Human bones

Introduction:
Study of bones is known as osteology. Study of human bones for forensic investigation is
known as forensic anthropology. Establishment of identity through skeletal remains is the
foremost role of the forensic anthropologists. Forensic anthropology, deals with human
skeletal remains to determine identity by utilizing characteristics of bone structures so as to
present it in criminal proceedings or in a court of law. Thus, it is the application of science of
physical anthropology to the legal process.
Functions of the bone:
The shape of the skeleton is a reflection of the functions that it performs. Like the steel
girders in a skyscraper, it provides a framework and support for the body.
Vital organs (such as the brain) are protected by being enclosed in bone.
Movement is accomplished by combination with the muscular and nervous system. The
muscles attach to the bones and form a system of levers. As the muscles grow, they influence
the shape of the skeleton. Most of the projections, nodules, and ridges that you will see were
created by the muscles sculpturing areas for attachment.
The skeleton is also responsible for the manufacture of blood cells and for the storage of
various minerals so that the body can obtain them even if the diet is temporarily deficient.
Bony tissue is about 50% water and 50% solid matter.
Most of the solid material is cartilage which has been hardened by the impregnation of
inorganic salts, especially carbonates and lime phosphate. As one ages, the proportion of lime
increases so that the bones become more brittle and break more easily. In a living individual,
the appearance of bones is very different from skeletonized remains. They are covered with a
white fibrous membrane called the periosteum. Cartilage forms the cover around the joints.
Muscle fibres interlace with the periosteal fibres to anchor both together. In a growing
individual, the inner layer of the periosteum contains the bone forming cells call osteoblasts.
Immediately beneath the periosteum is a dense layer of compact bone. Under it lies the
cancellous bone. It is much less dense and has the appearance of a spidery framework to give
it maximum strength with minimum weight. The extreme inside of the bone is the medullary
cavity. It is surrounded by the endosteum, which is a condensed layer of marrow.
Microstructure of Bone
Under magnification the most notable features are concentric rings, holes, and spidery black
regions. The latter dark areas called lacunae are the homes of the bone cells (osteocytes). The
osteocytes are interconnected with blood vessels and nerves. These blood vessels and nerves
run through the Haversian canals, which appear as holes in cross section. The concentric
rings are called lamellae. These represent the places of mineral deposit.
Human skeletal map:

Classification of bones:

There are five types of bones in the human body, they are long, short, flat, irregular and
sesamoid bones.

Long bones are longer than they are wide. Long bones are characterized by a shaft, the
diaphysis, that is much greater in length than width. They are comprised mostly of compact
bone and lesser amounts of marrow, which is located within the medullary cavity, and spongy
bone. Most bones of the limbs, including those of the fingers and toes, are long bones. The
exceptions are those of the wrist, ankle and kneecap. Long bones function to support the
weight of the body and facilitate movement. Long bones are mostly located in the
appendicular skeleton and include bones in the upper limbs (the humerus, radius, ulna,
metacarpals, and phalanges and bones in the lower limbs (the tibia, fibula, femur, metatarsals,
and phalanges).

Short bones are roughly cube-shaped and have only a thin layer of compact bone
surrounding a spongy interior. The bones of the wrist and ankle are short bones, as are the
sesamoid bones. Short bones are about as long as they are wide. Located in the wrist and
ankle joints, short bones provide stability and some movement. The carpals in the wrist
(scaphoid, lunate, triquetral, hamate, pisiform, capitate, trapezoid, and trapezium) and the
tarsals in the ankles (calcaneus, talus, navicular, cuboid, lateral cuneiform, intermediate
cuneiform, and medial cuneiform) are examples of short bones.
Flat bones are thin and generally curved, with two parallel layers of compact bones
sandwiching a layer of spongy bone. Most of the bones of the skull are flat bones, as is the
sternum. There are flat bones in the skull (occipital, parietal, frontal, nasal, lacrimal, and
vomer), the thoracic cage (sternum and ribs), and the pelvis (ilium, ischium, and pubis). The
function of flat bones is to protect internal organs such as the brain, heart, and pelvic organs.
Flat bones are somewhat flattened, and can provide protection, like a shield; flat bones can
also provide large areas of attachment for muscles.

