of the device is that requires large temperature gradients over small
distance which are conditions difficult to realize outside of laboratory conditions.
Equivalent circuit of the thermogenerator, current-voltage characteristic, and

energy conversion efficiency
Thermogenerator can be described using an equivalent circuit diagram (see Fig. 4-5)
consisting out of a voltage source Us with an internal resistor R(∆T ) connected in series.
The resistance of the internal resistor depends on the temperature difference ∆T on the
sides of the thermogenerator. When temperature difference is equal to zero, it is valid
R(∆T = 0) = Ri .
When an external load RL is connected to the fuel cell, current I starts to flow through

Figure 4-5: Equivalent circuit of a thermogenerator consists of a voltage source with

an internal resistor in series.
the circuit and voltage U is applied to the load. The current I can be expressed as:
Us − U
I= (4-16)
R(∆T )
which describes the current-voltage characteristic of the thermogenerator. From Eq. (4-16)
it follows that internal resistance is negative reciprocal of the slope of the I(U ) curve.
Important parameters that are determined from current-voltage characteristic are the
open-circuit voltage UOC and short circuit current ISC . The open circuit voltage is the
voltage U under open circuit conditions (I = 0 A), while the short circuit current is the
current I under short circuit conditions (U = 0 V). From Eq. (4-16), these parameter are
given by:
UOC = U (I = 0 A) = Us (4-17)
Us
ISC = I(U = 0 V) = (4-18)
R(∆T )
The voltage Us generated by thermogenerator depends on the temperature difference and

on the materials used in the realization. From the theory that describes Seebeck effect,
the generated voltage Us can be expressed as:
Us = α (Th − Tc ) = α∆T (4-19)
where α = αn − αp is the Seebeck coefficient of the combination of materials used for

the realization of the thermogenerator (in this experiment n- and p-semiconductor), Th
is the temperature of the hot side, Tc the temperature of the cold side, and ∆T is the
temperature difference. From Eqs. (4-17) and (4-19) it follows that Seebeck coefficient
of the thermogenerator can be determined by measuring the open circuit voltage and
temperature difference. With known Seebeck coefficient it is also possible to determine
Thomson coefficient (see Peltier effect part and Eq. (4-8)).

Another important electrical parameter is power generated by a thermogenerator, which

is defined by:
Pel,S = U · I (4-20)
By using load resistance RL to express voltage U and current I:
U = I · RL
Us
I=
R(∆T ) + RL
Eq. (4-20) can be expressed as:
Us2 · RL
Pel,S = (4-21)
(R(∆T ) + RL )2
From Eq. (4-21) it can be derived that the fuel cell generates maximum power when the
load resistance is equal to internal resistance:
RL = R(∆T ) ⇒ Pel,S = Pel,S,max = Umax · Imax (4-22)
For the maximum power point it is valid:
Us
Umax = (4-23)
2
Us
Imax = (4-24)
2 · R(∆T )
The fill factor of the fuel cell is given by:
Pel,S,max Umax · Imax

FF = = (4-25)
UOC · ISC UOC · ISC
and theoretically should be equal to 25 % based on Eqs. (4-17), (4-18), (4-23), and (4-24).
Finally, the energy conversion efficiency ηS of the thermogenerator is defined as:
Pel,S,max
ηS = (4-26)
Pth,S
where Pth,S is the heat flow rate that is transferred through the generator. Equation (4-26)
is only valid if produced electric power is constant in time. Since the internal resistance
of thermogenerator depends on the ∆T , produced electric power will change in time and
energy quantities should be used for the evaluation of the process:
Rt
0
Pel,S · dt
ηS = (4-27)
Qth,S
where Qth,S is the heat transferred through the generator.

Seebeck effect - experimental considerations

For the determination of the efficiency ηS of energy conversion of the thermogenerator,
the heat flow rate Pth,S from the heated to the cooled side of the thermogenerator has to
be determined. In other to heat and cool the sides of the thermogenerator, flow through
basins with hot and cold water are used. The heat capacity of the system is now given
by:
Ctot = mCu · cCu + mBr · cBr + mw · cw (4-28)
where the values and instructions how to determine the mass of water are already given
in section above.
The heat flow rate can only be determined when the hot and cold reservoir are terminated
and temperatures at the hot and cold side start to change. The thermal energy that flows
from the hot side (temperature drops) is used to increase the temperature on the cold
side and to generate the electric power. Therefore, the heat flow rate is given by:
Qth,S = −(Qh,S + Qc,S ) = −Ctot · (∆Th + ∆Tc ) (4-29)
The measurement should be conducted as close as possible to the maximum power point
and the efficiency of thermogenerator is calculated as:
Rt
0
U · I · dt
ηS = (4-30)
−Ctot · (∆Th + ∆Tc )

Equipment
Part Phywe No. Quantity
Peltier element/thermogenerator 04366-00 1

Flow-through heat exchanger 04366-01 2
Power supply, universal 13500-93 1
Rheostat, 33 Ohm, 3.1 A 06112-02 1
Bath for thermostat, makrolon 08487-02 1
Immersion thermostat A100 46994-93 1
Rubber tubing, i.d. 7 mm 39282-00 4
Part Leybold No. Quantity
Cassy Sensor 524010 2

NiCr-Ni adapter 5240673 1
Part Quantity
AlCh temperature probes 2

Vernier scale 1
Laptop 1
Connection cords as needed
Wet towel 1


Peltier effect
• Preparation for the experiment
Use Vernier scale to measure internal dimensions of the flow through brass basins
so that the mass of water that fits in side can be calculated. Measure the thickness
of Peltier element/thermogenerator and attached nickel plated copper plates to
estimate the thickness of semiconductor elements.
• Determination of heating and cooling capacities of Peltier element at

constant supply current
Electrical scheme and experimental setup are given in Fig. 4-6. Without fitting the
Figure 4-6: Electrical scheme (left) and experiment setup (right) for determination of
heating and cooling capacities of Peltier element at constant supply current.
flow through basins, connect the Peltier element to the power supply according to
the scheme given in Fig. 4-6. To measure current and voltage provided by the power
supply, Cassy device is used. To measure temperature at the hot and cold side of
the Peltier element, second Cassy device is used with attached NiCr-Ni adapter and
temperature probes. Temperature probes should be fitted in the small openings at
copper plates of the Peltier element to measure Th and Tc . All values are measured
in Cassy software in automatic mode using averaging of at least 100 ms and time
interval of 5 s. The current range should be set to ±3 A, the voltage range to
±10 V, and temperatures to –20◦ C to 120◦ C. The current knob of the power supply
should be set at scale mark between 1 A and 2 A, while voltage knob is set at
minimum. Start the measurement in Cassy software and then set the voltage knob
of the power supply to 10 V mark. The power supply then works in current source
mode and red lamp above current scale should be on. Data should be measured for
at least 5 to 10 min. Be sure to save the measured data for later analysis.
• Determination of heating capacity of Peltier element at constant supply

current and constant Tc

heating capacity of Peltier element at constant supply current and constant cold temper-
ature.
Experimental setup is given in Fig. 4-7. To maintain temperature Tc constant it is

necessary to attach flow through water basin and to connect it to the water tap. To
prevent leaking of the water, the water basin should be nicely centered with respect
to the rubber sealing and it is necessary to tighten the screw holders. The flowing
tap water will keep the temperature Tc constant. Use the same Cassy settings
described previously, and set up the power supply as constant current supply using
the same procedure. Data should be also measured for at least 5 to 10 min.
• Determination of cooling capacity of Peltier element at constant supply

current and constant Th
Electrical scheme and experimental setup are given in Fig. 4-8. Exchange the
cooling capacity of Peltier element at constant supply current and constant hot temper-
ature.

contact at the Peltier element according to the scheme given in Fig. 4-8. This
will invert the heated and cooled sides, such that flowing water will maintain Th
constant. Measurement settings and procedures are the same as for the previous
task.
Seebeck Effect
The Seebeck effect is investigated with the set up given in Fig. 4-9. The Peltier element is
now used as thermogenerator and it is connected in electric circuit also given in Fig. 4-9.
Figure 4-9: Experimental set-up for measuring open-circuit voltage and short-circuit
current as a function of temperature difference.
• Measuring current voltage characteristic of thermogenerator

The flow through water basins should be attached to both sides of the thermogen-
erator. Flow through basin on the left side should be connected to the water tap to
ensure low temperature at that side. The flow of the tap water once adjusted should
not be changed throughout the experiment. Basin on the right side is connected to
plastic bath filled with water that is heated by immersion thermostat. Two Cassy
devices are again used to measure current, voltage, Tc , and Th . The measured volt-
age is voltage across rheostat used as variable resistor, and the measured current

is the electrical current that flows through the rheostat in order to determine the
power generated by the thermogenerator. The rheostat slider should be set at the
zero resistance position. All data is measured using automatic measurement mode
in Cassy software with averaging of 50 ms and measurement interval of 100 ms.
Do not change the rages for the measured values. First, the immersion thermostat
is set such that temperature difference applied to the thermogenerator. Once the
temperature difference is stabilized, the measurement in Cassy is started and rheo-
stat slider is moved in continuous motion from zero resistance position to maximum
resistance position. The measurement in Cassy should be stopped and data should
be saved. Rheostat slider should be moved back to zero resistance position and
new temperature difference can be set by immersion thermostat. Measurements
of the current voltage characteristic should be conducted for at least 5 different
temperature differences ∆T = Th − Tc . Do not set temperature of the immersion
thermostat higher than 60◦ C.
• Determination of energy conversion efficiency

For the highest temperature difference determine the maximum power dissipation
from the measured current voltage characteristic and set the rheostat slider to that
position. Set the Cassy software to automatic measurement mode with 100 ms
averaging and 5 s measurement interval. Stop the water flow through the water
basins on both sides of thermogenerator. Measure Th , Tc , generated voltage and
current as function of time for at least 5 to 10 min.

