PART 1: INTRODUCTION

I. Introduction
What is occupational health and safety?

Occupational health and safety is a discipline with a broad scope involving many specialized
fields. In its broadest sense, it should aim at:

• the promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of physical, mental and social
well-being of workers in all occupations;
• the prevention among workers of adverse effects on health caused by their working
conditions;
• the protection of workers in their employment from risks resulting from factors
adverse to health;
• the placing and maintenance of workers in an occupational environment adapted to
physical and mental needs;
• the adaptation of work to humans.

In other words, occupational health and safety encompasses the social, mental and physical
well-being of workers, that is the “whole person”.

Successful occupational health and safety practice requires the collaboration and participation
of both employers and workers in health and safety programmes, and involves the
consideration of issues relating to occupational medicine, industrial hygiene, toxicology,
education, engineering safety, ergonomics, psychology, etc.

Occupational health issues are often given less attention than occupational safety issues
because the former are generally more difficult to confront. However, when health is
addressed, so is safety, because a healthy workplace is by definition also a safe workplace.
The converse, though, may not be true - a so-called safe workplace is not necessarily also a
healthy workplace. The important point is that issues of both health and safety must be
addressed in every workplace. By and large, the definition of occupational health and safety
given above encompasses both health and safety in their broadest contexts.

Poor working conditions affect worker health and safety

• Poor working conditions of any type have the potential to affect a worker's health and
safety.
• Unhealthy or unsafe working conditions are not limited to factories — they can be
found anywhere, whether the workplace is indoors or outdoors. For many workers,
such as agricultural workers or miners, the workplace is “outdoors” and can pose
many health and safety hazards.
• Poor working conditions can also affect the environment workers live in, since the
working and living environments are the same for many workers. This means that
occupational hazards can have harmful effects on workers, their families, and other
people in the community, as well as on the physical environment around the
workplace. A classic example is the use of pesticides in agricultural work. Workers
can be exposed to toxic chemicals in a number of ways when spraying pesticides: they
can inhale the chemicals during and after spraying, the chemicals can be absorbed
through the skin, and the workers can ingest the chemicals if they eat, drink, or smoke
 without first washing their hands, or if drinking water has become contaminated with
the chemicals. The workers' families can also be exposed in a number of ways: they
can inhale the pesticides which may linger in the air, they can drink contaminated
water, or they can be exposed to residues which may be on the worker's clothes. Other
people in the community can all be exposed in the same ways as well. When the
chemicals get absorbed into the soil or leach into groundwater supplies, the adverse
effects on the natural environment can be permanent.

Overall, efforts in occupational health and safety must aim to prevent industrial accidents
and diseases, and at the same time recognize the connection between worker health and
safety, the workplace, and the environment outside the workplace.

Why is occupational health and safety important?

Work plays a central role in people's lives, since most workers spend at least eight hours a
day in the workplace, whether it is on a plantation, in an office, factory, etc. Therefore, work
environments should be safe and healthy. Yet this is not the case for many workers. Every
day workers all over the world are faced with a multitude of health hazards, such as:

• dusts;
• gases;
• noise;
• vibration;
• extreme temperatures.

Unfortunately, some employers assume little responsibility for the protection of workers'
health and safety. In fact, some employers do not even know that they have the moral and
often legal responsibility to protect workers. As a result of the hazards and a lack of attention
given to health and safety, work-related accidents and diseases are common in all parts of the
world.

Costs of occupational injury/disease

How much
does an
occupational
disease or
accident cost?

Work-related accidents or diseases are very costly and can have many serious direct and
indirect effects on the lives of workers and their families. For workers some of the direct
costs of an injury or illness are:

• the pain and suffering of the injury or illness;

• the loss of income;
• the possible loss of a job;
• health-care costs.

It has been estimated that the indirect costs of an accident or illness can be four to ten times
greater than the direct costs, or even more. An occupational illness or accident can have so
many indirect costs to workers that it is often difficult to measure them. One of the most
obvious indirect costs is the human suffering caused to workers' families, which cannot be
compensated with money.

The costs to employers of occupational accidents or illnesses are also estimated to be

enormous. For a small business, the cost of even one accident can be a financial disaster. For
employers, some of the direct costs are:

• payment for work not performed;

• medical and compensation payments;
• repair or replacement of damaged machinery and equipment;
• reduction or a temporary halt in production;
• increased training expenses and administration costs;
• possible reduction in the quality of work;
• negative effect on morale in other workers.

Some of the indirect costs for employers are:

 • the injured/ill worker has to be replaced;
• a new worker has to be trained and given time to adjust;
• it takes time before the new worker is producing at the rate of the original worker;
• time must be devoted to obligatory investigations, to the writing of reports and filling
out of forms;
• accidents often arouse the concern of fellow workers and influence labour relations in
a negative way;
• poor health and safety conditions in the workplace can also result in poor public
relations.

Overall, the costs of most work-related accidents or illnesses to workers and their families
and to employers are very high.

On a national scale, the estimated costs of occupational accidents and illnesses can be as high
as three to four per cent of a country's gross national product. In reality, no one really knows
the total costs of work-related accidents or diseases because there are a multitude of indirect
costs which are difficult to measure besides the more obvious direct costs.

Health and safety programmes

For all of the reasons given above, it is crucial that employers, workers and unions are
committed to health and safety and that:

• workplace hazards are controlled - at the source whenever possible;

• records of any exposure are maintained for many years;
• both workers and employers are informed about health and safety risks in the
workplace;
• there is an active and effective health and safety committee that includes both workers
and management;
• worker health and safety efforts are ongoing.

Effective workplace health and safety programmes can help to save the lives of workers by
reducing hazards and their consequences. Health and safety programmes also have positive
effects on both worker morale and productivity, which are important benefits. At the same
time, effective programmes can save employers a great deal of money.

Points to remember

1. Occupational health and safety encompasses the social, mental and physical well-
being of workers in all occupations.
2. Poor working conditions have the potential to affect a worker's health and safety.
3. Unhealthy or unsafe working conditions can be found anywhere, whether the
workplace is indoors or outdoors.
4. Poor working conditions can affect the environment workers live in. This means that
workers, their families, other people in the community, and the physical environment
around the workplace, can all be at risk from exposure to workplace hazards.
 5. Employers have a moral and often legal responsibility to protect workers.
6. Work-related accidents and diseases are common in all parts of the world and often
have many direct and indirect negative consequences for workers and their families.
A single accident or illness can mean enormous financial loss to both workers and
employers.
7. Effective workplace health and safety programmes can help to save the lives of
workers by reducing hazards and their consequences. Effective programmes can also
have positive effects on both worker morale and productivity, and can save
employers a great deal of money.