Irregular bones do not fit into the above categories. They consist of thin layers of compact
bone surrounding a spongy interior. As implied by the name, their shapes are irregular and
complicated. The bones of the spine and hips are irregular bones. Irregular bones vary in
shape and structure and therefore do not fit into any other category (flat, short, long, or
sesamoid). They often have a fairly complex shape, which helps protect internal organs. For
example, the vertebrae, irregular bones of the vertebral column, protect the spinal cord. The
irregular bones of the pelvis (pubis, ilium, and ischium) protect organs in the pelvic cavity.

Sesamoid bones are bones embedded in tendons. Since they act to hold the tendon further
away from the joint, the angle of the tendon is increased and thus the leverage of the muscle
is increased. Examples of sesamoid bones are the patella and the pisiform. These small, round
bones are commonly found in the tendons of the hands, knees, and feet. Sesamoid bones
function to protect tendons from stress and wear. The patella, commonly referred to as the
kneecap, is an example of a sesamoid bone.

Long bones: (Humerus, radius, ulna, metacarpals, and phalanges, tibia, fibula, femur,
metatarsals, and phalanges, Clavicle)
Humerus:
The humerus is a long bone of the upper limb, which extends from the shoulder to the
elbow.
The proximal aspect of the humerus articulates with the glenoid fossa of the scapula, forming
the glenohumeral joint. Distally, at the elbow joint, the humerus articulates with the head of
the radius and trochlear notch of the ulna.

The proximal humerus is marked by a head, anatomical neck, surgical neck, greater and
lesser tuberosity and intertubercular sulcus.

The upper end of the humerus consists of the head. This faces medially, upwards and
backwards and is separated from the greater and lesser tuberosities by the anatomical neck.

The greater tuberosity is located laterally on the humerus and has anterior and posterior
surfaces. It serves as an attachment site for three of the Rotator cuff muscles- supraspinatus,
infraspinatus and teres minor – they attach to superior, middle and inferior facets
(respectively) on the greater tuberosity.

The lesser tuberosity is much smaller, and more medially located on the bone. It only has an
anterior surface. It provides attachment for the last rotator cuff muscle – the subscapularis.
Separating the two tuberosities is a deep groove, known as the intertubercular sulcus. The
tendon of the long head of the biceps brachii emerges from the shoulder joint and runs
through this groove.

edges of the intertubercular sulcus are known as lips. Pectoralis major, teres major
and latissimus dorsi insert on the lips of the intertubercular sulcus. This can be remembered
with the mnemonic “a lady between two majors”, with latissimus dorsi attaching between
teres major on the medial lip and pectoralis major laterally.

The surgical neck extends from just distal to the tuberosities to the shaft of the humerus. The
axillary nerve and circumflex humeral vessels lie against the bone here.

The shaft of the humerus is the site of attachment for various muscles. Cross section views
reveal it to be circular proximally and flattened distally.

On the lateral side of the humeral shaft is a roughened surface where the deltoid
muscle attaches. This is known is as the deltoid tuberosity.

The radial (or spiral) groove is a shallow depression that runs diagonally down the posterior
surface of the humerus, parallel to the deltoid tuberosity. The radial nerve and profunda
brachii artery lie in this groove. The following muscles attach to the humerus along its shaft:

Anteriorly – coracobrachialis, deltoid, brachialis, brachioradialis. Posteriorly – medial and

lateral heads of the triceps (the spiral groove demarcates their respective origins).

The lateral and medial borders of the distal humerus form medial and
lateral supraepicondylar ridges. The lateral supraepicondylar ridge is more roughened,
providing the site of common origin of the forearm extensor muscles immediately distal to
the supraepicondylar ridges are extracapsular projections of bone, the lateral and medial
epicondyles. Both can be palpated at the elbow. The medial is the larger of the two and
extends more distally. The ulnar nerve passes in a groove on the posterior aspect of the
medial epicondyle where it is palpable.

Distally, the trochlea is located medially, and extends onto the posterior aspect of the bone.
Lateral to the trochlea is the capitulum, which articulates with the radius.

Also located on the distal portion of the humerus are three depressions, known as
the coronoid, radial and olecranon fossae. They accommodate the forearm bones during
flexion or extension at the elbow.

The proximal region of the humerus articulates with the glenoid fossa of the scapula to form
the glenohumeral joint (shoulder joint).
 Distally, at the elbow joint, the capitulum of the humerus articulates with the head of the
radius and the trochlea of the humerus articulates with the trochlear notch of the ulna.

