Short questions

1. Explain (i) Signal to Noise Ratio (ii) Figure of merit (iii) Friis formula
(i) Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) is a measure of the quality of a
communication system, which compares the strength of a desired signal
to the level of background noise. It is the ratio of the power of the signal
to the power of the noise, expressed in decibels (dB). A higher SNR
indicates better signal quality and more reliable communication.
(ii) Figure of merit (FoM) is a parameter used to compare the
performance of different communication systems. It is defined as the ratio
of the signal power to the noise power required to achieve a given bit
error rate (BER). A higher FoM indicates better performance of the
system.
(iii) Friis formula is a mathematical expression used to calculate the
received power in a wireless communication system. It states that the
received power is proportional to the transmitted power, the gain of the
transmitting antenna, the gain of the receiving antenna, and the square
of the wavelength of the signal, and inversely proportional to the square
of the distance between the transmitting and receiving antennas. It is
expressed as:
Pr = Pt * Gt * Gr * (λ / 4πd)^2
where Pr is the received power, Pt is the transmitted power, Gt is the gain
of the transmitting antenna, Gr is the gain of the receiving antenna, λ is
the wavelength of the signal, and d is the distance between the
transmitting and receiving antennas.
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2. Discuss about noise effect in PM and obtain expression for figure of

merit.
In phase modulation (PM), the carrier frequency is varied in proportion to
the message signal, which results in the phase of the carrier signal being
shifted. The noise effect in PM is similar to that in FM, and it is generally
caused by random fluctuations in the amplitude of the signal. These
fluctuations can cause variations in the phase of the carrier signal, which
result in additional noise in the demodulated signal.
The figure of merit of PM is defined as the ratio of the signal power to the
total noise power in the demodulated signal. The total noise power
includes both the noise introduced in the modulation process and the
noise added in the demodulation process. The expression for the figure of
merit is given as:
FM = (S/N)_i / [(N_m^2 / 2) + (N_i^2 / 2)]
where (S/N)_i is the input signal-to-noise ratio, N_m is the noise
introduced in the modulation process, and N_i is the noise added in the
demodulation process.
The noise introduced in the modulation process is generally negligible in
PM, as it is only affected by noise in the message signal, which is usually
much lower in frequency than the carrier signal. However, the noise
added in the demodulation process is a significant factor in determining
the noise performance of the system. This noise is caused by the random
fluctuations in the amplitude of the signal, which results in variations in
the phase of the carrier signal.
To minimize the noise added in the demodulation process, the
demodulator should have a high signal-to-noise ratio and a high carrier
frequency. The carrier frequency should also be chosen such that it is well
above the highest frequency component in the message signal.
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3. Obtain the expression for output SNR of FM system.

he output signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of an FM system can be obtained as
follows:
Let the message signal be m(t) with power Pm and the carrier signal be
Ac cos(2πfct) with power Pc. The modulated FM signal can be written as:
s(t) = Ac cos[2πfct + kf∫m(τ)dτ]
where kf is the frequency sensitivity of the modulator.
Assuming white Gaussian noise with power spectral density N0/2, the
received signal can be expressed as:
r(t) = s(t) + n(t)
where n(t) is the additive noise with power spectral density N0/2.
The demodulated signal can be obtained by passing the received signal
through an FM demodulator. The output signal can be expressed as:
y(t) = -A sin[2πfct + φ(t)]
where φ(t) is the phase deviation caused by the FM modulation.
The power spectral density of the phase deviation can be expressed as:
Sφ(f) = (kf Pm / 2πf)^2
The output signal power can be expressed as:
Py = (A^2 / 2)
The noise power can be expressed as:
Pn = N0B
where B is the bandwidth of the demodulated signal.
The output SNR can be expressed as:
SNR = Py / Pn
Substituting the expressions for Py and Pn, we get:
SNR = (A^2 / N0B) / 2
Substituting the expression for A, we get:
SNR = (Pc / N0B) / [2(1 + (kf Pm / 2πf)^2)]
This is the expression for the output SNR of an FM system.
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4. Compare the noise performance in frequency modulated system and