II. Extent of the problem worldwide

A. Accidents

In general, health and safety in the workplace has improved in most industrialized countries
over the past 20 to 30 years. However, the situation in developing countries is relatively
unclear largely because of inadequate accident and disease recognition, record-keeping and
reporting mechanisms.

It is estimated that at least 250 million occupational accidents occur every year worldwide.
335,000 of these accidents are fatal (result in death). (Since many countries do not have
accurate record-keeping and reporting mechanisms, it can be assumed that the real figures are
much higher than this.) The number of fatal accidents is much higher in developing countries
than in industrialized ones. This difference is primarily due to better health and safety
programmes, improved first-aid and medical facilities in the industrialized countries, and to
active participation of workers in the decision-making process on health and safety issues.
Some of the industries with the highest risk of accidents worldwide are: mining, agriculture,
including forestry and logging, and construction.

Identifying the cause of an accident

In some cases, the cause of an industrial injury is easy to identify. However, very often there
is a hidden chain of events behind the accident which led up to the injury. For example,
accidents are often indirectly caused by negligence on the part of the employer who may not
have provided adequate worker training, or a supplier who gave the wrong information about
a product, etc. The consistently high fatal accident rates in developing countries emphasize
the need for occupational health and safety education programmes that focus on prevention. It
is equally important to promote the development of occupational health services, including
the training of doctors to recognize work-related diseases in the early stages.

B. Diseases
Exposure to
hazards in
the
workplace
can lead to
serious
illness.

Some occupational diseases have been recognized for many years, and affect workers in
different ways depending on the nature of the hazard, the route of exposure, the dose, etc.
Some well known occupational diseases include:

• asbestosis (caused by asbestos, which is common in insulation, automobile brake

linings, etc.);
• silicosis (caused by silica, which is common in mining, sandblasting, etc.);
• lead poisoning (caused by lead, which is common in battery plants, paint factories,
etc.);
• and noise-induced hearing loss (caused by noise, which is common in many
workplaces, including airports, and workplaces where noisy machines, such as presses
or drills, etc. are used).

There are also a number of potentially crippling health problems that can be associated with
poor working conditions, including:

• heart disease;
• musculoskeletal disorders such as permanent back injuries or muscle disorders;
• allergies;
• reproductive problems;
• stress-related disorders.

Many developing countries report only a small number of workers affected by work-related
diseases. These numbers look small for a variety of reasons that include:

• inadequate or non-existent reporting mechanisms;

• a lack of occupational health facilities;
• a lack of health care practitioners who are trained to recognize work-related diseases.

Because of these reasons and others, it is fair to assume that in reality, the numbers of
workers afflicted with occupational diseases are much higher. In fact, overall, the number of
cases and types of occupational diseases are increasing, not decreasing, in both
developing and industrialized countries.
Identifying the cause of occupational disease

The cause of work-related diseases is very often difficult to determine. One factor is the
latency period (the fact that it may take years before the disease produces an obvious effect
on the worker's health). By the time the disease is identified, it may be too late to do anything
about it or to find out what hazards the worker was exposed to in the past. Other factors such
as changing jobs, or personal behaviours (such as smoking tobacco or drinking alcohol)
further increase the difficulty of linking workplace exposures to a disease outcome.

Although more is understood now about some occupational hazards than in the past, every
year new chemicals and new technologies are being introduced which present new and often
unknown hazards to both workers and the community. These new and unknown hazards
present great challenges to workers, employers, educators, and scientists, that is to everyone
concerned about workers' health and the effects that hazardous agents have on the
environment.

Points to remember about

the extent of the problem worldwide
1. There are at least 250 million occupational accidents every year worldwide, at least
335,000 of which result in death.
2. Developing countries have more fatal accidents than industrialized nations,
emphasizing the need for health and safety education programmes that focus on
prevention.
3. Some occupational diseases have been recognized for many years and affect workers
in different ways. Such diseases are still problems in all parts of the world.
4. The numbers of work-related diseases in developing countries are much higher in
reality than the numbers that are reported.
5. The numbers of cases and types of occupational diseases are increasing in both
developing and industrialized countries.
6. It is often difficult to identify the cause of both occupational accidents and diseases.

III. The range of hazards

A hazard is any source of potential adverse health effect on or damage or harm to something
or someone under certain conditions at work.

There is an unlimited number of hazards that can be found in almost any workplace. There
are obvious unsafe working conditions, such as unguarded machinery, slippery floors or
inadequate fire precautions, but there are also a number of categories of insidious hazards
(that is, those hazards that are dangerous but which may not be obvious) including:

• chemical hazards, arising from liquids, solids, dusts, fumes, vapours and gases;
• physical hazards, such as noise, vibration, unsatisfactory lighting, radiation and
extreme temperatures;
 • biological hazards, such as bacteria, viruses, infectious waste and infestations;
• psychological hazards resulting from stress and strain;
• hazards associated with the non-application of ergonomic principles, for example
badly designed machinery, mechanical devices and tools used by workers, improper
seating and workstation design, or poorly designed work practices.

Most workers are faced with a combination of these hazards at work. For example, it is not
difficult to imagine a workplace where you are exposed to chemicals, unguarded and noisy
machines, hot temperatures, slippery floors, etc. all at the same time. Think about your own
workplace. Are there various hazards there that you can think of?

Hazards are often

built into
workplace.

Work processes
can be designed
to prevent
accidents and
illnesses. Existing
hazards should be
removed from the
workplace.

Workers do not create hazards - in many cases the hazards are built into the workplace. The
trade union position on occupational health and safety is to ensure that work is made safer by
modifying the workplace and any unsafe work processes. This means that the solution is
to remove the hazards, not to try to get workers to adapt to unsafe conditions. Requiring
workers to wear protective clothing which may not be suited or designed for the climate of
your region is an example of forcing workers to try to adapt themselves to unsafe conditions,
which is also shifting the responsibility from management to the worker.
It is important for unions to maintain this position because many employers blame workers
when there is an accident, claiming that the workers were careless. This attitude implies that
work can be made safer if workers change their behaviour or if employers only hire workers
who never make mistakes. Everyone makes mistakes — it is human nature, but workers
should not pay for mistakes with their lives. Accidents do not stop simply by making workers
more safety conscious. Safety awareness may help but it does not remove unsafe work
processes or conditions. The most effective accident and disease prevention begins when
work processes are still in the design stage, when safe conditions can be built into the
work process.

Points to remember
about the range of hazards
1. There is an unlimited number of hazards that can be found in almost every
workplace. These include both obvious unsafe working conditions and insidious, less
obvious hazards.
2. Hazards often are built into the workplace. Therefore, trade unions must ensure that
hazards are removed, rather than trying to get workers to adapt to unsafe conditions.
3. The most effective accident and disease prevention begins when work processes are
still in the design stage, when safe conditions can be built into the work process.