Experimental Tasks
1. Peltier effect
(a) Determine ηh and ηc of the Peltier element for at least two different constant
supply currents. Determine the overall efficiency of the process. Calculate the
resistance of the Peltier element from measured voltage and current and plot
it against ∆T . Determine Ri from the plot.
(b) Determine ηh of the Peltier element at constant supply current and constant
Tc . Fulfill this task for at least two different values of supply current.
(c) Determine ηc of the Peltier element at constant supply current and constant
Th . Fulfill this task for at least two different values of supply current.
2. Seebeck effect
(a) Measure current voltage characteristic of the thermogenerator for at least 5

different ∆T = Th − Tc values. Extract all important parameters (UOC , ISC ,
R(∆T ), Pel,S,max , F F ) from the measured curves and plot them against ∆T .
Explain the observed dependencies. Determine the Seebeck coefficient and
Ri from the plots. Compare all obtained Ri values. Determine Thomson
coefficient of Peltier element.
(b) Determine the energy conversion efficiency from the transferred heat and the
produced electrical energy.

Experiment 5 - Fuel cell and electrolyser
Key Concepts
Electrolysis, electrode polarization, decomposition voltage, galvanic elements, character-
istic line of an electrolyzer and a fuel cell, current efficiency, efficiency of energy conversion,
Faraday’s law, equation of ideal gases.
Summary
In a PEM (Proton-Exchange-Membrane) electrolyzer, the electrolyte consists of a proton-
conducting membrane and water. When an electric voltage is applied, hydrogen and
oxygen are formed. The PEM fuel cell generates electrical energy from gaseous hydrogen
and oxygen in a reverse process compared to the electrolysis.
The electrical properties of the electrolyzer are investigated by recording a current-voltage
characteristic line. Afterwards, the set up is used as a fuel cell and its efficiency is
determined.
Literature
• P.W. Atkins, Physical Chemistry, fifth edition, Oxford University Press, 1994
• R.J. Silbey, R.A. Alberty, Physical Chemistry, third edition, John Wiley & Sons,
2000
• C.H. Hamann, W. Vielstich, Elektrochemie, third edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1998.
Theory
Due to the increasing need of energy, new approaches are explored to produce electricity.
These approaches have to be clean and preferably cheap. Promising candidates are “fuel
cells”. Fuel cells convert chemical energy into electric energy. Essentially, the fuel cell
acts as a combustion chamber in which a controlled chemical combustion takes place.
The fuel cell “burns”, i.e. induces and controls the reaction, of a high energy fuel, but
produces electric energy rather than thermal energy. An electrolyzer works vice versa
using electric energy to create products with high chemical energy.
The first hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells were invented by Sir William Grove in 1838. Research
related to power sources with high energy efficiencies conducted for space programs in
1950s, has further increased the knowledge about fuel cells. Finally, during last decades,
the need for development of a sustainable energy source with low impact on environment
established fuel cells as major candidates to fulfill the role of power sources of high
efficiency with minimized and non-toxic exhaust.
One type of fuel cells is a hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell with a solid electrolyte, which acts
as an proton-exchange membrane (PEM). The membrane is impermeable to the reactant
gases but is permeable to hydrogen ions. To facilitate the operation of the cell at tem-
peratures of 40◦ C to 60◦ , the electrodes are covered with platinum that functions as a
catalyst. Fuel cells of this general type have been used successfully in space programs
and are quite efficient. Their disadvantage for large-scale commercial application are
that safety solution for storage the of hydrogen is still problematic, and platinum is an
expensive catalyst.
Fuel cells that use hydrocarbons and air have been developed, but their power to unit
weight is actually to low to make them practical in ordinary automobiles. Intensive
–51 –
research is going to replace combustion based energy sources by fuel cells to increase the
efficiency and to avoid the output of by-products as e.g. soot or polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAH) which cause damage to health and environment.
Functional principle of PEM electrolyzer and PEM fuel cell

The principal part of the PEM electrolysis unit and the PEM fuel cell is the membrane-
electrode. A layer of catalyst material, in general platinum, is applied to both sides of
a thin proton-conducting membrane (PEM = proton exchange membrane) as shown in
Fig. 5-1.
Power supply
4e- 4e-
O2 out H2 out
H+
H+
O2 2H2
H+
H+
Water in 2H20 Water in
PEM
Anode Cathode
Figure 5-1: Functional principles of a PEM electrolyzer. Front view.
The platinum layers form the anode and cathode contact of the electrolyzer. Since the
device structure is symmetrical, which contact is cathode or anode is determined by the
potential of the power supply. Anode is platinum layer connected to the positive contact,
while cathode is platinum layer connected to the negative contact of a power supply.
Consequently, the water can be present at both sides of electrolyzer in the case that
power supply is connected in opposite way. In the electrolyzer the following reactions
occur:
Anode : 2H2 O → 4e− + 4H+ + O2

Cathode : 4H+ + 4e− → 2H2
Total reaction : 2H2 O → 2H2 + O2
When a positive external voltage is applied to the anode side of the electrolyzer water
is consumed producing gaseous oxygen, electrons and H + ions (protons). The protons
pass through the proton exchange membrane (PEM) to the cathode contact where the

negative external voltage is applied. Protons form gaseous hydrogen at the cathode
contact by combining with the electrons that flow through the external conducting circuit.
In conclusion, electrical energy is transformed into chemical energy and stored in the form
of hydrogen and oxygen.
Figure 5-2: Functional principle of a PEM fuel cell. Front view.
The fuel cell functions by the inverse principle (see Fig. 5-2). Chemical energy stored in
the form of hydrogen and oxygen gas is directly converted into electrical energy. Hydrogen
and oxygen react to form water, yielding electricity and heat but without a combustion
process. In the fuel cell the following reactions occur:
Anode : 2H2 → 4e− + 4H+

Cathode : 4H+ + 4e− + O2 → 2H2 O
Total reaction : 2H2 + O2 → 2H2 O
The fuel cell is also symmetrical device and anode contact is determined by the supply of
hydrogen, while cathode contact is determined by the supply of oxygen. Since the gaseous
hydrogen which is supplied to the anode is oxidized, it decomposes due to the catalytic
action of the electrode (e.g. platinum) into protons and electrons. The H+ ions pass
through the proton exchange membrane to the cathode side. The electrons pass through
the closed outer electrical circuit to the cathode, performing electrical work. The gaseous
oxygen that is supplied to the cathode is reduced by the electrons and reacts with the
hydrogen ions creating water. Therefore, the net reaction is the formation of water from
hydrogen and oxygen, but without combustion.

Relation between voltage and current for PEM electrolyzer and PEM fuel cell
— characteristic lines
Between hydrogen and oxygen electrode of electrolyzer or fuel cell a potential difference
∆V exists. ∆V is temperature dependent and its theoretical value can be calculated
from the free reaction enthalpy ∆G, resulting for the hydrogen/oxygen system at 25◦ C
in (Atkins, 1994):
∆G
∆V = − = 1.23V
zF
where z is the number of electrons transferred in the reaction with the standard enthalpy
G and F denotes Faraday’s Constant.
For electrolysis, the applied voltage must be equal to or larger than this theoretical cell
voltage (U ≥ ∆V ) in order for a current to be able to flow. The current levels become
measurable only after applied voltage becomes larger than the so-called decomposition
voltage. The decomposition voltage Udecomp = ∆V is determined by plotting the mea-
sured current I versus the applied voltage U . The intersection of the linear part of the
electrolyzer IV characteristics with the x-axis represents Udecomp .
The maximum voltage that can be generated by a fuel cell is always ≤ δV . The maximum
generated voltage by a fuel cell corresponds to open circuit conditions, when current
flowing from fuel cell is equal to zero. On the other hand, maximum generated current
corresponds to short circuit condition, when the voltage across the fuel cell is equal to
zero. To determine open circuit voltage and short circuit current IV characteristic of the
fuel cell have to be measured.
Electrochemical equilibrium is achieved only in the open circuit conditions (when no
current is flowing) in electrolyzer and fuel cell. In this state, between the electrodes and
the membrane boundary potential occurs, and there is a continuous exchange of charges
between electrodes and membrane, but the net flow of the charges is zero (similar to
pn-junction). If a current is allowed to flow through the electrolyzer or the fuel cell,
the electrochemical equilibrium at the electrodes is disturbed. The electrode potential
takes another value, which is (due to various reactions at the electrode) dependent on the
current density. This deviation from the equilibrium value is called “electric polarization”,
i.e. the electrode becomes polarized.
Since the additional boundary potentials play a significant role for smaller currents, the
IV characteristics of the electrolyzer and the fuel cell become straight lines at larger values
of the current, when the motion of the hydrogen ions through the membrane is decisive.
Efficiency of electrolyzer and fuel cell
To determine the efficiency of an electrolyzer or a fuel cell, the process can be separated
into two parts. One part is the gas yield or gas utilization which in used system can
be reduced to the diffusion losses within the cell. This is also called current efficiency
ηI . The second part is the efficiency of energy conversion η from electrical energy Wel to
chemical energy Wchem for the electrolyzer or vice versa for the fuel cell.