Proximal part Distal part

Radius
The radius is a long bone in the forearm. It lies laterally and parallel to ulna, the second of the
forearm bones. The radius pivots around the ulna to produce movement at the proximal and
distal radio-ulnar joints.

The radius articulates in four places:

 Elbow joint- Partly formed by an articulation between the head of the radius, and the
capitulum of the humerus.

 Proximal radio ulnar joint- An articulation between the radial head, and the radial notch of
the ulna.

 Wrist Joint- An articulation between the distal end of the radius and the carpal bones.

 Distal radioulnar joint – An articulation between the ulnar notch and the head of the ulna.

In this article, we shall look at the bony landmarks and osteological features of the radius.

The proximal end of the radius articulates in both the elbow and proximal radioulnar joints.

Important bony landmarks include the head, neck and radial tuberosity:

 Head of radius –  A disk shaped structure, with a concave articulating surface. It is thicker
medially, where it takes part in the proximal radioulnar joint.
 Neck – A narrow area of bone, which lies between the radial head and radial tuberosity.
 Radial tuberosity – A bony projection, which serves as the place of attachment of the biceps
brachii muscle.
 The radial shaft expands in diameter as it moves distally. Much like the ulna, it
is triangular in shape, with three borders and three surfaces.
 In the middle of the lateral surface, there is a small roughening for the attachment of
the pronator teres muscle.
 In the distal region the radial shaft expands to form a rectangular end. The lateral side
projects distally as the styloid process. In the medial surface there is a concavity called
the ulnar notch, which articulates with the head of ulna, forming the distal radioulnar joint.
 The distal surface of the radius has two facets, for articulation with
the scaphoid and lunate carpal bones. This makes up the wrist joint.


Ulna
The ulna is a long bone in the forearm. It lies medially and parallel to the radius, the second
of the forearm bones. The ulna acts as the stabilising bone, with the radius pivoting to
produce movement. Proximally the ulna articulates with the  humerus at the elbow joint.
Distally, the ulna articulates with the radius, forming the distal radio-ulnar joint.

Important landmarks of the proximal ulna are the olecranon, coronoid process, trochlear
notch, radial notch and the tuberosity of ulna:

 Olecranon  –  a large projection of bone that extends proximally, forming part of trochlear
notch. It can be palpated as the ‘tip’ of the elbow. The triceps brachii muscle attaches to its
superior surface.
 Coronoid process  – this ridge of bone projects outwards anteriorly, forming part of the
trochlear notch.
 Trochlear notch – formed by the olecranon and coronoid process. It is wrench shaped, and
articulates with the trochlea of the humerus.
 Radial notch  – located on the lateral surface of the trochlear notch, this area articulates with
the head of the radius.
 Tuberosity of ulna – a roughening immediately distal to the coronoid process. It is where the
brachialis muscle attaches.

The proximal end of the ulna articulates with the trochlea of the humerus. To enable
movement at the elbow joint, the ulna has a specialised structure, with bony prominences for
muscle attachment.
Important landmarks of the proximal ulna are the olecranon, coronoid process, trochlear
notch, radial notch and the tuberosity of ulna:

 Olecranon  –  a large projection of bone that extends proximally, forming part of trochlear
notch. It can be palpated as the ‘tip’ of the elbow. The triceps brachii muscle attaches to its
superior surface.
 Coronoid process  – this ridge of bone projects outwards anteriorly, forming part of the
trochlear notch.
 Trochlear notch – formed by the olecranon and coronoid process. It is wrench shaped, and
articulates with the trochlea of the humerus.
 Radial notch  – located on the lateral surface of the trochlear notch, this area articulates with
the head of the radius.
 Tuberosity of ulna – a roughening immediately distal to the coronoid process. It is where the
brachialis muscle attaches.

The ulnar shaft is triangular in shape, with 3 borders and 3 surfaces. As it moves distally, it
decreases in width.
The three surfaces:

 Anterior – site of attachment for the pronator quadratus muscle distally.

 Posterior – site of attachment for many muscles.
 Medial – unremarkable.

The three borders:

 Posterior – palpable along the entire length of the forearm posteriorly

 Interosseous – site of attachment for the interosseous membrane, which spans the distance
between the two forearm bones.
 Anterior – unremarkable.