IV. Importance of management commitment

A successful
health and
safety
programme
requires
strong
management
commitment
and worker
participation.

In order to develop a successful health and safety programme, it is essential that there be
strong management commitment and strong worker participation in the effort to create and
maintain a safe and healthy workplace. An effective management addresses all work-related
hazards, not only those covered by government standards.

All levels of management must make health and safety a priority. They must communicate
this by going out into the worksite to talk with workers about their concerns and to observe
work procedures and equipment. In each workplace, the lines of responsibility from top to
bottom need to be clear, and workers should know who is responsible for different health and
safety issues.

Points to remember about the importance of

management commitment
1. Strong management commitment and strong worker involvement are necessary
elements for a successful workplace health and safety programme.
2. An effective management addresses all work-related hazards, not only those covered
by government standards, and communicates with workers.
V. The importance of training

Effective
training is a
key component
of any health
and safety
programme.

Workers often experience work-related health problems and do not realize that the problems
are related to their work, particularly when an occupational disease, for example, is in the
early stages. Besides the other more obvious benefits of training, such as skills development,
hazard recognition, etc., a comprehensive training programme in each workplace will help
workers to:

• recognize early signs/symptoms of any potential occupational diseases before they

become permanent conditions;
• assess their work environment;
• insist that management make changes before hazardous conditions can develop.

Points to remember
about the importance of training
•

A comprehensive health and safety training programme in each workplace

will, among other more obvious benefits, help workers to recognize any early
signs/symptoms of potential occupational diseases before they become
permanent conditions, to assess their work environment, and to insist that
management make changes before hazardous conditions can develop.

VI. Role of the health and safety representative

Health and safety
representative

As health and safety representative your role is to work proactively (this means taking
action before hazards become a problem) to prevent workers from being exposed to
occupational hazards. You can do this by making sure management eliminates hazards or
keeps them under control when they cannot be eliminated.

Steps to help you reach your goals are:

1. Be well informed about the various hazards in your workplace and the possible solutions
for controlling those hazards.

2. Work together with your union and the employer to identify and control hazards.

3. Although these Modules have been developed for the protection of workers, you may
occasionally need to share some of this information with your supervisors and employer in
the process of working towards a safe and healthy workplace.

Being a health and safety representative is not always easy, but helping to protect the
lives of your fellow workers is worth all the time and effort you put into the job.
Use a
variety of
sources for
informatio
n about
potential
or existing
hazards in
your
workplace.

VII. Summary
Workers in every occupation can be faced with a multitude of hazards in the
workplace. Occupational health and safety addresses the broad range of
workplace hazards from accident prevention to the more insidious hazards
including toxic fumes, dust, noise, heat, stress, etc. Preventing work-related
diseases and accidents must be the goal of occupational health and safety
 programmes, rather than attempting to solve problems after they have already
developed.

Hazards in the workplace can be found in a variety of forms, including chemical,

physical, biological, psychological, non-application of ergonomic principles, etc.
Because of the multitude of hazards in most workplaces and the overall lack of
attention given to health and safety by many employers, work-related accidents
and diseases continue to be serious problems in all parts of the world. Therefore,
trade unions must insist that employers control hazards at the source and not force
workers to adapt to unsafe conditions.

Management commitment to health and safety and strong worker participation

are two essential elements of any successful workplace health and safety
programme. The most effective accident and disease prevention begins when
work processes are still in the design stage.

Exercise. Identifying hazards in the workplace

Note to the instructor

For this exercise, ask trainees to work in small groups of two to three people.
Give several of the pictures in your text to each group. You will also need a
flipchart (or some large sheets of paper taped to the walls) and markers or a
chalkboard and chalks.

Instructions

The pictures below show different workplaces where a variety of hazards can be
found. Ask trainees to look at the pictures and imagine what sort of problems
might exist in each workplace. Write the trainees' responses for each workplace
on a flipchart or chalkboard. Some of the major hazards associated with each of
these jobs are given below.

When you finish discussing the jobs shown in the pictures, discuss the hazards in
the trainees' own workplaces. Trainees should discuss the questions listed in the
section “In you own workplace” below.

Discuss the hazards that may be associated with these jobs

1. Welder — A welder can be burnt from the sparks and there is always the danger of the
work process starting a fire. There is the problem of the intense light which can cause
permanent eye damage as well as the fumes given off by the process which can damage the
lungs.
3. Mechanic - Depending on the precise nature of a mechanic's duties, there may be
safety problems from cuts and falls, etc., and exposure to chemical hazards: oils,
solvents, asbestos and exhaust fumes. Mechanics can also have back and other
musculoskeletal problems from lifting heavy parts or bending for long periods.
3. Port worker - Again hazards depend largely on the nature of the job and in particular the
cargo being handled. Port workers often have no idea of the dangerous nature of the cargo;
there may be a sign on the side of a box or drum, but the information may not be in their
language or in words that make much sense to the average worker. The condition of the cargo
is also important as leaking drums or split bags can be very hazardous for the handlers. Other
risks include falls, cuts, back and other musculoskeletal problems as well as collisions with
fast moving vehicles such as fork-lift trucks or delivery trucks.

4. Textile worker - The textile worker faces a variety of problems. First there is the
problem of safety with many machines around that are often unguarded, as well as the
risk of fire with so much combustible material in the workplace. Then there are the
hazards of noise and vibration. There is also exposure to dust from the material which
can seriously affect the lungs. Exposure to cotton dust can lead to the occupational
disease known as byssinosis.

5. Tractor driver - One of the most serious problems with tractors is that they often overturn
and, if they have no safety cab, the driver can easily be crushed. Other problems include
noise, vibration and exposure to chemical herbicides and pesticides when being sprayed by
tractor.
6. Agricultural worker - When spraying crops the worker may be exposed to hazardous
chemicals contained in the spray. Many pesticides and herbicides that have been banned in
some countries because of their toxic effects are still used in many developing countries. If
spraying takes place on a windy day, the spray can be breathed into the lungs and blown on to
the skin where it can cause damage. It can also be absorbed into the body through the skin.

7. Electronics assembly worker - An electronics assembly worker can suffer eye problems
from doing close work, often in poor light. Because such workers sit still for long periods
with inadequate seating, they can also suffer from back and other musculoskeletal problems.
For some workers there are the dangers of solder fumes or solder “flecks” in the eye when the
excess solder is cut off with pliers.
8. Office worker - Many people may think that office workers have no health and safety
problems; this is far from true. Stress is one of the most common complaints, as well as
exposure to chemical hazards from office machines such as photocopiers. Poor lighting, noise
and poorly designed chairs and stools can also present problems.