Calculation of gas yield/gas utilization

The number of moles n of some substance produced at an electrode can be calculated
using Faraday’s law:
Q
ncalc = (5-1)
z·F
where Q is the total number of charges needed, F is Faraday’s constant (F = 96485 A s mol−1 ),
and z is the number of electrons needed to produce one molecule of a given substance.
In general case, the total number of charges used in electrolysis can be expressed as:
Z t
Q= I(t)dt (5-2)
0
where I(t) are instantaneous current values over the period of time t.
Since in the reaction gases are produced, a number of moles n can also be determined
from the volume V of the produced gas using the ideal gas equation:
p·V
nmeasured = (5-3)
R·T
where p is the absolute pressure, V is the produced volume of gas, T is the absolute
temperature, and R is the gas constant (R = 8.3145 J (mol K)−1 ).
In this experiment, the pressure generated by the column of water in the gasometer (which
has an average value of approximately 20 hPa) must be added to the measured ambient
pressure pambient . On the other hand, the produced hydrogen is saturated with vapor
having a partial pressure of 23 hPa. Since these two effects approximately compensate
each other, no correction of the pressure has to be performed (p = pambient ).
If a current I is flowing into an electrolyzer during the time t and in that time the volume
of hydrogen gas VH2 is produced, the current efficiency of an electrolyzer is given by:
nmeasured p · VH2 · z · F
ηI,electrolyzer = = Rt (5-4)
ncalc R · T · 0 I(t)dt
For the fuel cell, the situation is opposite. There the volume of hydrogen gas VH2 is used
to produce the current I that flows through the circuit. Therefore, the current efficiency
of the fuel cell is given by:
Rt
ncalc R · T · 0 I(t)dt
ηI,f uelcell = = (5-5)
nmeasured p · VH2 · z · F
Calculation of efficiency of energy conversion

To determine the energy conversion efficiency of the electrolyzer and the fuel cell, the
electrical energy Wel and the chemical energy Wchem of the used/produced water are
calculated. The energy efficiency of the electrolyzer is given by:
Wchem
ηE,electrolyzer = (5-6)
Wel

where Wchem is the chemical energy of the used water and Wel is the electrical energy of
consumed by electrolyzer.
Total electrical energy needed to convert nH2 O moles of water into the hydrogen and
oxygen is given by:
Z t
Wel = U (t) · I(t) · dt (5-7)
0
where U (t) and I(t) are instantaneous values of the applied voltage and the consumed
current over the period of time t. The chemical energy is calculated as:
Wchem = nH2 · HH2 O (5-8)
where nH2 is the number of moles of the stored hydrogen, HH2 O is the molar caloric
content (molar reaction enthalpy) of water. Equation (5-8) takes into account that only
the energy potential of the stored hydrogen is the so-called usefully energy. By using
Eqs. (5-7), (5-8), and (5-3), the energy efficiency of the electrolyzer (Eq. (5-6)) can be
expressed as:
nH2 · HH2 O p · VH2 · HH2 O
ηE,electrolyzer = R t = Rt (5-9)
0
U (t) · I(t) · dt R · T · 0 U (t) · I(t) · dt
where p is the pressure of the hydrogen gas (p = pambient ) and VH2 is the volume of the
stored hydrogen gas.
The energy efficiency of the fuel cell is defined by the inverse value:
Rt
Wel R · T · 0 U (t) · I(t) · dt
ηE,f uelcell = = (5-10)
Wchem p · VH2 · HH2 O
Due to the fact that condensed water is used/produced in the electrolyzer/fuel cell, in
this experiment the caloric content of water in the liquid phase HH2 O = 266.1 kJ/mol
should be used for the calculations. In the industry, the caloric content of water in the
vapor phase HH2 O = 242.0 kJ/mol is sometimes used for the calculations.The difference
between the two is the molar enthalpy of vaporization/condensation of water.
The overall efficiency of the electrolyzer - fuel cell system is given by:
ηtot = ηE,electrolyzer · ηE,f uelcell (5-11)
Equivalent circuit of fuel cell and current-voltage characteristic

The fuel cell can be described using an equivalent circuit diagram (see Fig. 5-3) consisting
out of a voltage source Us with an internal resistor Ri connected in series.
When an external load RL is connected to the fuel cell, current I starts to flow through
the circuit and voltage U is applied to the load. The current I can be expressed as:
Us − U
I= (5-12)
Ri
which describes the current-voltage characteristic of the fuel cell. From Eq. (5-12) it
follows that internal resistance is negative reciprocal of the slope of the I(U ) curve.

Figure 5-3: Equivalent circuit of a fuel cell consists of a voltage source with an internal
resistor in series.
Important parameters that are determined from current-voltage characteristic are the
open-circuit voltage UOC and short circuit current ISC . The open circuit voltage is the
voltage U under open circuit conditions (I = 0 A), while the short circuit current is the
current I under short circuit conditions (U = 0 V). From Eq. (5-12), these parameter are
given by:
UOC = U (I = 0 A) = Us (5-13)
Us
ISC = I(U = 0 V) = (5-14)
Ri
Another important electrical parameter is power generated by a fuel cell, which is defined
by:
P =U ·I (5-15)
By using load resistance RL to express voltage U and current I:
U = I · RL
Us
I=
Ri + RL
Eq. (5-15) can be expressed as:
Us2 · RL
P = (5-16)
(Ri + RL )2
From Eq. (5-16) it can be derived that the fuel cell generates maximum power when the
load resistance is equal to internal resistance:
RL = Ri ⇒ P = Pmax = Umax · Imax (5-17)

For the maximum power point it is valid:

Us
Umax = (5-18)
2
Us
Imax = (5-19)
2 · Ri
The fill factor of the fuel cell is given by:
Pmax Umax · Imax
FF = = (5-20)
UOC · ISC UOC · ISC
and theoretically should be equal to 25 % based on Eqs. (5-13), (5-14), (5-18), and (5-19).
As a part of the preparation, students should derive Eqs. (5-17), (5-18), and (5-19).

Equipment
Phywe Parts No. Quantity

PEM electrolyzer 06748-00 1
PEM fuel cell 06747-00 1
DC-constanter 0-12V 13505-93 1
Erlenmeyer flask 36134-00 2
Burette, 50 ml 47151-01 1
Burette clamp 37720-00 1
Funnel, plastic,cylindrical 36889-00 1
Manometer 07136-00 1
Hose clamp, width 10 mm 43631-10 2
Rheostat, 10 Ohm , 5.7A 06110-02 1
Laybold Parts No. Quantity

Sensor Cassy 524010 1
General equipment Quantity

Laptop 1
Support rod with a base 1
Beaker 1
Container with DI water 1
Temperature sensor 1
Syringes with tube connectors 2
Rubber stopper with 2 holes 2
Rubber tubing as needed
Connecting cords as needed


1. Preparation of the gasometers/storages
Setup of gasometers and their connections to electrolyzer/fuel cell are roughly shown
in Figs. 5-6 and 5-8.
• The gasometer consists of an Erlenmeyer flask with a rubber stopper and a

burette or a plastic funnel cylinder as gas storage compartments. The calibra-
tion of the burette is more precise than the one of the plastic cylinder. Since
double amount of hydrogen is produced during electrolysis, burette is used as
a gas storage for the hydrogen, while plastic funnel is used to store oxygen.
Students should take care of the polarity of the electrical circuit (see Fig. 5-4).
• Erlenmeyer flask and burette are connected with a bent glass tube mounted
though one of the rubber stopper holes. The glass tube ends with a rubber
tubing that is connected to the burette entry. Through other hole of the rubber
stopper a second bent glass tube is mounted, which is connected with rubber
tube to the outlet of the water reservoir of the electrolyzer or input of the
PEM fuel cell (upper plastic hole). A hose clamp is placed at the end of the
tube towards electrolyzer/fuel cell.
• Erlenmeyer flask used for storing of oxygen is filled with deionized (DI) water
colored in blue. Plastic funnel is directly placed in one of the holes of the rubber
stopper. Through other hole a bent glass tube is mounted and connected with
rubber tube to the output of the electrolyzer or input of the PEM fuel cell. A
hose clamp is again placed at the tube’s end towards electrolyzer/fuel cell.
• Buretter should be mounted on the standing rod with a support base by using
burette mount (see Figs. ). Erlenmeyer flask for the hydrogen storage should
be filled with DI water using beaker almost till neck of the flask. The rubber
stopper should be places inside of the Erlenmeyer flask so that the right-angled
glass tube is filled with water and contains nearly no bubbles. Any excess water
that flows out via the glass tube should be collected in a beaker.
• Close the input tubes of both gasometers with hose clamps close to the tube
ending so they cannot fall off.
2. Characteristic line of the PEM electrolyzer and the decomposition volt-

age
• Fill both water reservoirs of PEM electrolyzer with distilled water up to a

level between the lines marking minimal and maximal level. Close the water
reservoirs using their plastic stoppers with rubber sealing.
• Connect the electrolyzer to the direct current (DC) port of the power supply
and Cassy according to the circuit diagram given in Fig. 5-4 and the experi-
mental setup shown in Fig. 5-5. The current is measured with Cassy input A,
while voltage is measured with Cassy input B. The voltage range should be
set to ±3 V and current range should be ± 3 A in Cassy software. The values
of voltage and current should be averaged for at least 100 ms.

Figure 5-4: Circuit diagram: Characteristic line of the electrolyzer.
Figure 5-5: Experimental set-up: Characteristic line of the electrolysis unit.
• Set the knobs of the power supply to the highest current I = 2 A and voltage
at around U = 2 V. Turn the power supply on with the power button at the
back and let the electrolyzer run for 5 min to achieve steady conditions. In the
process, the current may exceed the value of the maximum current of I = 2 A
for a short time. After some time, the values for voltage and current become
stable.
• The determination of characteristic line should always begin with the highest
voltage and current. Progressively decrease the current from the power sup-
ply using the current adjustment knob. The power supply adjusts the voltage
electronically so that the current has the set value. Be sure that you never
increase the current. It is important to take the characteristic line with
monotonically decreasing current. This procedure has the advantage that sta-
ble values for voltage and current are achieved more rapidly in the electrolyzer.
For the each set value of the current, record both the current and the voltage
using manual measurement mode in Cassy software with averaging of 100 ms.

Before recording measured values, wait until the values of current and voltage
are stable.
• When the current adjustment knob has reached its minimum, start decreasing
the voltage adjustment knob and continue recording current and voltage values
Do not skip the range of small voltages and take readings of voltages
with a corresponding current of zero. Finally, turn off the power supply.
3. Energy efficiency of the electrolyzer

The experimental setup is roughly given in Fig. 5-6.
Figure 5-6: Experimental set-up: Energy.
• Measure atmospheric pressure and room temperature.