The distal end of the ulna is much smaller in diameter than the proximal end. It is mostly
unremarkable, terminating in a rounded head, with distal projection – the ulnar styloid
process.

The head articulates with the ulnar notch of the radius to form the distal radio-ulnar joint.
 Metacarpals

The metacarpal bones articulate proximally with the carpals and distally with the proximal
phalanges. They are numbered and each associated with the digits. They are

 Metacarpal I – Thumb.
 Metacarpal II – Index finger.
 Metacarpal III – Middle finger.
 Metacarpal IV – Ring finger.
 Metacarpal V – Little finger.

Each metacarpal consists of a base, shaft and a head. The medial and lateral surfaces of the
metacarpals are concave, allowing attachment of the interossei muscles.

Phalanges:

The phalanges are the bones of the fingers. The thumb has a proximal and distal phalanx,
while the rest of the digits have proximal, middle and distal phalanges.

Femur
The femur is the only bone in the thigh and the longest bone in the body.

It acts as the site of origin and attachment of many muscles and ligaments, and can be
divided into three parts; proximal, shaft and distal.

In this article, we shall look at the anatomy of the femur – its attachments, bony landmarks,
and clinical correlations.
 Proximal
The proximal aspect of the femur articulates with the acetabulum of the pelvis to form
the hip joint.

It consists of a head and neck, and two bony processes – the greater and lesser trochanters.
There are also two bony ridges connecting the two trochanters; the intertrochanteric line
anteriorly and the trochanteric crest posteriorly.

 Head – articulates with the acetabulum of the pelvis to form the hip joint. It has a smooth
surface, covered with articular cartilage (except for a small depression – the fovea – where
ligamentum teres attaches).
 Neck  – connects the head of the femur with the shaft. It is cylindrical, projecting in a
superior and medial direction. It is set at an angle of approximately 135 degrees to the shaft.
This angle of projection allows for an increased range of movement at the hip joint.
 Greater trochanter – the most lateral palpable projection of bone that originates from the
anterior aspect, just lateral to the neck.
o It is the site of attachment for many of the muscles in the gluteal region, such as gluteus
medius, gluteus minimus and piriformis. The vastus lateralis originates from this site.
o An avulsion fracture of the greater trochanter can occur as a result of forceful contraction of
the gluteus medius.
 Lesser trochanter – smaller than the greater trochanter. It projects from the posteromedial
side of the femur, just inferior to the neck-shaft junction.
o It is the site of attachment for iliopsoas (forceful contraction of which can cause an avulsion
fracture of the lesser trochanter).
 Intertrochanteric line – a ridge of bone that runs in an inferomedial direction on the anterior
surface of the femur, spanning between the two trochanters. After it passes the lesser
trochanter on the posterior surface, it is known as the pectineal line.
o It is the site of attachment for the iliofemoral ligament (the strongest ligament of the hip
joint).
o It also serves as the anterior attachment of the hip joint capsule.
 Intertrochanteric crest – like the intertrochanteric line, this is a ridge of bone that connects
the two trochanters. It is located on the posterior surface


 of the femur. There is a rounded tubercle on its superior half called the quadrate tubercle;
where quadratus femoris attaches.
 The shaft of the femur descends in a slight medial direction. This brings the knees
closer to the body’s centre of gravity, increasing stability. A cross section of the shaft
in the middle is circular but flattened posteriorly at the proximal and distal aspects.

 On the posterior surface of the femoral shaft, there are roughened ridges of bone,
called the linea aspera (Latin for rough line). This splits distally to form the medial
and lateral supracondylar lines. The flat popliteal surface lies between them.

 Proximally, the medial border of the linea aspera becomes the pectineal line. The
lateral border becomes the gluteal tuberosity, where the gluteus maximus attaches.
  Distally, the linea aspera widens and forms the floor of the popliteal fossa, the medial
and lateral borders form the medial and lateral supracondylar lines. The medial
supracondylar line ends at the adductor tubercle, where the adductor magnus attaches.

The distal end of the femur is characterised by the presence of the medial and lateral
condyles, which articulate with the tibia and patella to form the knee joint.