9. Construction worker - Construction workers face a variety of hazards, particularly safety

problems such as falls, slips, trips, cuts, and being hit by falling objects. There are also
dangers from working high up, often without adequate safety equipment, musculoskeletal
problems from lifting heavy objects, as well as the hazards associated with exposure to noisy
machinery.
10. Miner - The hazards of mining are well known and include the ever present danger of
dusts, fire, explosion and electrocution, as well as the hazards associated with vibration,
extreme temperatures, noise, slips, falls, cuts, etc.
Note to the instructor

Now that trainees have begun to consider the possible hazards in different workplaces, ask
them to consider and discuss the hazards in their own workplaces. Trainees should answer the
following questions about their own workplaces.

(1) Describe the job you do.

(2) What hazards do you know exist in you workplace?

(3) Are there other conditions at work that you suspect may be hazardous but you are not sure
about?
PART 2: HAZARDS
I. Introduction
All workplace hazards (chemical, physical, etc.) can be controlled by a variety of
methods. The goal of controlling hazards is to prevent workers from being exposed
to occupational hazards. Some methods of hazard control are more efficient than
others, but a combination of methods usually provides a safer workplace than relying
on only one method. Some methods of control are cheaper than others but may not
provide the most effective way to reduce exposure.

The most effective method of controlling hazards is to control at the source by

eliminating the hazard or by substituting a hazardous agent or work process with a less
dangerous one.

Before thinking about what control measures are needed, first you need to know
whether there are health and safety problems in your workplace, and if so, what they
are.

How can you identify health and safety problems?

Here are some of the ways you can identify health and safety problems:

• observe your workplace;

• investigate complaints from workers;
• examine accident and near-miss records;
• examine sickness figures;
• use simple surveys to ask your co-workers about their health and safety
concerns;
• use check-lists to help you inspect your workplace;
• learn the results of inspections that are done by the employer, the union or
anyone else;
• read reports or other information about your workplace.

Once you recognize a hazard, then you can determine which measure will correct the
problem most effectively. Generally, there are five major categories of control measures:
elimination, substitution, engineering controls, administrative controls and personal
protective equipment. Eliminating a hazard means removing it completely; substitution
is replacing one hazardous agent or work process with a less dangerous one. An
engineering control may mean changing a piece of machinery (for example, using
proper machine guards) or a work process to reduce exposure to a hazard; working a
limited number of hours in a hazardous area is an example of an administrative control
(for example, job rotation); and personal protective equipment (PPE) includes ear and
eye protection, respirators, and protective clothing.

Remember: it is always better to control the hazard as close to the source as possible.
Using personal protection is the least acceptable and least effective of all control
measures.
 Points to remember

1. Occupational hazards can be controlled by a variety of methods.

2. The goal of controlling hazards is to prevent workers from being exposed to
occupational hazards.
3. The most effective control measure is to control hazards at the source by
eliminating the hazard or by substituting a hazardous chemical, machine, work
process, etc., with a less dangerous one.
4. It is important to recognize hazards and health and safety problems in the
workplace.
5. There are five general categories of control measures: elimination, substitution,
engineering controls, administrative controls and personal protective
equipment. A combination of methods usually provides a safer and healthier
workplace than relying on only one method.
6. Personal protective equipment should be the last choice in control measures.

II. Methods of control

A. Elimination

Elimination of a specific hazard or hazardous work process, or preventing it from

entering the workplace, is the most effective method of control.

Eliminate hazards at the “development stage”

It is important to consider worker health and safety when work processes are still in the
planning stages. For example, when purchasing machines, safety should be the first
concern, not cost. Machines should conform to national safety standards — they should
be designed with the correct guard on them to eliminate the danger of a worker getting
caught in the machine while using it. Machines that are not produced with the proper
guards on them may cost less to purchase, but cost more in terms of accidents, loss of
production, compensation, etc. Unfortunately, many used machines that do not meet
safety standards are exported to developing countries, causing workers to pay the price
with accidents, hearing loss from noise, etc.

Point to remember
about elimination
1. Eliminating a specific hazard is the most effective method of control. It is easier
to eliminate hazards while a work process is still in the development stages.
B. Substitution

If a particularly dangerous chemical or work process cannot be completely eliminated,

then try to replace it with a safer substitute.

This could involve, for example, using less hazardous pesticides such as those based on
pyrethrins (prepared from natural products), which are thought to be less toxic to
humans than some other pesticides. This particular substitution is practised in some
countries because the substitute chemicals do not leave residues on food and therefore
reduce long-term costs. However, the substitute materials may cost more to buy and
may cause resistance in insects. So you can see there are many factors to consider when
choosing a chemical or chemical substitute.

It is not easy to find “safer” chemical substitutes (in fact, no chemical should be
considered completely safe). It is important to review every year or so current reports
on the chemicals used in your workplace because chemicals considered to be “safer”
substitutes today may not be considered safer in the future.

When you look for safer substitutes, try to choose a less volatile (volatile liquids
vaporize, or evaporate easily) instead of a highly volatile one, choose a solid instead of a
liquid, etc. For example, many dry, dusty powders are also available in brick, pellet,
paste, flakes, oil damped powders, and other forms that create less dust when handled,
and reduce the chance of inhaling the dust. Many plastics and rubber industry chemicals
can also be supplied in dust-suppressed forms. These materials can be more expensive
to purchase but they are safer for workers to handle and can be cheaper when other
costs are considered, such as the cost of ventilation to control dust, personal protective
equipment, etc.

Other examples of substitution include using:

 • less hazardous solvents instead of toxic ones (such as 1,1,1-trichloroethane
(methyl chloroform), dichloromethane or fluorochlorohydrocarbon instead of
carbon tetrachloride; and toluene, cyclohexane or ketones instead of benzene).
Check the labels of chemicals in your workplace to see if they match any of these
chemical names;
• detergent plus water-cleaning solutions instead of organic solvents;
• freon instead of methyl bromide chloride as a refrigerant;
• leadless glazes in the ceramics industry;
• leadless pigments in paints;
• synthetic grinding wheels (such as aluminium oxide, silicon carbide) instead of
sandstone wheels.

Are substitute materials always safer than the original hazard?

No. When you choose substitute materials, try to find out if the new substance is really
safer or not. There are examples where a material that was thought to be safer was
found to be as bad as, or worse than, the original hazard. A classic example is asbestos.
Fibreglass has been used as a substitute for asbestos; however, it is now known that
fibreglass is also a hazardous material and is not a completely safe substitute for
asbestos. A substitute may be better than the original hazard, but that does not mean it
is safe. Water jets for drilling reduce dust but they do not reduce vibration, so workers
still need protection.