• Set the knobs of the power supply such that the current is somewhere between
1.2 A and 1.8 A and the voltage is at 2 V. Turn the power supply on with
the power button at the back and let the electrolyzer run for 5 min to achieve
steady conditions. Set Cassy software to record current and voltage values in
automatic measurement mode with 1 s interval and 100 ms averaging.
• Attach rubber tubes of gasometers to the upper outlets of electrolyzer wa-
ter reservoirs and open the hose clamps attached to tubes immediately to
prevent pressure rise. Take care that you connect the hydrogen outlet to the
burette gasometer by checking the polarity of the power supply (see Fig. 5-4).
• The water level will star to rise and to fill up burette. When the water level is at
50 ml mark, start the measurements of voltage and current in Cassy software.

Once the water level reaches the 0 ml scale bar stop the measurement in Cassy
software. Immediately after, seal the rubber tube tightly with hose clamp as
near as possible to the outlet of the electrolyzer and disconnect the tube from
the outlet. If this is not done timely water will start coming out of the
burette. After the hydrogen storage is taken care off, seal and disconnect the
tube toward the oxygen gasometer with a hose clamp in the same way as the
previous one. Finally, switch off the power supply with button at the back.
4. Current voltage characteristic of the PEM fuel cell
Figure 5-7: Circuit diagram: Current voltage characteristic and efficiency of the fuel
cell.

• Tightly seal the lower outlet connections of the fuel cell using syringes with
tube connectors. Syringes should be pressed in so that no air is in them.
• Connect the fuel cell to the Cassy and 10 Ω rheostat according to the circuit
diagram given in Fig. 5-7 and the experimental setup shown in Fig. 5-8. The
rheostat in this configuration is used as a variable resistor. The current is
measured with Cassy input A, while voltage is measured with Cassy input B.
The voltage range in Cassy software should be set to ±1 V and current range
should be ± 3 A. The values of voltage and current should be averaged for at
least 100 ms and the Cassy software should measure in automatic mode using
measurement interval should be set to 100 ms.
• Attach rubber tubes of gasometers to the upper outlets of fuel cell. Take care
that the polarity of electrical contacts and gas connections is matching Fig. 5-
7. Loosen the clamps on the connecting hoses between the gasometer and the
fuel cell. With this step, the fuel cell is finally connected to the gas supply.
• Place the rheostat slider to the position of the maximum resistance and ignite
the fuel cell. The fuel cell is ignited by a flush of around 5 ml of oxygen
and hydrogen on both sides. For this, you have to pull out both syringes
simultaneously to 5 ml mark, which will cause that both gases enter the fuel
cell.

Figure 5-8: Experimental set-up: Current voltage characteristic and efficiency of the
fuel cell.
• To conduct measurement of the current voltage characteristic of the fuel cell,

start the measurement with Cassy software and then move the rheostat slider
from position of the highest resistance to the position of the lowest resistance.
The rheostat slider should be moved slowly in one continuous motion. After
reaching the position of the lowest resistance, stop the measurement with
Cassy software and move rheostat slider back to the position of the maximum
resistance.
• To measure the true value of the open circuit voltage, unplug the rheostat
from the circuit and measure the voltage value in Cassy software. After the
measurement of the open circuit voltage, plug the rheostat back into the circuit
and close the hose clamps toward the gas storages.
5. Energy efficiency of the PEM fuel cell

• If you still have enough hydrogen and oxygen left in the gas storages continue
with following steps. Otherwise, refill the gas storages using electrolyzer. For
refiling process, plug the outputs of the power supply directly to electrolyzer.
The current knob should be set at around 1.8 A or lower, while voltage knob
should be at 2 V.
• Set Cassy software for automatic measurement mode using time interval of 1 s
and averaging of 100 ms.

• Place the rheostat slider to the position of the half resistance (5 Ω) and reignite
the fuel cell.
• Measure the voltage and current generated by a fuel cell during the time needed
to burn 5 ml of hydrogen. The measurement should be started when the water
level is on the burette mark and stopped after 5 ml are used up.
• Conduct the measurement again but now rheostat slider should be placed at
position of the quarter resistance (2.5 Ω).

Experimental Tasks
1. Recording of the characteristic line of the PEM electrolyzer
(a) Determine the current as a function of voltage, by first decreasing the current
from around 2 A to 0 A in steps of 0.1 A. After the current reaches zero value,
decrease the voltage in steps of 0.2 V until reaches zero. Be sure that the
values of current and voltage are stable before measuring them.
(b) Plot the current vs. voltage and determine the decomposition voltage Udecomp
as the intercept of the linear part of the curve with x-axis.
(c) Determine the internal resistance of the electrolyzer from the slope of the linear
part of the current-voltage curve.
2. Efficiency of the PEM electrolyzer
(a) Prepare electrolyzer and gasometers for storing hydrogen and oxygen and con-
nect them to the electrolyzer. Note down atmospheric pressure and tempera-
ture.
(b) Measure current and voltage provided by power supply needed to store 50 ml
of hydrogen.
(c) From the measured data determine the gas utilization and energy efficiency of
the electrolyzer.
3. Recording of the current-voltage characteristic of the PEM fuel cell
(a) Connect the fuel cell to the gas storages and mount syringes for ignition/exhaust.
Note down atmospheric pressure and temperature.
(b) Ignite the fuel cell and measure the current-characteristic of the fuel cell. Be
sure to measure the open circuit voltage directly by unplugging the rheostat.
(c) Plot the current voltage characteristic and determine the internal resistance
of the fuel cell from the slope of the linear part of the curve. Using the linear
part of the curve determine the short circuit current and open circuit voltage.
Compare the calculated open circuit voltage to the measured one.
(d) Calculate the power generated by the fuel cell and plot it against the measured
voltage. Determine the maximum power point and from there determine the
internal resistance of the fuel cell. Compare the internal resistances determined
from these two methods. Compare the internal resistance of electrolyzer and
fuel cell.
(e) Calculate the fill factor of the fuel cell using the measured open circuit voltage
and compare it to the theoretical value of 25 %.
4. Determination of the efficiency of the PEM fuel cell
(a) If necessary refill the gas storages.

(b) Set the slider of rheostat to half of the nominal resistance value (around 5 Ω)
and ignite the fuel cell.

(c) Measure current and voltage produces by fuel cell during consumption of 5 ml
of hydrogen.
(d) Repeat the measurement with rheostat slider set to the quarter of the nominal
resistance value (around 2.5 Ω).
(e) Calculate the averaged generated power and total generated energy for both
resistances of rheostat. Explain the differences.
(f) Determine the gas utilization and energy efficiency for both resistances of
rheostat and compare them.
(g) Determine the total efficiency of the electrolyzer-fuel cell system for both cases.

Project experiments
Project experiments are designed to stimulate your ability to conceptualize and perform
an experiment in your own way.
The manuals of project experiments provide problems, a list of questions concerning the
theory of the experiment, literature for background reading and a list of equipment. If
you are able to answer given questions you have sufficient theoretical background to per-
form the experiment.
Depending on the experiment, the information given in the manual is supplemented by

parts of theoretical background and some particularities of instruments or procedure.
Furthermore, you should also use instruction manuals of the instruments to get some
hints for your procedure.
During project experiment, you should get familiar with the equipment and sketch your
procedure. The provided equipment is suited to perform the experimental task, however,
if you need additional parts to follow your own ideas, talk to the supervisors to get it.
You decide about your experimental approach but you should talk to the supervisors
before the start to get useful hints (or warnings in case of significant mistakes).
Your work should be documented by your recordings that include the course of your ex-
periments, data and a conclusion on your work. The experiment ends with a presentation
of your recordings to the supervisors and a following discussion. Be prepared to present
your recordings at the end of the first afternoon too. Even though there is no lab report,
it is necessary to pass the experiment to fulfill the requirements of the course and you
can earn.
P 1 - Stirling Engine
Targets
• Get familiar with the Stirling engine as well as provided accessories.
• Set up the Stirling engine with electrical motor and use it as a refrigerator. Deter-
mine the loss of power of the whole system.
• Operate the Stirling engine with a heating coil and determine the efficiency by the
use of Prony brake.
• Lab competition:
Use the Stirling engine to freeze 2 ml of water. The Stirling engine has to be op-
erated manually and the time is stopped by the teaching assistant. The time from
beginning of operation to start of crystallization is measured.
Everybody is allowed to test the system as long as needed before the time is
recorded. When the teaching assistant stops the time, each student is allowed
to perform 3 trials, the best one is regarded for the competition.
Preparation
To perform the experiment on your own you should be able to answer the following
questions:
• What states the Second Law of Thermodynamics and why is it important for this
experiment.
• What is the Carnot Cycle?
• How does a Stirling engine work? What is the difference to an Otto engine and a
Diesel engine?
• How do you use the Prony brake to determine the efficiency of the Stirling engine?
Background reading
1. Çengel, Boles, Thermodynamics: an engineering approach, McGraw Hill, 4th edi-
tion, 2002.
2. Giancoli, Physics for scientists & engineers with modern physics, Prentice Hall,
2000.
3. Schroeder, An introduction to thermal physics, Addison Wesley, 2000.
4. Zemansky, Dittman, Heat and thermodynamics: an intermediate textbook, McGraw

Hill, 1997.

–71 –
Safety Precautions:
When operating the Stirling engine, pay attention to the following safety notes:
1. Personal safety
Attention: the cylinder head and the connector sockets become very hot when the
engine is operated for long periods at maximum calorific power.
• Attach the grille of the cylinder.

