5.

1 Exponential Functions
The functions discussed earlier are examples of algebraic functions. The
functions that we will discuss now are not algebraic, but are transcendental
functions that “transcend” or go beyond the basic operations of addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, and taking roots. Many applications of
mathematics, particularly to growth and decay of populations, involve the
closely interrelated exponential and logarithmic functions discussed here.

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥
Theorem on Exponentials
For any real numbers 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1, and any real number 𝑥, the following
statements are true:
▪ 𝑎 𝑥 is a unique real number
▪ 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎𝑐 if and only if 𝑏 = 𝑐
▪ If 𝑎 > 1 and 𝑚 < 𝑛, then 𝑎𝑚 < 𝑎𝑛
▪ If 0 < 𝑎 < 1 and 𝑚 < 𝑛, then 𝑎𝑚 > 𝑎𝑛

A one-to-one exponential function 𝑓 can now be defined with a domain that is

the set of all real numbers (and not just the rationals).

Problem 1
1 𝑥
Solve ( ) = 81
3

1 𝑥
( ) = 81
3
(3−1 )𝑥 = 81

→ 3−𝑥 = 34 [𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎𝑐 if and only if 𝑏 = 𝑐]

→ −𝑥 = 4

𝑥 = −4

1
 1 −𝑥 1 𝑥+1
( ) =( )
2 4

1 −𝑥 1 𝑥+1
( ) = ( 2)
2 2

1 −𝑥 1 2(𝑥+1)
( ) =( )
2 2

Definition of Exponential Function

The function 𝑓 defined by
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 , 𝑎 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 ≠ 1, is the exponential function with base 𝑎.
If 𝑎 = 1, the function is the constant function given by 𝑓(𝑥) = 1.

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 + 2
(𝑥, 𝑦)

Domain: value of x
Range: value of y

Graph of 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒂𝒙
▪ The point (0, 1) is on the graph
▪ If 𝑎 > 1, 𝑓(𝑥) is an increasing function; if 0 < 𝑎 < 1, 𝑓(𝑥) is a
decreasing function
▪ The 𝑥-axis is a horizontal asymptote
▪ The domain is (−∝, ∝) and the range is (0, ∝)

The formula for compound interest (interest paid on both principal and interest)
is an important application of exponential functions.

2
Compound interest:
If 𝑃 dollars is deposited in an account paying an annual rate of interest 𝑟
compound (paid) 𝑛 times per year, the account will contain
𝑟 𝑛𝑡
𝐴 = 𝑃 (1 + ) dollars after 𝑡 years.
𝑛

Example 7:
Suppose $1000 is deposited in an account paying 8% per year compounded
quarterly (four times a year). Find the total amount in the account after 10 years
if no withdrawals are made. Find the amount of interest earned.

Solution:
𝑟 𝑛𝑡
The compound interest formula is 𝐴 = 𝑃 (1 + )
𝑛

Here, 𝑃 = 1000, 𝑟 = .08, 𝑛 = 4, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡 = 10,

.08 4×10
Therefore, 𝐴 = 1000 (1 + ) = 1000(1 + 0.02)40 =
4

2208.04 𝑜𝑟 $2208.04.
The amount of interest earned is $2208.04 − $1000 = $1208.04

33. Suppose the population of a city is exponentially related as 𝑃(𝑡), where

𝑃(𝑡) = 10,000𝑒 .1𝑡 , with 𝑡 representing time in days after some initial day. Find
the following to the nearest thousand. (i) P(0), (ii) P(2), (iii) P(8), (iv) P(10).

34. Suppose the population of a city is approximated by 𝑃(𝑡) = 10,000𝑒 .4𝑡 ,

with 𝑡 representing time measured in years. Find the population of the city at
the following times: (i) 𝑡 = 0, (ii) 𝑡 = 5, (iii) 𝑡 = 10, (iv) P(50).

3
31. Suppose $5000 is invested for 4 years at 8% compound interest. Find the final amount on deposit
if the interest is compounded as: (i) annually, (ii) quarterly, and (iii) daily (365 days).

Here, 𝑃 = 5000, 𝑟 = .08, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡 = 4,

(i) n=1
(ii) n=4
(iii) n=365
(iv) monthly, n=12
(v) biannually/semi-annually, n=2

𝑟 𝑛𝑡
𝐴 = 𝑃 (1 + )
𝑛

Example 8:
Suppose the population of a Midwestern city is approximated by 𝑃(𝑡) =
10000𝑒 .𝟎𝟒𝑡 , where 𝑡, represents time measured in years.
Find the population of the city at the following times. (𝑎)𝑡 = 0, (𝑏)𝑡 = 5.
𝑃(𝑡) = 10000𝑒 .𝟎𝟒𝑡 ,
Solution:
(𝑎) The population at time 𝑡 = 0 is 𝑃(0) = 10,000𝑒 (0.04)(0) = 10,000𝑒 0 =
10,000
(𝑏) The population of the city at year 𝑡 = 5 is 𝑃(5) = 10,000𝑒 (0.04)(5) =
10,000𝑒 .2 = 10,000(1.2214) = 12,214
In five years the population of the city will be about 12,200