Remember: protective measures are important when working with all chemicals, even
if you are using a “safer” substitute.

Where can you get information on substitute materials?

First, check with your employer — he or she may have, or may be willing to get,
information on hazards in your workplace. If you cannot get the information from your
employer, try the chemical manufacturers — they should have hazard data sheets on
all chemicals they manufacture. Other sources of information are: your union (local and
national), the local factory or labour inspectorate, local colleges or universities,
the local fire department, your local library, ITSs (International Trade Secretariats)
and the ILO (International Labour Office). These groups may have information on
hazard substitutes, or they may be able to help you get the information you need. For
more information,

Can dangerous work processes be substituted with safer processes?

Yes. Changing the way you do a job so that it is safer is another form of substitution. For
example, vacuuming up dust instead of sweeping it, or using “wet methods” to control
dust are safer ways to work with dusty materials. “Wet methods” mean spraying water
over a dusty surface to keep dust down, or mixing water with the material used to
prevent dust from being created. Another is using a water jet for drilling and mining and
quarrying instead of dry drilling. These methods reduce the amount of dust in the air.
Note: Use a vacuum cleaner when cleaning up toxic dust. Never sweep toxic dust with
brooms or brushes — sweeping puts the dangerous dust back into the air where you
can breathe it.

Use a
vacuum
cleaner
when
cleaning up
toxic dust.
Never sweep
toxic dust
- sweeping
puts the
dangerous
dust back
into the air
where you
can breathe
it.

Other examples of changing a work process and/or the equipment used include using:

• electric motors instead of diesel or petrol engines to eliminate hazardous

exhaust fumes;
• “dust-free” cutting or grinding equipment;
• dip or brush instead of spray painting;
• floating plastic balls on open-surface tanks (for degreasing, leather finishing,
dyeing, etc.) to reduce the evaporation surface;
• covered containers to carry materials which produce air contaminants.

2. Points to remember
about substitution
1. If a dangerous chemical or work process cannot be eliminated, then try to
replace it with a safer substitute. Not all substitute materials are really “safer” -
they may be better than the original hazard but can still be dangerous.
2. Protective measures are important when working with all chemicals, even if
you are using a “safer” substitute.
 3. There are a number of sources for information on substitute materials such as
your employer, the chemical manufacturer, the local factory/labour
inspectorate, local colleges or universities, the local fire department, your local
library, International Trade Secretariats and the International Labour Office.

C. Engineering controls

There are a number of common control measures which are called “engineering
controls”. These include enclosure, isolation and ventilation.

1. Enclosure

If a hazardous substance or work process cannot be eliminated or substituted, then

enclosing it so workers are not exposed to the hazard is the next best method of control.
Many hazards can be controlled by partially or totally enclosing the work process.
Highly toxic materials that can be released into the air should be totally enclosed,
usually by using a mechanical handling device or a closed glove system that can be
operated from the outside.

Whole areas of a plant can be “enclosed” by requiring workers to operate those areas
from a control room. Enclosing hazards can minimize possible exposures, but does not
eliminate them. For example, maintenance workers who service or repair these
“enclosed” areas can still be exposed. To prevent maintenance workers from being
exposed, other protective measures (such as protective clothing, respirators, proper
training, medical surveillance, etc.) must be used, as well as safety procedures.

Machine guarding is another form of enclosure that prevents workers from coming into
contact with dangerous parts of machines. Workers should receive training on how to
use guarded machines safely. Some of the areas of a machine that can injure you are: the
point of operation (which is the area on a machine where work is actually being
performed); pinch-points; sharp areas, such as blades; exposed electrical components,
which can cause electrical shock or burns; presses, which can crush; rotating parts;
flying chips and sparks.

Here are a few examples of types of machine guards:

a. Enclosure guards: prevent you from coming into contact with the dangerous
moving parts of a machine by enclosing the parts or forming a barrier around the
dangerous parts. This type of guard also prevents broken and flying machine
parts from hitting you.
b. Interlocking guards: prevent you from operating the machine if the guard is not
in place, or automatically stop the machine if part of your body enters a
dangerous area. Photoelectrical or mechanical-sensing devices (such as a
photoelectric eye) are examples of interlocking guards.
c. Automatic guards: actually pull or push your hands, arms, or body away from
the danger zone as the work is being done.
 d. Remote control, feeding, placement or ejecting guards: these control
methods protect you from dangerous points of operation. For example, a two-
handed control requires both of your hands to be on the controls (away from the
danger zone) when you operate the machine. This is a common method with
punch/stamping presses; a feeding mechanism may use an automatic device to
feed material into the machine, so that you do not feed by hand.

Designing machine guards

Guards can often be built at your workplace at low cost. Here are some helpful points
for designing and building machine guards.

• Complete enclosure is preferable to a partial enclosure. A partial guard should be

avoided.
• Guards should fit the danger areas as closely as possible. Caution: a moving belt
rubbing against a fixed guard can not only damage the belt but may also be a
potential source of fire.
• Guards should be combined with feeding and ejection where possible.
• Guards should leave the operation easy to see.

Before working with any machine, ask yourself: “How can this machine be made safer to
operate?”

Unguarded
machines
are
hazardous

2. Isolation

Isolation can be an effective method of control if a hazardous job can be moved to a

part of the workplace where fewer people will be exposed, or if a job can be changed to
a shift when fewer people are exposed (such as a weekend or midnight shift).
The worker can also be isolated from a hazardous job, for example by working in an
air-conditioned control booth.

Whether it is the job or the worker that is isolated, access to the hazardous work area
should be limited to as few people as possible to reduce exposures. It is also important
to limit the length of time and the amount of a substance(s) to which workers are
exposed if they must work in the hazardous area. For example, dust-producing work
should be isolated from other work areas to prevent other workers from being exposed.
At the same time, workers in the dusty areas must be protected and restricted to only a
short time working in those areas.

Remember: isolating the work process or the worker does not eliminate the hazard,
which means workers can still be exposed.