 Medial and lateral condyles – rounded areas at the end of the femur. The posterior and
inferior surfaces articulate with the tibia and menisci of the knee, while the anterior surface
articulates with the patella. The more prominent lateral condyle helps prevent the natural
lateral movement of the patella; a flatter condyle is more likely to result in patellar
dislocation.
 Medial and lateral epicondyles – bony elevations on the non-articular areas of the condyles.
The medial epicondyle is the larger.
o The medial and lateral collateral ligaments of the knee originate from their respective
epicondyles.

 Intercondylar fossa – a deep notch on the posterior surface of the femur, between the two
condyles. It contains two facets for attachment of intracapsular knee ligaments; the anterior
cruciate ligament (ACL) attaches to the medial aspect of the lateral condyle and the posterior
cruciate ligament (PCL) to the lateral aspect of the medial condyle.
Tibia:
The tibia is the main bone of the lower leg, forming what is more commonly known as the
shin.

It expands at its proximal and distal ends; articulating at the knee and ankle joints

respectively. The tibia is the second largest bone in the body and it is a key weight-
bearing structure.
 In this article, we shall look at anatomy of the tibia – its bony landmarks, articulations The
proximal tibia is widened by medial and lateral condyles, which aid in weight bearing. The
condyles form a flat surface known as the and clinical correlations.

The proximal tibia is widened by medial and lateral condyles, which aid in weight bearing.
The condyles form a flat surface known as the tibial plateau. This structure articulates
with the femoral condyles to form the key articulation of the knee joint.

Located between the condyles is a region called the intercondylar eminence – this projects
upwards on either side as the medial and lateral intercondylar tubercles. This area is the main
site of attachment for the ligaments and the menisci of the knee joint. The intercondylar
tubercles of the tibia articulate with the intercondylar fossa of the femur.

The shaft of the tibia is prism shaped, with 3 borders and 3 surfaces- anterior, posterior
and lateral. For brevity, only the anatomically and clinically important borders/surfaces are
mentioned here.

 Anterior border – palpable subcutaneously down the anterior surface of the leg as the shin.
The proximal aspect of the anterior border is marked by the tibial tuberosity; the attachment
site for the patella ligament.
 Posterior surface – marked by a ridge of bone known as soleal line. This line is the site of
origin for part of the soleus muscle, and extends inferomedially, eventually blending with the
medial border of the tibia. There is usually a nutrient artery proximal to the soleal line.
 Lateral border – also known as the interosseous border. It gives attachment to the
interosseous membrane that binds the tibia and the fibula together.
 The distal end of the tibia widens to assist the weight bearing.
 The medial malleolus is a bony projection continuing inferiorly on the medial aspect
of the tibia. It articulates with the tarsal bones to form part of the ankle joint. On the
posterior surface of the tibia, there is a groove through which the tendon of tibialis
posterior passes.

 Laterally is the fibular notch, where the fibula is bound to the tibia – forming the
distal tibiofibular joint.
 Fibula:
The fibula is a bone located within the lateral aspect of the leg. Its main function is to act as
an attachment for muscles, and not as a weight-bearer.

It has three main articulations:

 Proximal tibiofibular joint – articulates with the lateral condyle of the tibia.
 Distal tibiofibular joint – articulates with the fibular notch of the tibia.
 Ankle joint – articulates with the talus bone of the foot.

At the proximal end, the fibula has an enlarged head, which contains a facet for articulation
with the lateral condyle of the tibia. On the posterior and lateral surface of the fibular neck,
the common fibular nerve can be found.
Shaft
The fibular shaft has three surfaces – anterior, lateral and posterior. The leg is split into three
compartments, and each surface faces its respective compartment e.g anterior surface faces
the anterior compartment of the leg.

Distally, the lateral surface continues inferiorly, and is called the lateral malleolus. The
lateral malleolus is more prominent than the medial malleolus, and can be palpated at the
ankle on the lateral side of the leg.
 Metatarsals:
The metatarsals are located in the forefoot, between the tarsals and phalanges. They are
numbered I-V (medial to lateral).

Each metatarsal has a similar structure. They are convex dorsally and consist of a head, neck,
shaft, and base (distal to proximal).

They have three or four articulations:

 Proximally – tarsometatarsal joints – between the metatarsal bases and the tarsal bones.
 Laterally – intermetatarsal joint(s) – between the metatarsal and the adjacent metatarsals.
 Distally – metatarsophalangeal joint – between the metatarsal head and the proximal phalanx.