• Allow the hot-air engine to cool down before removing the connecting cables
or exchanging the cylinder-head cap.
2. General aspects of maintenance and use:
• Both pistons of the hot-air engine must be regularly greased and sealed against
the cylinder wall with silicone oil. If the engine is inadequately greased, it will
become noisy and run only at a reduced rotational speed. If you experience
such problems check whether the apparatus is sufficiently greased.
• The glass components of the hot-air engine must not be exposed to excess
thermal load.
– Do not operate the hot-air engine without cooling water! Make sure that
the circulation of the cooling water is flawless.
– Do not allow the temperature of the cooling water to exceed 30◦ C when
the water enters the cooling circuit.
– Heat the heating coil up to high temperatures (yellow heat) only when the
machine runs fast, and do not maintain high temperatures in continuous
operation.
• The glass components, piston rods and bearings can be damaged if the hot-air
engine is moved without care. When moving the engine always support it at
the base.
3. Operation as heat engine

When the hot-air engine is operated as a heat engine, it is not self-starting. The
machine will stop after a power failure, for example. Blocking the piston rods and
the bearings can also cause the unit to stall. If this happens, the heat supplied to
the cylinder head will not be adequately dissipated.
• Do not heat the cylinder head continuously when the machine is at a standstill.
• Do not leave the hot-air engine unsupervised.
• Switch off the electric heating immediately if the engine stalls.
• Do not touch the piston rods and the bearings. Cover them by attaching the
grille.

Figure P-1-1: Sketch of Prony brake
Additional information
A Prony brake can be used to measure the mechanical power of the engine. It consists
of two carved out wooden blocks (1) that are pressed around the axis of the engine (2)
(compare Fig. P-1-1). The force F measured at the distance r from the center of the
axis depends on the torque acting on the axis. Two screws and a counter weight m can
be used to adjust the resulting force F to the range of the force sensor. The torque τ is
then given by:
τ = r · (F + mg) (P-1-1)
The mechanical power P of the engine can then be determined if the the angular velocity
ω of the axis is measured:
P = ωτ (P-1-2)

Equipment
Part Quantity
Hot-air engine (LD Didactic,388 182) 1

Instruction sheet for 388 182 (388182E.pdf) 1
Accessories for hot-air engine (LD Didactic,388 221) 1
Instruction sheet for 388 221 (388221E.pdf) 1
Transformator set including:
U-core with yoke (LD Didactic,562 11) 1
Clamping device (LD Didactic,562 12) 1
Mains coil with 500 turns (LD Didactic,562 21) 1
Extra-low-voltage coil, 50 turns (LD Didactic, 562 18) 1
Sensor CASSY (LD Didactic, 524 010) 1
Current supply box (LD Didactic, 524 031) 1
Displacement sensor(LD Didactic, 529 031) 1
Pressure sensor (LD Didactic, 529 038) 1
B box (LD Didactic, 524 038) 1
Force sensor ± 3 N (LD Didactic, ) 1
Light barrier, infra-red (LD Didactic, 337 46) 1
Multicore cable, 6-pole, 1.5 m long (LD Didactic, 501 16) 1
Adapter cable, 4-pole, 1.5 m long (LD Didactic, 501 18) 1
Cord, 10 m (LD Didactic, 309 48) 1
Transformer, 6 V(AC) 12 V(AC) (30 VA) (LD Didactic, 562 73) 1
Low-voltage power supply (LD Didactic, 522 16) 1
Work and power meter (LD Didactic, 13715.93) 1
Submersible pump 12 V (LD Didactic, 388 181) 1
Multimeter METRAmax 2 (LD Didactic, 531 100) 1
Multimeter METRAmax 3 (LD Didactic, 531 712) 1
Set of 12 weights, 50 g each (LD Didactic, 342 61) 1
Volumetric pipette, 2ml 1
Helical spring, 5 N, 0.25 N/cm (LD Didactic, 352 08) 1
Thermometer, -10◦ C to + 40◦ C (LD Didactic, 382 36) 1
Thermometer, -50◦ C to 120◦ C (LD Didactic, 388 19) 1
stopwatch 60s/30 min (LD Didactic, 313 17) 1
Plastic beaker, 1000 ml 1
Open water vessel (at least 10 l) 1
Silicone tubbing, 7×1.5 mm, 1 m 2
Stand base, V-shape, 20 cm (LD Didactic, 300 02) 2
Stand rod, 25 cm (LD Didactic, 300 41) 1
Stand rod, 47 cm (LD Didactic, 300 42) 1
Stand rod, right-angled (LD Didactic, 300 51) 1
Multiclamps 2
Connection leads (partly with 2.5 mm2 cross section)

Appendix
A1 - Further reading
In this appendix the literature list for further readings is given, which might be useful for
the reader to get a deeper insight in the different parts of physics covering the teaching
lab. Because this list is far from complete, we strongly encourage everybody to find the
best-suited books in the library for their own studies. If you find another book very
useful, do not hesitate to contact the teaching lab instructors to add the book to the list.
General Physics
University Physics, H.D. Young and R.A. Freedman, PEARSON Addison-Wesley, San
Francisco 2008.
General Physics I, M. Alonso and E.J. Finn, Addison-Wesley, Wokingham 1992.
Gerthsen Physik, D. Meschede, Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, 2002.
Basic Physics, Karl F. Kuhn, Wiley, New York 1996.
Physics, James S. Walker, Prentice Hall, 2002.
Physics, David Halliday, Wiley, New York 2002.
Physics for Scientists and Engineers, Paul A. Tipler, Freeman/Worth, New York 1999.
Physics Lab and Error Analysis

Practical Physics, G.L. Squires, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2001.
Physics laboratory experiments, Jerry D. Wilson, Houghton Mifflin, Boston 1998.
An Introduction to Error Analysis, John R. Taylor, University Science Books, Sausalito,
1997.
Praktikum der Physik, Walcher, Vieweg Teubner, 2006.
Handbook of Mathematics, I. A. Bronstein, K. A. Semendyayev, G. Muhsiol, and H.
Muehlig, Springer, 2002.
Mathematical Methods in the Physical Sciences, M. L. Boas, Wiley, New York 1983.
Statistical Methods and Data Analysis, R. L. Ott and M. Longnecker, Duxbury 2001.
Applied Statistics and Probability for Engineers, D.C. Montgomery and G.C. Runger,
Wiley, New York 2003.
Electrodynamics
Fundamentals of Electromagnetic Phenomena, P. Lorrain, D. R. Corson, and F. Lorrain,
W.H. Freeman, 2000.
Experimentalphysik - Elektromagnetismus,Bergmann-Schäfer, de Gruyter, Berlin, New
York, 1999.
Classical Electrodynamics, John David Jackson, Wiley, New York, 1998.
Electromagnetics with Applications, J.D. Kraus and D.A. Fleisch, Mac-Graw Hill, New
York 1999.
Engineering Electromagnetics, K. R. Demarest, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, 1998.
Electrodynamics, A. Sommerfeld, Academic Press, New York 1964.
Optics
Optics, Eugene Hecht, Addison-Wesley, Reading 2002.
Optics, Arnold Sommerfeld, Academic Press, New York 1964.
Principles of optics : electromagnetic theory of propagation, interference and diffraction
–77 –
A1 - Further reading
of light, Max Born and Emil Wolf, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1999.
Experimentalphysik - Optik, Bergmann-Schäfer, de Gruyter, Berlin, 2004.
Optics, light and lasers : an introduction to the modern aspects of laser physics, optics
and photonics, D. Meschede, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim 2004.
Laser physics, Murray Sargent III, Marlan O. Scully, Willis E. Lamb, Jr., Perseus Books,
Cambridge 1977.

A2 - Guidelines for writing a laboratory report
Report writing is a generic skill required in many occupations. Engineers, scientists, and
also administrators in the financial sector or politics have to provide assessments, eval-
uations, or analysis and write up their results in form of a report. Good report writing
is an essential skill in modern society. The quality of an oral or written report is invari-
ably one of the criteria used in job interviews to evaluate a candidate. Giving a report
and being able to structure and express your thoughts, to convince and persuade other
people of your ideas and conclusions will be an important factor for advancing your career.
A written report is a mean to disclose, spread or circulate information. At all times

the person who reads the report should clearly understand what you are trying to say.
Therefore, a report has to be written in a clear and concise style. It must convey the
information in a logical step-by-step sequence so that the reader is led inescapably to the
same conclusions as the author of the report.
In the reports you have to write in the Physics Lab Course, you will be given specific
tasks and objectives towards which you have to work to. In order to meet these ob-
jectives, you must develop a logical argument which culminates in a conclusion. The
report should therefore follow a carefully considered, logical sequence in order to arrive
at that conclusion. Along the way you have to convince the reader (and especially the
person who corrects your report) at each stage that you have done the right thing and
have made the correct interpretations of your results. You must provide the necessary
background, inform the reader what you did and persuade him of your conclusions. If
you developed a logical and complete argument, supported by correct scientific facts,
then the reader will arrive at the same conclusions. Any errors, missing information, or
wrong wording will mislead the reader and will cast doubt on your results and conclusions.
In general, the form, length, content, and emphasis of a report are determined by its
purpose, topic and the intended audience. It is clear that there exists no single perfect
format of a report. However, the structure of all reports is similar and includes a section
that describes the objectives and background (what is known), methods and procedure
(what has been done), results and conclusions (what has been measured and what are the
implications). This format has evolved over time in practice and in many fields. In the
following, we will give you a format which is best suited for writing Physics Lab Reports.
The Physics Laboratory Reports should answer the following general questions:
• What was the goal, what were the objectives of the experiment?
• What is the background, what is the underlying physics of the experiment?
• Which methods or techniques have been used?
• How was the raw data evaluated, what was the result of the experiment, and how
does it compare to theory?
• How reliable is the result and what have been possible error sources?
• What conclusion can be drawn?
In general the lab report is a text reporting on the experiment (background, setup, out-
come) by addressing all the questions and tasks given in the manual. As said before, a
–79 –
good laboratory report will enable the reader to repeat your measurements and critically
assess your evaluation and conclusions. The reader should be able to understand the
experiment without consulting other sources except your lab report. This implies that
the reader should be able to answer the questions above just by reading your report.
Structure and Content