3. Ventilation

Ventilation in the workplace can be used for two reasons: (1) to prevent the work
environment from being too hot, cold, dry or humid; (2) to prevent contaminants in the
air from getting into the area where workers breathe. Generally there are two
categories of ventilation: local exhaust ventilation and general
ventilation. Whatever the type, ventilation should be used together with other
methods of control.

a. Local exhaust ventilation usually uses suction, based on the principle of a

vacuum cleaner, to remove pollutants from the air. There are two common types
of local exhaust ventilation used in industry today: (1) fumes are sucked into an
open tank with side slots and into a closed system, through which they are then
transferred to a disposal point away from the workers (a degreasing tank is an
example of this); (2) fumes are sucked into a canopy hood which hangs over a
contaminant and forced out through a ventilation duct. This type is very effective
where the air pollutants have a high temperature, or if they rise in the air for
another reason (for example, the heat from furnaces or ovens causes pollutants
to rise).
Exhaust
ventilation
can also
include the
use of
flexible
piping. The
end of the
pipe that
draws in the
contaminant
s (the inlet)
must be
placed as
close as
possible to
the source of
the hazard in
order to be
effective.
Flexible
piping is
often used to
draw
welding
fumes away
from the
worker and
to draw
away
contaminant
s in work
areas that
are hard to
reach.

Partial enclosure (such as laboratory fume cupboards or screens placed around

welders) combined with a local exhaust ventilation system is one of the best solutions
for controlling toxic material. This type of system must operate as close as possible to
the source of the hazardous agent to reduce it from spreading, yet at the same time
allow access to the work process.
 b. General ventilation, which is generally used for keeping the workplace
comfortable, is one of the least effective methods of controlling hazards but one
of the most commonly used. The purpose of any general ventilation system is to
remove contaminated air and replace it with “fresh” air. This system does not
really remove hazardous agents from the air; it simply reduces the amounts in
the air to levels that are considered “safe” for breathing. The effectiveness of a
general ventilation system depends on several things, including: how quickly the
hazardous agent is being released into the air; how much and how quickly fresh
air is coming in; and how the contaminated air is being removed.

Unfortunately, many workplaces use general ventilation as the only source of

ventilation. Air-bricks, windows and doors may be opened to increase the general flow
of air. However, these openings are often blocked or shut. Doors and windows are
sometimes locked for security reasons, air-bricks may be blocked by excess stock being
stored across them, etc. Without good general ventilation, hazardous agents in the air
can accumulate (sometimes to dangerous levels), and the workplace may become very
hot, difficult to work in and dangerous.

Are fans a good source of ventilation?

No. Fans can only help to remove fumes, dusts, etc., but they should not be used as a
primary source of general ventilation and should never be used as a method of
removing toxic materials.

Does your workplace have some type of ventilation system in place that you assume is
working properly? In many cases, the ventilation system is not effective because of poor
design, lack of servicing, etc. Ventilation systems must be checked and serviced
regularly. The best way to test how well the ventilation system in your workplace is
working is with special equipment and personnel trained to use it. Unfortunately, the
equipment and personnel can be hard to get. However, a simple way to see how well
the ventilation extract system in your workplace is working is to sprinkle some
dust or hold a piece of cloth near the exhaust outlet. If there is little air movement,
then the ventilation system is not working properly and should be repaired.

Points to remember
about engineering controls
1. Engineering controls include enclosure, isolation and ventilation.
2. If a hazardous substance or work process cannot be eliminated or substituted,
then fully enclosing it so workers do not come into contact with it is the next
best method of control.
3. Isolation can be an effective method of control if a hazardous job can be moved
to a part of the workplace where fewer people will be exposed, or if the job can
be performed at a time when fewer people will be exposed. Alternatively,
 the worker can be isolated from a hazardous job. Isolating a work process or a
worker does not eliminate the hazard, therefore elimination is always a better
choice than isolation.
4. General ventilation can be used for keeping the workplace comfortable, and
local exhaust ventilation for removing air pollutants. General ventilation is one
of the least effective methods of controlling hazards. Ventilation systems must
be checked and serviced regularly. Sprinkle some dust or hold a piece of cloth
near the exhaust outlet to see if the air movement in your workplace is
adequate.

D. Administrative controls

Administrative controls limiting the amount of time workers spend at a hazardous

job can be used together with other methods of control to reduce exposure to
hazards. Some examples of administrative controls include:

• changing work schedules (for example, two people may be able to work for four
hours each at a job instead of one person working for eight hours at that job);
• giving workers longer rest periods or shorter work shifts to reduce exposure
time;
• moving a hazardous work process to an area where fewer people will be
exposed;
• changing a work process to a shift when fewer people are working.

An example of administrative controls being used together with engineering controls

and personal protective equipment is: a four-hour limit for work in a fully enclosed,
high noise area where ear protectors are required.

Remember: administrative controls only reduce the amount of time you are exposed to
a hazard - they do not eliminate exposures.

Points to remember
about administrative controls
1. Administrative controls limiting the amount of time working at a hazardous job
can be used together with other methods of control to reduce exposure to
hazards.
2. Administrative controls do not eliminate exposures; they only reduce exposure
time.

E. Personal protective equipment

Personal protective equipment (PPE) is the least effective method of controlling

occupational hazards and should be used only when other methods cannot control
hazards sufficiently. PPE can be uncomfortable, can decrease work performance and can
create new health and safety hazards. For example, ear protectors can prevent you from
hearing warning signals, respirators can make it harder to breathe, earplugs may cause
infection, and leaky gloves can trap hazardous chemicals against the skin.

Examples of PPE include:

• safety glasses
• ear protectors
• respirators with filters
• dust masks
• gloves
• protective suits
• safety shoes

PPE should be acceptable only when your employer cannot control hazards with
engineering controls. However, if it is impossible to reduce hazards so that there
is no health risk to workers, then PPE must be used.

PPE puts a barrier between the worker and the hazard. PPE may keep the hazard out,
but it also keeps heat and water vapour in the protective clothing, which can cause you
to be hot and uncomfortable. When wearing PPE, drink plenty of water and take
frequent breaks. In hot or humid working conditions, you can only wear PPE for a short
time (even as little as ten minutes in very hot conditions) before you need to take a
break. Heat and humidity can also decrease the effectiveness of some protective
equipment; for example, a respirator mask may not have a tight seal if your face is wet
with perspiration or water.
How do you know what type of PPE to use?

The type of PPE you need to use depends on the hazard, how exposure can affect your
body, and how long you will be exposed. For example, if the hazard is a dust, then you
need to wear a respirator with a filter that is appropriate for that type of dust, or wear a
respirator connected to a source of breathing air. Unfortunately, workers are often
given the wrong PPE, such as a dust respirator when the hazard is a fume or vapour.

Protective clothing should fit you well in order to give you the best protection. PPE is
usually designed for the “average” North American or European worker, which can be a
problem if you are above or below their average height or weight. However, it is
possible to purchase large and small sizes of protective clothing for both men and
women. If you wear a respirator, a beard, a large moustache or eyeglasses make it
impossible to get a good seal - if your mask does not have a good seal you can breathe in
hazards. All PPE should be checked for holes or air leakage. Look for signs of leaks, such
as dust near the nose, or dust in the nose hairs.
Depending on
their
chemical
composition,
pesticides can
cause serious
poisoning,
including
nerve
damage and
skin and eye
damage.
Early
symptoms
may include
headache,
nausea,
dizziness and
loss of
strength. Use
caution when
handling
chemical
substances.
USE THE
APPROPRIAT
E SAFETY
EQUIPMENT.