Phalanges:

The phalanges are the bones of the toes. The second to fifth toes all have
proximal, middle, and distal phalanges. The great toe has only 2; proximal
and distal phalanges.

They are similar in structure to the metatarsals, each phalanx consists of a

base, shaft, and head.
 Clavicle
The clavicle (collarbone) extends between the manubrium of the sternum and the acromion
of the scapula.

It is classed as a long bone and can be palpated along its length. In thin individuals, it is

visible under the skin. The clavicle has three main functions:

 Attaches the upper limb to the trunk as part of the ‘shoulder girdle’.

 Protects the underlying neurovascular structures supplying the upper limb.

 Transmits force from the upper limb to the axial skeleton.

In this article, we shall look at the anatomy of the clavicle – its bony landmarks and clinical
correlations.

The clavicle is a slender bone with an ‘S’ shape. Facing forwards, the medial aspect is convex
and the lateral aspect concave. It can be divided as a sternal end, a shaft and an acromial end.

Sternal (medial) End

The sternal end contains a large facet – for articulation with the manubrium of the sternum at
the sternoclavicular joint.

The inferior surface of the sternal end is marked by a rough oval depression for
the costoclavicular ligament (a ligament of the SC joint).

Shaft
The shaft of the clavicle acts a point of origin and attachment for several muscles – deltoid,
trapezius, subclavius, pectoralis major, sternocleidomastoid and sternohyoid

Acromial (lateral) End

The acromial end houses a small facet for articulation with the acromion of the scapula at
the acromioclavicular joint. It also serves as an attachment point for two ligaments:

 Conoid tubercle – attachment point of the conoid ligament, the medial part of the
coracoclavicular ligament.

 Trapezoid line – attachment point of the trapezoid ligament, the lateral part of the

coracoclavicular ligament.

The coracoclavicular ligament is a very strong structure, effectively suspending the weight of
the upper limb from the clavicle.
Bones of forensic significance:

Forensic anthropology helps to study human skeletal remains that have or are believed to
have medico legal significance, meaning that they are believed to be part of a missing person
case or recent crime. A forensic anthropologist can estimate the gender, age, height and race
of the dead person by analyzing the bones. These are called primary indicators and although
they can’t determine with precision the identity of the dead person, they do help in narrowing
down the possible profiles. When the remains found are still articulated, it is a sign that the
person died at the location where the bones were found. On the other hand, when the bone
fragments are not articulated anymore, it is a sign that the remains were moved after the death
of the person and decomposition of the body.

Along with primary indicators, identifiers are also used. These can positively identify a
person and include: DNA profile and fingerprints, comparison of ante-mortem and post-
mortem dental and medical findings, tattoos, scars, identification marks, anthropometry —
measurements of the hands, feet, ear, nose etc, known pathologies — anomalies, deformities.

Determining the age-at-death from bone remains:

In sub-adults (infants, kids, teenagers), the growth and development rate is more predictable
than in adults, so the age-at-death estimate for a sub-adult is more precise. In the case of
adults, this estimation is based on degenerative changes of the skeleton, so the estimated age
interval at the time of death is broader.
In sub-adults, the most important aspects analysed for determining the age of the bones are:

The length of the bones, the stage of bone formation and epiphyseal fusion. Even the stage of
tooth formation and the presence of permanent and deciduous (baby) teeth is analysed for
determining the age. This will be discussed further.