Here, some guidelines for the content of the different sections of a lab report are given. If
you encounter problems by following these guidelines use your common sense and always
stick to the general principles of clarity, brevity and a professional scientific style.
For the specific purpose of the NatSciLab - Physics at Jacobs the lab report should be
independent from any other source of information, that is all raw and processed data,
schemes, and graphs should be given in the report, not referring to your notes or the
manual for any experimental data. Related to a more detailed content of the report, all
questions posed and tasks given in the manual (under ”Result Form”) should be addressed
in a report, but it again should not refer to the numbering or the structure of the manual.
The development of a logical argument is assisted by an hierarchical order and clear
numbering of the following sections which you should use to structure the content of your
report:
Abstract
This is usually the last section written, but it should head the report. In the real world an
abstract will be the only section read by most readers, so it should briefly and truthfully
summarize your report.
The abstract should be a very brief overview of the goals and the main results of the
experiment. It shortly states the main objectives of the experiment. It names the main
method used, states the main numerical result including error and gives the agreement or
disagreement with theory or expectations. Sometimes, especially in case of disagreement,
a statement about the main error source is recommended. An abstract does not include
any tables, figures, lists, or equations. The abstract must not be longer than a short
paragraph (maximum 10 lines).
Introduction and Theory

Here, the general background and the underlying physics of the experiment should be
provided. This should be motivated by a short statement on the objectives and tasks.
A historical account of the experiment is not necessary. This section should provide
the theoretical background for the experiment and the data evaluation. Cite or derive
any equations needed, and discuss all basic formulae necessary for data evaluation and
for interpreting your results. Omit derivation of standard formulae but describe the
relationship between quantities to be measured and standard formulae. It is essential
to define all symbols used. In addition, any assumptions or limitations made by the
theory or used for the experiment should be stated (and justified if possible). Give and
cite all literature values you might compare your data to. This part should describe the
experiment or method in general. Technical or method specific equations, e.g. how to

read the numerical results from an instrument or what are the correct orders of magnitude
of the data belong to the experimental section.
Experimental and Procedure

This section describes the main equipment used for the experiment and details of the
procedures you followed. After reading this section, the reader should be able to repeat
your experiment and should come to the same results. Hence, you have to list all relevant
parameters which may influence your data and results, even if they are not directly used
for data analysis. A part list is not required.
• Describe shortly the overall measurement configuration and set-up. Always show
a sketch or scheme of the set-up and explain what is seen in the text. Highlight
important experiment parameters in your schema, e.g. length, angle etc.. State
the chosen parameter ranges and instrumental settings and give the formulae you
have to use to get meaningful quantities from the reading of the instruments. Use
formulas from theory and give final formula used for the calculated result. This
part should have all the information needed to reproduce the set-up independently.
• Write a short but sufficient account of the procedure used to carry out the exper-
iment. Describe the steps you took to obtain the data. Do not forget to describe
calibration procedures if they were needed. On the other hand, it is not always nec-
essary to give a step-by-step account of all your activities during the experiment.
Avoid unimportant and too specific details (like “a screwdriver was used to turn
the red button at the instrument” etc. . . ). To be concise, keep in mind that the
experimental section is a report on what you actually did and not what one should
do like in a manual. It should also not be a word-to-word copy of the lab manual.
• Avoid first person (“I“ or “we“) and don’t write instructions, but what actually has
been done!
Results and Data Analysis

This section provides the measured raw data, its mathematical treatment and the numer-
ical results. It is the key part of the lab report. It should be written as a text describing
what has been done and obtained. It should not be a mere list of formulas, numbers,
keywords or tables. All data and results need to be described and connected by sentences.
The raw data which was originally collected should clearly be identified as such. It is
important to provide the original and non-manipulated data because later on your ex-
periment may be evaluated in a different way or by someone else. Also, the corrector of
your lab report may find that a faulty result was only due to wrong data manipulation
and not due to a totally wrong data acquisition, or that you recorded the wrong data but
did the right evaluation.
• The raw data has to be directly written in a lab book or a printout has to be
attached to the lab book. For the lab report, the raw data has to be provided as a
copy of the original recordings from the day of the experiment or as a printout of
the original computer file where the data has been stored in. The type of data can

vary and can include numbers, graphs, images, etc. If the raw data can be inserted
in a table or figure filling less than half a page, the raw data should be provided in
the text. In any case, it should be clearly stated what the original units and orders
of magnitude of the raw data have been.
• This section should also describe in a step-like manner and textual form what data
analysis and calculations have been performed by citing formulas from theory and
procedures. Present the data neatly and clearly in columns and tables including
clear headings and units. Sometimes this part may already be combined with the
error analysis described in the next section. All equations needed for the data
evaluation have to be given here (either by citing from the theory part or by simply
restating). In first year reports, you should provide a sample calculation by plugging
the actual numerical values and corresponding units in the equations. To do so, it
is easier to follow your calculations and to identify unnecessary mistakes.
• Always perform sample calculations with numerical values and the correspond-
ing units. This helps to identify errors in formulae or missing prefactors such as
mV, V, kV . In addition, be critical to your results (e.g. does the order of magnitude
make sense?).
• This section concludes with the statement of the final numerical result(s) of your
experiment without a detailed discussion (which is part of the next sections!). The
result has to be identified as such and should be stated in a textual context. The
end result of the data analysis should be the information which can be used to
discuss the outcome of the experiment or project.
• Specify all values with an appropriate number of significant digits and with correct
units. Errors should be given with at most two significant digits and the numerical
value of a quantity has to have the same precision as the error. You will find more
on error analysis in the next section and in the Error Analysis Booklet. Guidelines
for presenting tables and graphs are also given below.
• Use the most compact layout and lowest number of tables. Avoid rewriting formulas
or restating values.
Error analysis
In this section, the numerical validity of the result has to be evaluated including the
uncertainties of the measured quantities and their contribution to the uncertainty of the
final result. Sometimes, for simple error calculations, this section may be combined with
the data analysis.
• You should state or estimate possible error sources of the experiment, especially
including the specifications of instruments and reading errors. Sometimes, after
listing all error sources, certain errors can be neglected since they are much smaller
than others. This may simplify the error calculation, but you should give a justifi-
cation for it.

• For directly measured quantities, the error is given by the accuracy and/or precision
of the instrument as well as statistical error calculation if multiple measurements
are performed. This applies e.g. for a temperature measured by a thermometer
or a length measured by a ruler. The error of a quantity which is derived from
measured parameters must be obtained by application of the error propagation
theorem, respecting all parameters (see Error Analysis Booklet). This holds e.g.
if the number of moles of an enclosed amount of gas is calculated from the three
directly measured parameters pressure, volume and temperature.
• Always state which type of error you use for calculations. You may refer to a general
formula, e.g. formula for calculation of the error of a mean value, but you should
explicitly give the formulae you obtain by applying error propagation.
• Never specify any error with more than two significant digits.
Discussion
In this section, you should discuss your observations and results and compare them to
your expectations and theory. An unbiased critical judgment and a scientific discussion
is at the heart of all science. You should be able to make a reasonable assessment of your
experiment. Compared to other sections the discussion part especially demands critical
thinking, a clear line of reasoning and creativity. It is even more important that you get
a clear picture and a good argument why your experiment did not succeed instead of
presenting “perfect” results but with a wrong discussion.
• Some questions you should keep in mind are: What does the data tell me? What
is the quality and accuracy of my experiment or procedure? Does my result agree
to other results or literature values? If yes or no what does this tell me about
the experiment or model I used? Are there any potential systematic error sources
in the experimental procedure? Which error sources are significant? What is the
dominant error source and how could it be reduced?
• You should not just write down all possible error sources which come to your mind,
but only the most likely error sources. Keep in mind that you always have to
back-up your claims of error sources at least with numerical estimates.
• Avoid speculations except you have a valid basis of argumentation. Do not over-
complicate matter (e.g. using quantum mechanics to explain mechanics or optics)
and argue on an appropriate level.
• If the expected or literature value is not in the range of uncertainty of the your
result or your data does not follow a predicted trend, this has to be stated and
possible causes to be named. For example, if you expect that a plot of your data
shows an intercept of zero but your experimental result differs from it, name the
deviation and its possible causes.
• Any possible systematic errors that cannot be accounted for by error calculation
should also be named and estimated. This may especially be important in case
your result does not agree with a literature value.

• This is the place to mention observations relevant to the experiment but which have
not been recorded numerically or systematically. This may be e.g. values changing
in time, readings jumping when other equipment is switched on, background noise
or light in the room, room temperature or humidity, ... etc..
• Finally, given the main goal of the experiment, you should formulate some sugges-
tions how to improve the experiment or increase the precision of your result in case
you or someone else will repeat it in the future (e.g. by modifying the set-up, using
another procedure or evaluation method...).
Conclusion
This section of a report is the second most read part. It is not just a restatement of
the abstract, instead it looks more into the future. Try to take an overview over the
experiment, where you started, what you have reached and where further investigations
may want to go. Base all conclusions on your actual results. Explain the implications
of your results and put them in a broader context. The conclusions should be also short
but a bit longer than the abstract.
The final result has to be restated including its uncertainty. If a physical constant has
been measured, the result has to be compared with literature. Main errors and possible
improvements of the experiment should be given by summarizing the discussion of the
previous paragraph.
References and Appendices

In this section, you should give a list of references as well as all information that decreases
the readability of your report if embedded in text in the previous sections.
• You should provide all references you used for preparing the report. This is either
done by giving general references for the entire report or by indicating with a number
in the text which source you used for a specific statement, equation, literature value
or any thought or argument which is not your own. The references are then specified
in a numbered list.
A reference generally contains at least its author(s), title (of book or journal),
position in book or journal (e.g. chapter or starting page number) and date of
publishing. It may also contain the publisher, editor, issue of a journal, and total
page numbers. The reader should be able to identify and access the source of
information you used.
• In most cases, copies of your original recordings or raw data has to be added as an
appendix. In case of a long report, the presentation of large tables and graphs or
the lengthy derivation of an equation would disturb the readability of the report.
These parts should then also be included as appendices.
As stated already, for some experiments it may be favorable to combine some sections in a
single paragraph. For example, if intermediate results of different parts of an experiment
have to be evaluated, it may be suitable to perform data analysis, error calculation and
discussion in one paragraph for each part of the experiment.