Sometimes workers use barrier creams to prevent hazards from getting through the
skin on their hands and arms. Barrier creams are not very effective and can even cause
more exposure to hazards by trapping dusts next to the skin or causing chemicals to get
through skin. Barrier creams can help you remove dirt when you wash your skin, but
they are not a substitute for hazard-specific gloves.

Do you need training to use PPE?

Yes! You should be trained in the proper use, care, maintenance and limitations
of any type of PPE that you need to use to do your job safely. You should also receive
additional training at least once a year. If you use PPE you should be in a medical
surveillance programme at work.
You should be
properly
trained in the
use, care,
maintenance
and
limitations of
PPE.

Points to remember
about personal protective equipment
1. PPE is the least effective method for controlling hazards in the workplace and
should be used only when hazards cannot be controlled sufficiently by other
methods.
2. PPE can be uncomfortable, decrease work performance, and can create new
health and safety hazards. Workers in PPE should take regular breaks.
3. Hot or humid working conditions decrease the effectiveness of PPE. Under
these conditions, workers should take frequent breaks and drink plenty of
fluids.
4. The type of PPE required depends on the hazard, the way exposure affects the
body and the exposure time.
5. If PPE does not fit you well it may not protect you; this is particularly important
with respirators. All PPE should be checked for leaks.
6. All workers using PPE should be trained in the proper use, maintenance and
limitations of PPE.

Advantages and disadvantages of control methods

METHOD ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
ELIMINATION
1. Complete Health hazard is removed Possible sacrifice of production and loss of jobs
Health hazard is removed
2. Substitution New hazards may be introduced
and production continues
ISOLATION*
 Maximum reduction of Not 100 per cent under control; accidents and leaks
1. Enclosure
exposure possible
Very problematic; largely inadequate on its own;
2. Ventilation Some reduction of exposure exposures easily occur if not used with enclosure; only
helps to control airborne hazards
3. Sanitation
Minimal reduction of
and Depends on work habits; offers little control on its own
exposure
handling
4. Personal Minimal reduction of Depends on work habits; burden of control rests largely
protection exposure on the individual worker; contamination or failure of gear
MONITOR Early warning of hazards None
ORGANIZE;
EDUCATE;
Prevention of hazards None
AND LABEL
HAZARDS
*Isolation methods are ranked from most effective (#1) to least effective (#4).
They should be used in combination, with emphasis on enclosure.
Note: Always remember that the financial costs of implementing good controls cannot be measured against people's health. In the long run,
it is much more economical to control the problem at its source.

F. Other methods of control

1. General cleanliness

Keeping a clean and organized workplace is an important method of controlling

hazards. Good housekeeping (keeping a clean workplace) reduces the risk of fire and is
cost-effective, since machines and tools that are cleaned regularly need less servicing. At
the same time, maintaining a pleasant working environment can produce higher
productivity. Good work practices include:

• proper cleaning at regular intervals (using industrial vacuum cleaner)

• proper waste disposal
• proper and immediate clean-up of any spills
• correct storage and labelling of materials.
Good
housekeeping,
as a method
of controlling
hazards,
should be
planned when
work
processes are
in the design
stage, not
after the
factory is
already
operating.

Planning ahead for good housekeeping can be as easy as installing shelves and window
ledges that do not collect dust, or having the appropriate floors slightly sloping with
gullies so that they can be easily washed. Use section V, General cleanliness in
the Check-list on control methods at the back of this Module to help you assess the
cleanliness and organization of your workplace.

Look around — does your workplace look clean and organized?

Are safety signs a method of control?

No! Employers often think they are demonstrating their commitment to safety by
posting signs around the workplace such as: “Be safe, use machine guards”, “Safety is
sense”, “Always use your protective equipment”. However, safety signs do not protect
you and do not remove hazards. A safety sign can be, at best, a reminder or a warning
about probable dangers. If they are used as safety reminders, signs should be changed
regularly (otherwise you get used to them and do not notice them any more) and placed
where you can easily see them.

Remember:

WARNING!
A SAFETY SIGN DOES NOT PROTECT YOU

2. Personal hygiene

Finally, personal hygiene (cleanliness) is also very important as a method of controlling

hazards. Your employer should provide facilities so you can wash and/or take a shower
every day at the end of your shift, no matter what your job is. Wash your skin and hair
with a mild soap, rinse and dry your skin completely to protect it. Washing hands
regularly, and eating and smoking away from your work area help to prevent ingesting
contaminants.

Do not take
workplace
hazards home
with you!
Lack of personal cleanliness can affect your family's health.

Your family can be exposed to the hazards you work with if you bring chemicals and
other workplace contaminants home with you on your clothes, hair or skin. Before you
leave work, wash/shower and change your clothes when necessary to prevent bringing
workplace contaminants home. Leave your dirty clothes at work or, if you must
wash them at home, wash them separately — not with the family wash.

Personal
hygiene is
very
important in
terms of
reducing
health
hazards.
Dirty clothes
can spread
hazardous
substances to
your family.

It may seem that the amount of contaminant you can bring home on your clothes or skin
is very small and cannot hurt your family. In reality a small exposure every day for
months can add up to a big exposure. A classic example of this “spreading the hazard”
involves asbestos, where wives of asbestos workers have developed asbestosis from
exposure to the asbestos on their husbands' work clothes. Similarly, children have
developed lead poisoning from exposure to lead which comes home on their parents'
work clothes.

If you wear protective clothing at work, such as aprons, laboratory coats, overalls, etc.,
these should be cleaned regularly and you should inspect them for holes or areas that
are worn out. Workers who launder these clothes should be trained in the types of
hazards they may work with and how they can be controlled. Inspect your underclothes
at home for any signs of contamination with oils, solvents, etc. If you find any signs, then
it means your protective clothing at work is not effective. Use section VI, Personal
hygiene in the Check-list on control methods at the back of this Module for some
reminders on personal hygiene at work.

Every workplace should have some kind of first-aid facility

Every workplace should have at least minimal first-aid facilities as well as adequate
personnel trained to provide first aid. First-aid facilities and trained personnel are
important components of a healthy and safe workplace.
A basic first-aid
facility

Does your workplace have at least basic first-aid facilities? See Appendix IV at the back
of this Module for some basic information on what a minimum first-aid station should
include. Use section VII, First-Aid and fire-fighting equipment in the Check-list on
control methods at the back of this Module to help you assess first-aid and fire-fighting
facilities in your workplace.