4
5.2 Logarithmic Functions
Exponential functions defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 for all positive values of 𝑎, where
𝑎 ≠ 1, were discussed earlier. Exponential functions are one-to-one, and so
have inverse functions. The inverse of the function 𝑎 𝑥 is the function logarithm
to the base 𝑎, written 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 is an abbreviation for logarithm. Read 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 as
“the logarithm of 𝑥 to the base 𝑎.” For 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1, and 𝑥 > 0, 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 is the
power to which 𝑎 must be raised to get 𝑥.

Definition of logarithmic function

If 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1, and 𝑥 > 0, then the function defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒂 𝑥 is the
logarithmic function with base 𝑎.

Theorem
If 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑎 ≠ 1, then 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑥
Also if 𝑥 > 0, then 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑥.

Properties of logarithms
If 𝑥 and 𝑦 are any positive real numbers, 𝑟 is any real number, and 𝑎 is any
positive real number, 𝑎 ≠ 1, then the following properties are true.
1. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑦
𝑥
2. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑦
𝑦

3. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 𝑟 = 𝑟 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥
4. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑎 = 1
5. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 1 = 0

5
Problem 1:
The chart below shows several pairs of equivalent statements. The same
statement is written in both exponential and logarithmic forms.
Exponential form Logarithmic form
23 = 8 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 8 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 23 = 3𝑙𝑜𝑔2 2 = 3
1 −4 1
( ) = 24 = 16 𝑙𝑜𝑔1 16 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔1 ( )−4 = −4
2 2 2 2

105 = 100,000 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 100,000 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 105 = 5𝑙𝑜𝑔10 10 = 5

1 1 1
3−4 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 ( ) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 ( 4 ) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 3−4 = −4𝑙𝑜𝑔3 3 = −4
81 81 3
51 = 5 𝑙𝑜𝑔5 5 = 1

Problem 6
Simplify each of the following.

(i) 𝑙𝑜𝑔5 53 = 3𝑙𝑜𝑔5 5 = 3

(ii) 10log 7 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔107 = 7
2 2
(iii) 𝑙𝑛𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑒 = 𝑥 2

The graph of a logarithmic function of the form 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒚 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒂 𝒙

▪ The point (0, 1) is on the graph
▪ If 𝑎 > 1, 𝑓(𝑥) is an increasing function; if 0 < 𝑎 < 1, 𝑓(𝑥) is a
decreasing function
▪ The 𝑦-axis is a vertical asymptote
▪ The domain is (0, ∝) and the range is (−∝, ∝)

6
 𝒏 𝒙𝟑 𝒚 𝟓
(e) 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 √
𝒛𝒎

𝟏
𝒙𝟑 𝒚 𝟓 𝒏
= 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 ( )
𝒛𝒎

𝟏
= [𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 (𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟓 ) − 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒛𝒎 ]
𝒏

𝟏
= [𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒙𝟑 +𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒚𝟓 − 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒛𝒎 ]
𝒏

𝟏
= [𝟑𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒙 + 𝟓𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒚 − 𝒎𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒛]
𝒏

𝟑 𝟓 𝒎
= 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒙 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒚 − 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒛
𝒏 𝒏 𝒏

7
 𝟏 𝟑 𝟑
𝒎𝟐 𝟐𝟐 𝒏𝟐
= 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃
𝒎𝟐 𝒏

𝟑 𝟑
𝟐𝟐 𝒏𝟐 𝒏−𝟏
= 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝟏
−
𝒎𝟐 𝒎 𝟐

𝟑 𝟏
𝟐𝟐 𝒏𝟐
= 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝟑
𝒎𝟐

8
Common and Natural Logarithms
The bases 10 and 𝑒 are so important for logarithms, base 10 logarithms are
called common logarithms and 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑥 is often abbreviated as log 𝑥. Base 𝑒
logarithms are called natural logarithms and 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑥 is often abbreviated as ln 𝑥.

5.3 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations

Properties of logarithms
If 𝑥 > 0, 𝑦 > 0, 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 ≠ 1, then 𝒙 = 𝒚 if and only if 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝒙 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝒚

Problem 1
Solve the equation 𝟕𝒙 = 𝟏𝟐

Taking base 𝑒 (natural) logarithms of both sides

𝑙𝑛 7𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛 12
𝒙 ln 7 = 𝑙𝑛 12
ln 12 2.4849
𝑥= ≈ ≈ 1.2770
ln 7 1.9459

Problem 2

Solve 𝟑𝟐𝒙−𝟏 = 𝟒𝒙+𝟐

Taking natural logarithms on both sides gives:

𝒍𝒏 𝟑𝟐𝒙−𝟏 = 𝒍𝒏 𝟒𝒙+𝟐
(𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏) 𝒍𝒏 𝟑 = (𝒙 + 𝟐)𝒍𝒏 𝟒
𝟐𝒙 𝒍𝒏 𝟑 − 𝒍𝒏 𝟑 = 𝒙 𝒍𝒏𝟒 + 𝟐𝒍𝒏 𝟒
𝟐𝒙 𝒍𝒏 𝟑 − 𝒙 𝒍𝒏 𝟒 = 𝟐 𝒍𝒏𝟒 + 𝒍𝒏 𝟑
𝒙(𝟐 𝒍𝒏 𝟑 − 𝒍𝒏 𝟒) = 𝟐 𝒍𝒏𝟒 + 𝒍𝒏 𝟑

9
 𝟐 𝒍𝒏𝟒 + 𝒍𝒏 𝟑
𝒙=
𝟐 𝒍𝒏 𝟑 − 𝒍𝒏 𝟒
𝒍𝒏 𝟒𝟐 + 𝒍𝒏 𝟑
=
𝒍𝒏 𝟑𝟐 − 𝒍𝒏𝟒
𝒍𝒏 𝟏𝟔 + 𝒍𝒏 𝟑
=
𝒍𝒏 𝟗 − 𝒍𝒏𝟒
𝒍𝒏 (𝟏𝟔 × 𝟑)
=
𝟗
𝒍𝒏
𝟒
𝒍𝒏 𝟒𝟖 𝟑. 𝟖𝟕𝟏𝟐
= ≈ ≈ 𝟒. 𝟕𝟕𝟒
𝒍𝒏 𝟐. 𝟐𝟓 𝟎. 𝟖𝟏𝟎𝟗

Problem 3
2
Solve 𝑒 𝑥 = 200
Taking natural logarithm on both sides
2
𝑙𝑛𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛200
𝑥 2 𝑙𝑛𝑒 = 𝑙𝑛200 [𝑙𝑛𝑒 = 1]
𝑥 2 = 𝑙𝑛200
𝑥 = ±√ln 200 ≈ +2.302
to the nearest thousandth

Problem 4
Solve 3 = 5(1 − 𝑒 𝑥 )

3 = 5(1 − 𝑒 𝑥 )
3
= 1 − 𝑒𝑥
5
3 5−3 2
𝑒𝑥 = 1 − = =
5 5 5

10
 2
𝑒𝑥 =
5
Taking natural logarithm on both sides
2
𝑙𝑛𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛
5
2
𝑥𝑙𝑛𝑒 = 𝑙𝑛
5
𝑥 = ln(0.4) ≈ −0.916

Problem 5
Solve 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 (𝑥 + 6) − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 (𝑥 + 2) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 (𝑥 + 6) − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 (𝑥 + 2) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥
𝒙+𝟔
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥
𝒙+𝟐

𝑥+6
=𝑥
𝑥+2
→ 𝑥 + 6 = 𝑥(𝑥 + 2)
→ 𝑥 + 6 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥
→ 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 𝑥 − 6 = 0
→ 𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 6 = 0
→ 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 6 = 0
→ (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 2) = 0
(𝑥 + 3) = 0 𝑜𝑟 (𝑥 − 2) = 0
𝑥 = −3 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 2

3.61

11
Solve 𝑙𝑜𝑔4 (𝑥 + 3) + 𝑙𝑜𝑔4 (𝑥 − 3) = 1

𝑙𝑜𝑔4 (𝑥 + 3) + 𝑙𝑜𝑔4 (𝑥 − 3) = 1

𝑙𝑜𝑔4 (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 3) = 1 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔4 41

(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 3) = 4
𝑥2 − 9 = 4
𝑥 2 = 13
𝑥 = √13 = 3.61

Problem 7
1
Solve 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 (3𝑚2 )4 − 1 = 2
1
𝑙𝑜𝑔3 (3𝑚2 )4 − 1 = 2
1
𝑙𝑜𝑔3 (3𝑚2 )4 = 3
1
𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟑 (3𝑚2 )4 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟑 33
1
(3𝑚2 )4 = 33
1 1
34 (𝑚2 )4 = 33

1 33 1 1 11
𝑚2 = 1 = 33 3−4 = 33−4 = 3 4
34

1 11
𝑚2 = 34

1 2 11 2
(𝑚 ) = (3 ) [squaring both sides]
2 4

11
𝑚 = 3 2 ≈ 420.88

12
Problem 8
Suppose 𝑝(𝑡) = 10,000𝑒 0.4𝑡 gives the population of a city at time 𝑡 (in years).
In how many years will the population doubled?

Solution:
If the population is doubled, it will be 20,000.
Then we can write 20,000 = 10,000𝑒 .4𝑡
2 = 𝑒 .4𝑡
Taking natural log on both sides,
ln 2 = 𝑙𝑛𝑒 .4𝑡
ln 2 = .4𝑡
ln 2
𝑡= = 1.733
.4
3
The population of the city will be doubled in about 1 years.
4

13