Format and Language

Reports are judged not only on technical or scientific content but also on clarity, ease of
understanding and on their format and layout. Please adhere to the following guidelines
for the format of your physics lab report.
General instructions
• Reports are most effective if they are written in a language and style selected for the
background of a specific audience or a principal reader. Try to write your report in
such a way that a person familiar with physics but not familiar with this particular
experiment would be able to follow what you did and why you did it.
• The report should be written as a coherent and continuous text with full sentences,
NOT as a list of words and formulas or as separated statements. Results should be
described in a sentence, NOT only presented as numerical values of a variable or
as a number in a table. Refer to formulas, tables and figures in the text by their
numbers or captions.
• Your guiding principles should be brevity, clarity and concision. Use the minimum
number of words to make your point. The quality of a report is in no way related
to its length. A typical number of 5 to 10 pages can serve as a guideline. Print on
A4 paper and use font size of 10 - 12 with single or 1.5 line spacing.
• Sometimes repetition of information in different sections of the report, perhaps with

a different emphasis or detail is necessary.
• The style of the report should be formal and impersonal (avoid “we” or “I”). It
should be written in the past tense since you are reporting something you did in
the past. Sometimes the present tense may be justified, e.g. in the theory section or
discussion. Do not give instructions. You are also expected to write legibly, using
correct grammar and accurate spelling.
• DO NOT copy from the lab manual, a textbook or the internet. The report should
be written in your own words. Normally, the manual provides more information and
instructions than you need for the report (especially for “introduction and theory”
and “procedure”). Select only the relevant information for your report. In cases
when it is inevitable that you have to use additional literature, information from
the internet, or parts from the manual, you have to reference paragraphs, figures or
formulas accordingly at the end of the lab report in a reference section. Using the
work of another person and presenting it as your own constitutes plagiarism and
will be punished according to the code of academic integrity.
• You can hand-in a handwritten report as well as a printout created with a word-
processor. Nevertheless, the use of a word-processor is strongly encouraged and
standard practice today in most organizations but do not waste time with formula
editors, just leave a blank line and write the formula on the printout. A handwritten
formula is still often more legible than one created with a poor formula editor. In

case you dont know how to format a table or graph you might consider to plot it
by hand.
• You may underline your layout structure e.g. by using boldface formatting for
headings and/or italics for figure captions, but take care to format paragraphs,
subparagraphs etc. consistently. Avoid any overuse of structuring by using too
many different formats.
• Include page numbers and use appropriate margins.
• The report should be proof-read in its final layout before submission. As you
edit it you may delete unnecessary words, rewrite unclear phrases and clean up
grammatical errors. Both students are equally responsible for the final submitted
version of the report.
• The final report should NOT be stapled, but presented such that no part can get
lost or get mixed up with other reports.
Title page
Each lab report should be identified by the title of the laboratory course (including course
number), the title of the experiment, the authors with group number, and the date the
experiment was performed.
Quantities and Equations

In general, scientific notation and SI units have to be used in the Physics Labs.
• The decimal fraction of a number is indicated by a decimal point not a comma, e.g.
“3.1415” and NOT “3,1415”.
• Exponents have to be written as superscript, e.g. ten to the power of four is given
as 104 and NOT as 10E4, 10ˆ4 or other notations.
• Numerical values have to be separated by a blank from their units e.g. 10 mN not
10mN.
• Vectors have to be identified as such and should clearly differ from scalars. The
best way to identify a vector is by the arrow on top of a letter (you can also add
these at the end by hand writing). In cases you are using bold letters to identify
vectors, please define your choice of format.
• Equations should be embedded in the text and described by a sentence. All variables
or constants have to be defined in the text close to the equation. If more than one
equation is used they should be numbered sequentially throughout the text. In
general, variables have to be defined only at their first appearance in the text, but
it may increase clarity if they are restated when used in sections far apart.
• Equations have to be written with a proper formula editor or by hand. Using e.g.
an asterisk “ * ” as a multiplication sign will not be accepted.

• As a general rule NEVER state errors with more than two significant digits. Adjust
the significant digits of numerical values to their corresponding error values.
Data tables
Tables of raw data can be included as an appendix. Other tables should be embedded in
the text. In any case, you have to refer to the table in the text of the report.
• Captions
Data tables must be identified by a unique number. This helps to refer to the table
from within the text (e.g. “Table 3. Electric field and forces”). In addition, a short
description of the table contents is mandatory. The table caption should be on top
of the table.
• Headers
Each column row in a table should have a heading that describes the physical
quantity that is recorded in the column. The column heading should also show
the units of the physical quantity and its appropriate order of magnitude (and the
uncertainty in the quantity (if constant)). For example “F [mN]” or “force [mN]”
or for the error “∆F [mN]” (without quotes).
• Data presentation
Numerical values recorded in a table should be rounded to the appropriate num-
ber of significant digits. If the uncertainty is not constant for all values, add an
additional column. Do not give unappropriate large number of digits.
Figures and Graphs

In general for layout purposes, every non-numerical or non-textual pieces of information
such as graphs, pictures, schemes, etc. are called “figures”. Any figure should be identified
by a unique number in its caption. The figure caption must include a short description
of the details in the figure (e.g. “Figure 2. Graph of force versus distance. The force is
plotted in dependence of the inverse square of the distance.”). The figure caption should
help the reader to roughly understand a figure even without reading the related text.
Graphs should be prepared on graph paper or with data processing software according
to the instructions in the manual. Bad layout due to insufficient (use of) software is
not accepted. For clarity and to support the line of argumentation figures are normally
inserted into the text. Hand-drawn figures can also be added as appendix. Again, take
care to refer to them correctly in the text.
• Caption
Every figure should be identified by a unique number in its caption, which should
also include some short descriptive sentence(s) telling exactly what is plotted at the
bottom or after figure.
• Axes and Axes Labels
Both axes (bottom and left) should be labelled with the physical quantity that is
plotted on the axis and the units of the physical quantity in brackets, e.g. “F [mN]”
(without quotes). For clarity numbers on axis should have a low number of digits.

• Size and Clarity

All graphs should be produced at a size that is sufficiently large so that the infor-
mation can be easily read. Choose axis limits so that the region of interest occupies
most of the graph area.
• Data Display
Data points in hand-drawn plots have to be indicated by crosses. Data values
should never be connected with a line. Where applicable you should include a fit
of a curve that represents the physical relation between the displayed quantities.
• Annotation
Whenever results of best fit or smoothing procedures to the experimental data are
displayed in the graph, the fit/smooth method must be clearly mentioned in its
caption. In the case of a linear (straight line) fit, present the values of the slope
and the y-intercept as well as their errors within the text (i.e. NOT in the graph
itself). Be sure to also include the associated units. If possible, describe the physical
significance of the slope and intercept.
• Uncertainty Bars
Whenever the uncertainties of individual data values are known they should be
indicated in the graph using error bars.
Final Remarks
The most frequent complain from students about report writing is the excessive amount
of time needed for preparing a report. This may be true, but in fact, students who are
able to report on their work in a clear, organized and conclusive report receive better
grades (not only in physics) than those who can not. Report writing can be indeed time-
intensive, but the time is well spent, because report writing is a general skill needed in
most professions and it will be most valuable in your future career. The more experience
you get the less time you will need in the future to prepare a professional scientific report.
The time needed for writing a report can be optimized by proper planning. A good prepa-
ration of the experiment and knowing what you will do and what the physics is behind
the experiment will facilitate the recording and evaluation of the data. The clarity of
writing depends on the clarity of thinking. Word processors and spread sheet software
(e.g. Excel) will increase efficient writing and data analysis. Adhering to the given guide-
lines will also help to save time. Often it is helpful to first make a rough draft of the
report and a layout of its structure and content. Thereby, a first selection of important
features of the experiment, theory and data should be made. Then after writing the text
you should reconsider, edit and polish the report into a final version.
The content of these guidelines has evolved over time and will be used to grade lab reports
for undergraduate physics majors at Jacobs University. They also contain information
and instructions extracted from standard textbooks, instructions for authors from scien-
tific journals and from other lab report guidelines published on the internet (especially
from: www.iit.edu, physics.usask.ca, physics.wku.edu, physics.mq.edu.au). Any ideas
and comments for further improvement are welcome.