Points to remember
about general cleanliness and personal
hygiene
1. General cleanliness in the workplace is an important method of controlling
hazards.
2. Good housekeeping reduces the risk of fire and is cost-effective.
3. Good housekeeping measures should be planned when work processes are in
the design stage.
4. Safety signs are not a method of hazard control.
5. Personal cleanliness is an important method of controlling hazards.
6. Your employer should provide facilities so you can wash and/or take a shower
every day.
 7. Before you leave work, wash/shower and change your clothes when necessary
to prevent bringing workplace contaminants home to your family.
8. Leave your dirty clothes at work. If you must wash them at home, wash them
separately — never wash your work clothes with your family's wash.
9. Your protective clothing should be cleaned regularly. Inspect your protective
clothing for holes and worn areas that could leave you open to exposures.
10. Inspect your undergarments for signs of contamination.
11. Your workplace should have at least minimal first-aid facilities.

III. Choosing methods of control

If you cannot completely eliminate a hazard, then use a combination of control
methods to protect workers from being exposed to occupational hazards. No one
method of control can protect you completely from hazards. When you are choosing
methods of control, it is important to consider how workers are likely to be exposed to
the hazard: whether the hazardous agent can be inhaled, absorbed through the skin,
ingested, or whether it can cause immediate injury. This information will help you to
decide what protections are necessary.

Finally, the atmosphere in the workplace must be monitored (checked) regularly for
levels of hazardous materials. Knowing what the levels of contaminants are in the air,
for example, will help you decide on the best methods of control for those contaminants
at those levels. Health and safety representatives must always check on the operating
systems in the workplace — do not assume that a new exhaust ventilation system will
work forever: filters get blocked, fans lose their efficiency, etc. Always look for signs of
hazards, such as the smell of fumes, lack of ventilation, etc. All safety equipment should
be serviced frequently and have its level of efficiency checked. Use section
VIII, Methods of control in the Check-list on control methods at the back of this
Module to help you assess control measures in your workplace.

Points to remember
about choosing a method of control
1. If you cannot completely eliminate a hazard, then use a combination of control
methods to protect yourself and your co-workers from being exposed to
occupational hazards.
2. For control measures to be of any value, the atmosphere in the workplace must
be monitored (checked) regularly for levels of hazardous materials.
3. Health and safety represtatives must always check on operating systems and
look for signs of hazards in the workplace, such as the smell of fumes, lack of
ventilation, etc.
IV. Role of the health and safety representative
Your role is to work proactively (to take action before hazards become a problem) to
prevent workers from occupational exposure by making sure hazards are controlled
and kept under control. The control methods discussed in this Module are the most
important means of protecting your health and your co-workers' health at work.:

Safety representative

1. Work with the union and the employer to eliminate hazards wherever
possible. If new work processes are being discussed, or equipment purchases
are being planned, try to get agreement from the employer to place safety as a
priority in the planning process. For example, only machines that meet national
or internationally recognized safety standards should be purchased. Similarly, if
a chemical has been banned or severely restricted by any government, it should
not be used. When hazards cannot be eliminated, then a combination of control
methods is the best way to prevent exposure.
2. If you are looking for “safer” substitute chemicals, try to find out whether the
proposed substitute chemicals really are safer. Try to get information on
substitute chemicals from: your employer, the chemical manufacturer, your
union, local factory or labour inspectorate, local colleges or universities, the local
fire department, your local library, ITSs (International Trade Secretariats) or the
ILO (International Labour Office).
3. It is best to enclose all toxic materials or work processes using toxic materials.
However, since this is often not possible, try to get the employer to enclose at
least all highly toxic materials.
4. When using administrative controls, it is important that employers use other
protective measures at the same time to prevent exposing workers to hazards.
Administrative controls only reduce the amount of time you are exposed — they
do not eliminate exposures.
5. PPE is the least effective method of hazard control and should be used only when
hazards cannot be controlled sufficiently by other methods. Before requiring the
use of PPE, the employer should demonstrate to the union that he or she has
tried to control hazards with engineering controls, but was not able to reduce
exposures to “safe” levels. Try to get agreement from the employer to implement
effective engineering controls and eliminate the need for PPE by a specified date.
PPE should always be used together with other control measures.
 6. Remember that the effectiveness of some PPE decreases in hot, humid working
conditions.
7. When purchasing PPE, try to get items that have been designed in accordance
with recognized standards set by relevant institutions. Also, try to get the
employer to purchase protective clothing in sizes to fit the workers who will
wear the PPE.
8. Workers who must use PPE should be trained before using the equipment and
should receive refresher training at least once a year. Workers using PPE should
participate in a company-sponsored medical surveillance programme (if the
employer will not provide this then the union may want to sponsor such a
programme).
9. Washing/toilet facilities should be a priority among union demands for a
healthier and safer working environment. It is possible to provide adequate
washing/toilet facilities for a minimum cost. Workers should be encouraged to
wash/shower regularly, not only when they think they may be contaminated.
10. Try to get your employer to provide laundry facilities so that workers do not
have to launder their work clothes at home. Workers should be educated about
the importance of washing work clothes separately — not with the family's
clothes. This is particularly important if workers receive laundry money from the
employer.
11. First-aid facilities and adequate personnel trained in first aid should be a priority
among union demands for a healthier and safer working environment.
12. Workers should be provided with eating and break areas away from their work
areas to prevent ingesting hazards and for a more pleasant work environment.
13. Work with the union and employer to make sure the atmosphere in the
workplace is monitored regularly for levels of hazardous materials. If the
employer or union does not have personnel trained in monitoring, then the local
factory inspectorate may be able to help you.

V. Summary
Controlling occupational hazards is the best way to protect workers from
exposures. Occupational hazards can be controlled using a number of
strategies. All of the control methods described in this Module are based on
the same idea: workers should not be exposed to workplace hazards.

Some control methods are better than others, but no single method of
control can completely protect workers from hazards. If a hazard cannot be
completely eliminated, then a combination of methods should be used to
reduce hazards to “safe” levels (levels that will not place workers' health at
risk). Some methods of control cost less than others but may not reduce
hazards effectively.

The responsibility for preventing exposure is often placed on workers,

requiring them to wear protective clothing, which is usually very
uncomfortable in the hot and humid conditions that exist in many
workplaces. Personal protective equipment, such as respirators, protective
suits and ear muffs, should be thought of as providing a back-up for other
techniques that are designed to control hazards at the source.

There are a number of actions mentioned in this Module that you and your
union can take toward controlling hazards in your workplace.