When the teeth aren’t available, the age can be estimated by looking at the length and stage of
bone fusion. The bone length for sub-adults is estimated by measuring the length of the
diaphyses (bone shafts). The ends or epiphyses are not taken into consideration, as in infants
and children, the development of the skeleton isn’t finished, therefore the epiphyses aren’t yet
fused to the ends of the bones.
The measured shaft length is compared to data from sub-adults with known age, in order for
the most likely age-at-death to be determined. This technique is less reliable in adults, as the
size and shape of the long bones varies more in older people.
Since the diaphysis and epiphyses aren’t initially fused in children, bone remains that are
unfused indicate a sub-adult. Bones that are partially fused indicate a young adult, and those
that are fully fused indicate an adult.
The age when the fusion finalizes varies per bone, but for example the medial clavicle starts to
fuse between 18 and 25 years, so a partially fused clavicle indicates a young adult under 25
years of age.
A fully fused clavicle indicates an adult of over 25–30 years of age. The tibia plate fuses
around 16–17 years of age in girls, and around 18–19 years of age in boys.
In adults, the bones that provide more useful information regarding the age-at-death are:
 the pubic symphysis
 the sternum
 the skull
The pubic symphyses form the anterior junction of the two halves of the pelvis. These bones
develop gradually, so the age can be estimated reasonably well based on the appearance of the
symphyses. In younger adults, the symphysis has a rugged surface, with horizontal ridges. The
surface becomes more even and bounded by a rim by the age of 35.
The sternal end of the fourth rib can also indicate the age-at-death with reasonable precision.
In children and young adults, the sternal end of the fourth rib is flat, while in adults a pit
begins to form.
This process starts at around 14 years of age in females and 17 years of age in males. The pit
becomes more irregular with age, and the walls get thinner and sharper by the mid 30s. Later,
bony spurs form on the margins of the walls, due to the ossification of the costal cartilage that
joins the sternum and ribs.
The sutures of the skull can also help in estimating the age, but not as precisely. If signs of
arthritis, such as rounding of the bones, are noticed, the degree of rounding coupled with the
size and number of osteons can help in narrowing down the age range of the individual, in
adults.
How the race / ancestry is determined:
While the long bones and teeth can help in estimating the age of the dead person, for
determining the gender and race the skull bones, especially the face bones, are more useful.
By observing these bones, a forensic anthropologist can classify individuals into three main
races / groups:
 Caucasoids or white Europeans
 Native Americans or Asians / Mongoloids
 Negroids or Black / Africans
For example, Caucasoids have a longer, narrower cranium, Negroids have a lower cranium,
while Mongoloids have a more rounded cranium.
White people have a taller and narrower nasal aperture (opening for the nose) and a prominent
nasal spine. In Negroids, the nasal aperture is generally short and broad, and the nasal spine
and sill are small or lacking.
The orbits are round and sloped in white individuals, more rectangular in black people, and
rhomboid in East Asians. Negroids tend to have alveolar prognathism, a protrusion of the
anterior portion of the upper jaw. In Mongoloids, this feature is moderate, while in Caucasoids
is reduced.
In Mongoloids, the face is usually flat in appearance, and the maxillary incisors are shovel-
shaped. The incisors of Caucasoids and Negroids are blade-shaped. The mandible is gracile in
black people, medium in white ones and robust in East Asians.
Besides such observations, craniometric data can also be used. By running statistical
comparisons, an unidentified cranium can be assigned to a specific group. Tools that can be
used for craniometry include Fordisc, Cranid, AncesTrees.

Reading the gender from bone remains:

The gender can be determined with higher accuracy in adults than in teenagers or kids, as
before puberty the skeletal features that allow the sex determination aren’t differentiated.
In adults, the gender is determined by analysing the bones of the pelvis and cranium, and
coupling this information with measurement data from the postcranial skeleton.
The male pelvis is more robust, with more prominent muscle attachments, and a narrow sciatic
notch. The sciatic notch is wider in females, and the obturator foramen is smaller and more
triangular than in males. The pelvic inlet is heart shaped in males and elliptical or circular in
females.
The male skull is larger and has more pronounced muscle attachment sites, with prominent
mastoid processes, while the female mastoid processes are more gracile (smaller).
Males have blunt upper margins of the orbits, while in females they are sharper. The frontal
sinuses are larger in males and the chin is square, while in females the chin is rounded and the
sinuses are small.
Determining the living height
The estimation of the dead person’s height is based on the length of the long bones of the arms
and legs. An instrument called an osteometric board is used for determining the measured
stature, which can be slightly different than the forensic (self-reported) stature.
The height is calculated using a stature formula which in case of white males is 2.38 x length
of femur (cm)+ 61.41(cm) (Trotter and Gleser method). For the humerus, the formula for
while males is 3.08 x length of humerus (cm) + 70.45.
The Garwin method gives slightly different numbers. For example, for the height of a white
male, the formula is 2.32 × femur length (cm) + 65.53 ± 3.94 cm. For a white female of the
same ancestry, the following formula should be used: 2.47 × femur length (cm) + 54.10 ± 3.72
cm.
For a Mongoloid male, the formula would be 2.15 x femur length (cm) + 72.57 ± 3.80 cm.
Then, for a Negroid male, the formula for determining the living height would be 2.10 x femur
length (cm) + 72.22 ± 3.91 cm.