A3 - Procedure and grading
Procedure
• The Advanced Laboratory Course Physics (Advanced Physics Lab III ) takes place
this semester due to the corona crisis as online course. Online presence of the
students by Microsoft Teams via audio/video connection is required each Monday
from 2:15pm to about 3:30pm.
• Before attending this live session, students have to prepare their experiments by
studying the relevant lab manual and by successfully answering the ’Test your
understanding’ online questions at the Moodle-site of the course.
• The course starts with a general introduction
• In case a student cannot attend the teaching lab due to illness or other obligations, a
certificated excuse by the registrar is needed. For excused non-attendance make-up
appointments during the times of the teaching lab could be made.
• The experiments are generally carried out by a group of two students. If a student
has not a lab partner he or she has to carry out the experiments alone.
• Before starting with the experiment, you will be quizzed about the experiment in
order to make sure that you are able to perform/follow the experiment appropri-
ately. Some questions about physical and technical background are given to support
your preparation of the quizzes. The quizzes are done consecutively by the teaching
assistant, who is responsibe for the group. In the meanwhile the other groups can
prepare the experiment. The quizzes are graded individually, i.e. if one student
of a group fails the other one will perform the experiment and write the report on
his/her own.
• Start with answering the ’questions about lab experiment’ section at the Moodle-
site of the course. Next view the videos about the lab experiment in the section
’conduction of experiment (videos)’. Furthermore, download the dataset of experi-
mental data four your group from section ’lab notes’. Simulate doing the experiment
yourself by writing a lab diary (including time, date, setup, values, units, tables,
diagrams, filenames etc.). Important: These notes will be graded in addition to
the report. This lab diary has to be uploaded by Tuesday 18:15h in section ’lab
notes’.
• A laboratory report has to be written for the 5 principal experiments. For project
experiments extended lab notes are required to pass the project experiment. Hand-
written reports are also accepted (see paragraph Grading), if they are clearly legible
and scanned as PDF document. Electronically prepared reports as PDF-files have
to be uploaded under section ’lab report’ at the Moodle-site of the course.
• Start the preparation of the lab reports immediately after the experiments that you
do not run into time pressure. The reports are due each Monday, 8 am, following
the performed experiment. There will be no extension of deadlines, except in case
of certificated illness by the registrar. A delayed report is regarded as not handed
in (see paragraph Grading for details).
–89 –
• One experiment, that had been graded 40% or below, could be repeated after the
final experiment, i.e. after When Ends(make-up rule).
• The final discussion at the end of term is a 30 min discussion of each group with
the instructors of record about the 6 experiments that you have performed during
term-time.
Grading
The lab report and the lab diary will be refereed by the teaching assistant, who is re-
sponsible for the experiment. All mistakes found in the report will be written into a
short referee report together with the grading which will be given to the students. This
report should give you the opportunity to correct your results of the experiments and to
improve your experimental and writing skills.
All grades are given in the Jacobs University grading scheme (percentages), which is given
in the following table:
Description Scale of percentages
Excellent 95-100%
Very Good 90-94.99% / 85-89.99%
Good 80-84.99% / 75-79.99%
Satisfactory 70-74.99% / 65-69.99% / 60-64.99%
Sufficient 55-59.99% / 50-54.99%/ 45-49.99%
Not sufficient 40-44.99% / 0-39.99%
The final grade will be determined to 80% by the average of the grades of reports. The
worst grade (except failed reports) is disregarded for the average. The remaining 20%
of the final grade is given by the grade you obtain for the final discussion at the end of
term. Finally, the determined grade is rounded to the nearest Jacobs University grade.
If a quiz is failed or a report is not handed in time, the grade for the experiment is given
with 0%. If one or more experiments are graded with 5.0 (40% or below), the course is
failed.
Plagiarism will lead to the fail for the report or for the complete course depending on
the seriousness. Use your own words and cite the books or articles you are using.
A laboratory report should contain:
• Title page with the title of the experiment, names of the students, the date of the
experiment, and place for some comments,
• Abstract about the experiment (not more than 10 lines),
• Theory with final formulas for the quantitative analysis of the experiment with
precise definition of all measurement values,
• Description of the procedure including schematic drawings of the setup so that the
reader is able to do the experiment,
• Data analysis including error calculation and propagation,
• Discussion (Comparison with literature values) of results and errors and Conclusion,

• Attached notes (printouts, diagrams, preliminary results) from the lab diary.
In addition to the percentages of the Jacobs grading scheme the reports must fulfill the
following criteria:
An excellent report could only have minor formatting or orthographic errors. Any other
mistake will lead to an immediate downgrade of the report. If deviations of the results
from literature values could only be explained by unreasonably large experimental errors,
the report isnt́ excellent anymore. For a very good report neither any experimental
parameter or value in the lab notes is missing nor an error within the calculation in the
data analysis occured. A good report has only minor experimental and data analysis
errors, i.e. more than 81% of the experiments are conducted and evaluated without errors.
A satisfactory report has more than 67% of the experiments and data analysis done, a
sufficient report 50%, all reports below are failed.
The influence of all other mistakes on the grading could be found in the error catalogue.

Error catalogue
The error catalogue is a collection of the most common errors occuring during the exper-
iments and writing of the report. Dependent on the severity minor errors (orthographic,
formatting, inconsistent names etc.) the percentage will be reduced by up to 2%, whereas
major errors like wrong formulas or missing values lead to reductions up to 5%.
1. Theory
Equations for values forgotten or incorrect
Definition of measurement values imprecise
2. Experimental description
No schematic drawing for measurement setup
Missing steps in the conduction of the experiments
3. Data evaluation and error analysis

Original data in appropriate form (table or for very large number of measurements
a diagram) missing.
Calculational errors, bad definitions, missing error propagation
For statistic evaluation: missing confidence level, standard deviation, mean error of
mean value, statistical model or distribution
Diagrams axis not correctly labeled or missing
Improper rounding of results after error calculation
4. Abstract, Discussion, Conclusion

Abstract too long (more than 10 lines)
No comparison with literature values if applicable
Large deviations results from the expected values without reasonable explanation
of the responsible error source
Speculation about error sources without (moon position) or with illogical estimated
values (e.g. ruler with mm divisions more than 1 mm)
Missing discussion on error sources
5. Lab diary (Attached notes)

Measurements not done or missing values, parameters or estimated errors
Not sufficient measurements for statistical evaluation for a confidence level of less
than 95% or less than 5 measurements
Missing preliminary data evaluation including errors
6. Soft Skills for all aspects of grading

Wrong logical order of appearance
Description not concise (more than 10-15 pages) or misleading
Inconsistent variable names
English orthography and grammar
Wrong format of citation and internet citations of unreliable scientific sources (i.e.
Wikipedia, etc.)

The sum of errors does not exceed the possible maximum percentages of the graded as-
pect of the experiment, i.e. each part could be only downgraded to 0%.
The theory must contain a precise but also concise description of the physical basics of
the experiments. Depending on the experiment drawings of the physical effects with the
main measurement values should support all the equations. All measured and derived
values should be defined precisely.
The experimental description should contain the schematic drawing of the setup. Do not
forget to give the proper electrical connections, the optical setup with optical axis, etc.
If the setup is allready shown in the theory, than you can simply refer to it.
In the data analysis and error calculation the accuracy of the calculation will be graded.
All possible and reasonable sources of error must be listed. The influence of these es-
timated errors on the main result should be determined by error propagation which is
important to determine the main source of error.
In addition also soft skills will be graded. This will include readibility, tidiness, com-
pleteness and conciseness. An english sentence has a very precise structure starting with
the subject followed by the verb, object and adverbs. Do not use too many subclauses.
Explain all used abbreviations. The report should be logically correct. If you write the
report by hand, take care that the report is easily readable by someone else. Words,
phrases or complete sentences, which are indecipherable by the teaching assistant, are
graded as nonexistent. Missing labels or references, wrong units or badly chosen precision
of your data as well as other structural errors (margins, wrong order etc.) could also lead
to a downgrade.
The lab diaries are handwritten, so structure them very carefully. Use rulers to prepare
tables or underline headings. Make a printout of the tables after the experiment and
make a short data evaluation. Prepare diagrams if possible. Estimate the influences of
errors onto the measured values. If an systematic error could be prevented, PREVENT
IT! Redo the experiment and prepare a new table. NEVER overwrite old values. No
data value will be checked by the TA after finishing the experiment.

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Advanced Physics Lab III

When starts - When Ends

Prof. Insert Name

Experiment 1 - Wind tunnel 3

Experiment 2 - HeNe laser 17

Experiment 3 - Solar cell 23

Experiment 4 - Peltier and Seebeck effect 35

Experiment 5 - Fuel cell and electrolyser 51

Jacobs University Bremen, When written, Version F21-R01 iii

A2 - Guidelines for writing a laboratory report 79

A3 - Procedure and grading 89

iv Prof. Insert Name, Dr. Insert Name

Prof. Insert Name Jacobs University Bremen

v·A = constant Continuity equation (1-1)

1. Determination of the air speed using a Pitot/Prandtl tube

Figure 1-1: Principle of the Pitot/Prandtl tube.

2. Determination of the pressure and velocity profile in a Venturi tube.

4 Prof. Insert Name, Dr. Insert Name

Figure 1-2: Physical properties of a Venturi tube.

at any point, the pressure difference p1 − p2 can be expressed by combining Continuity

Jacobs University Bremen, When written, Version F21-R01 5

Figure 1-3: Formation of vortices

Figure 1-4: Resistances in flows.

6 Prof. Insert Name, Dr. Insert Name

4. Investigation of airfoil characteristics

Figure 1-5: Forces acting on an aerofoil in an air stream

Jacobs University Bremen, When written, Version F21-R01 7

Part Leybold No. Quantity

Wind tunnel 373 12 1

8 Prof. Insert Name, Dr. Insert Name

Set-up and Procedure

2. Determination of the pressure and velocity profile in a Venturi tube

Jacobs University Bremen, When written, Version F21-R01 9

Figure 1-7: Set up for Venturi tube.

• Secure the metal stand rod in the stand base.

10 Prof. Insert Name, Dr. Insert Name

Figure 1-8: Set up for measuring the drag coefficient

4. Determination of characteristics of an aerofoil

Jacobs University Bremen, When written, Version F21-R01 11

12 Prof. Insert Name, Dr. Insert Name

Jacobs University Bremen, When written, Version F21-R01 13

Carrying out the experiment:

• Set an angle of incidence of 15 degrees by unscrewing the front knurled screw on

14 Prof. Insert Name, Dr. Insert Name

2. Determination of the pressure and velocity profile in a Venturi tube.

3. Determination of the drag force and the drag coefficient of different

4. Investigation of airfoil characteristics

Experimental Appendix - Working principle of pressure sensors

Jacobs University Bremen, When written, Version F21-R01 15

Frequently Asked Questions for Self-Monitoring

3. What is causing for the change of laminar to turbulent flow?

6. Describe the measurement of the pressure with a barometer.

16 Prof. Insert Name, Dr. Insert Name

• Measure the output of the laser in dependence on cavity length.

• Stand behind your partner if he or she aligns the light beam.

• Perform the alignment in a bright room.

Pilot laser (He-Ne, 1 mW) including holder and power supply 1

Prof. Insert Name Jacobs University Bremen