amplitude modulated system
In frequency modulation (FM), the amplitude of the modulating signal
remains constant, while the frequency of the carrier wave varies
according to the amplitude of the modulating signal. In amplitude
modulation (AM), the amplitude of the carrier wave varies in proportion to
the amplitude of the modulating signal.
The noise performance of FM is generally better than AM because the
amplitude of the modulating signal does not affect the amplitude of the
carrier signal. In AM, the amplitude variations caused by noise can
significantly distort the modulated signal.
In FM, the noise appears as frequency deviation, which can be reduced by
increasing the modulation index or the signal-to-noise ratio. In AM, the
noise appears as amplitude variations, which can be reduced by using a
high-level modulation, reducing the modulation index, or using a noise-
reduction circuit.
The figure of merit (FOM) is a parameter used to evaluate the noise
performance of a communication system. For FM, the FOM is given by:
FOM = (S/N) / (Δf / fm)
where S/N is the signal-to-noise ratio, Δf is the frequency deviation, and
fm is the modulating frequency.
For AM, the FOM is given by:
FOM = (S/N) / (δ / m)
where δ is the percentage modulation and m is the modulation index.
Overall, FM is less susceptible to noise than AM, and has a higher FOM for
a given signal-to-noise ratio. However, FM requires a wider bandwidth
than AM, and is more complex to implement.
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5. Calculate thermal noise power available from any resistor at room

temperature 290K for a bandwidth of 2MHz and also calculate noise
voltage at 100 resistor.
The thermal noise power available from any resistor can be calculated

using the following formula:

Where, k = Boltzmann's constant = 1.38 × 10^-23 Joules/Kelvin T =
Temperature in Kelvin = 290K (room temperature) B = Bandwidth =
2MHz
Substituting the values in the formula, we get:

Now, the noise voltage at a 100 Ohm resistor can be calculated using the
following formula:

Substituting the values in the formula, we get:

Therefore, the thermal noise power available from any resistor at room
temperature 290K for a bandwidth of 2MHz is 8.01 × 10^-17 Watts and
the noise voltage at 100 Ohm resistor is 1.49 × 10^-6 Volts.
Long questions
1. The noise figure of a receiver is 20dB and it is fed by a low noise
amplifier which has gain of 40dB and noise temperature of 800K.Calculate
the overall noise temperature of the receiving system and the noise
temperature of the receiver
To calculate the overall noise temperature, we can use the Friis formula:

Tsys = T0 + T1 * (G1-1) + T2 * (G1G2-1) + ... + Tn * (G1G2*...*Gn-1)

where: Tsys = overall noise temperature T0 = temperature of the first

element (usually the antenna), typically 290K T1, T2, ..., Tn = noise
temperature of each element after the first G1, G2, ..., Gn = gain of each
element
In this case, we have: T0 = 290 K T1 = 800 K G1 = 10^(40/10) = 100
G2 = 1 (assuming no other amplifiers after the LNA)
Substituting these values into the formula, we get:
Tsys = 290 + 800 * (100-1) = 79,290 K
To calculate the noise temperature of the receiver, we can use the
formula:
Trx = (Tsys - T0) / (Gtotal - 1)
where: Trx = noise temperature of the receiver T0 = temperature of the
first element (usually the antenna), typically 290K Tsys = overall noise
temperature Gtotal = total gain of the receiving system

In this case, we have: T0 = 290 K Tsys = 79,290 K Gtotal = G1G2 =

1001 = 100

Substituting these values into the formula, we get:

Trx = (79,290 - 290) / (100-1) = 787 K
Therefore, the overall noise temperature of the receiving system is
79,290 K and the noise temperature of the receiver alone is 787 K.
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(b) Explain the noise performance of DSB-SC scheme with the help of
neat block diagram
The Double-Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC) modulation scheme is
used in communication systems to reduce power consumption and
improve spectral efficiency. However, it has some disadvantages in terms
of noise performance.
A neat block diagram of the DSB-SC modulation scheme is shown below:
The modulator is the main source of noise in the DSB-SC scheme. It takes
the message signal and produces the modulated signal. The balanced
modulator suppresses the carrier signal, resulting in a DSB-SC signal.
The noise performance of DSB-SC modulation can be analyzed using the
power spectral density (PSD) of the modulated signal. The PSD is the
Fourier transform of the autocorrelation function of the signal.
For a message signal with PSD S(f), the PSD of the DSB-SC signal can be
expressed as:
P(f) = (A^2/4) S(f)
where A is the amplitude of the modulated signal.
The noise power of the DSB-SC signal can be expressed as:
N = kTB
where k is the Boltzmann constant, T is the temperature in Kelvin, and B
is the bandwidth of the signal.
The Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) of the DSB-SC signal can be expressed
as:
SNR = (A^2/4) S(f) / kTB
The SNR can be improved by increasing the amplitude of the modulated
signal or by reducing the noise temperature of the system. However,
increasing the amplitude of the modulated signal also increases the power
consumption of the system.
In summary, the noise performance of the DSB-SC modulation scheme is
mainly determined by the noise performance of the modulator. The SNR
of the DSB-SC signal can be improved by increasing the amplitude of the
modulated signal or by reducing the noise temperature of the system.
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2.(a) If each stage has a gain of 10dB and noise figure of 10dB. Calculate
the overall noise figure of a two-stage cascaded amplifier.
The overall noise figure (NF) of a two-stage cascaded amplifier can be
calculated using the following formula:
NF_total = NF_1 + ((NF_2 - 1)/(G_1))
where NF_1 is the noise figure of the first stage, NF_2 is the noise figure
of the second stage, and G_1 is the gain of the first stage.
Given that each stage has a gain of 10dB and a noise figure of 10dB, we
can calculate the overall noise figure as:
NF_1 = NF_2 = 10dB
G_1 = G_2 = 10^(10/10) = 10
NF_total = 10 + ((10 - 1)/(10)) = 10.9 dB
Therefore, the overall noise figure of the two-stage cascaded amplifier is
10.9dB.
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(b) Explain noise equivalent bandwidth.
Noise equivalent bandwidth (NEB) is a concept used in signal processing
and communication systems to quantify the effective bandwidth of a
system in terms of noise power. It is defined as the equivalent bandwidth
of a filter that, when placed at the input of a noiseless system, would
produce the same output power as the actual filter with the noise present.
In other words, NEB is the effective bandwidth of a system for noise
power calculations.
The NEB is typically used to determine the noise power spectral density of
a system. It takes into account the frequency response of the system and
the noise power in each frequency band. The NEB is usually expressed in
Hz and is calculated by dividing the total noise power by the noise power
spectral density. The NEB is an important parameter in the design of
communication systems, particularly in the calculation of noise power in
the presence of filters, amplifiers, and other components.
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3. (a)A radio receiver with 10KHz bandwidth has a noise figure of 30dB.
Determine the signal power required at the input of receiver to achieve
input SNR at 30dB.
The input signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) required to achieve a desired output
SNR can be calculated using the Friis formula:
Output SNR = Input SNR + 10log(G) - NF - 10log(B)
where G is the receiver gain and B is the receiver bandwidth.
Assuming the output SNR is 30 dB, the gain of the receiver is 1 (in linear
units) because it is not given, and the bandwidth is 10 kHz, the input SNR
can be calculated as:
30 dB = Input SNR + 10log(1) - 30 dB - 10log(10 kHz)
Input SNR = 30 dB + 30 dB + 10log(10 kHz) = 30 dB + 30 dB + 40 dB =
100 dB
Therefore, the signal power required at the input of the receiver to
achieve an input SNR of 100 dB is:
S/Nin = Pin / N 100 dB = Pin / N Pin = N x 10^10
where N is the noise power in watts.
The noise power can be calculated using the noise figure:
NF = 10log(F) = 30 dB
F = 10^(NF/10) = 10^(30/10) = 1000
The noise power is given by:
N = kTB
where k is the Boltzmann constant, T is the temperature in Kelvin, and B
is the bandwidth.
Assuming the temperature is room temperature (300 K), the noise power
is:
N = kTB = (1.38 x 10^-23 J/K)(300 K)(10 kHz) = 4.14 x 10^-18 W
Therefore, the signal power required at the input of the receiver is:
Pin = N x 10^10 = (4.14 x 10^-18 W)(10^(100/10)) = 4.14 x 10^-8 W
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(b) What is meant by narrow band noise and explain time domain
representation of narrow-band noise?

Narrowband noise refers to a type of noise whose frequency spectrum is

limited to a narrow range of frequencies. This is in contrast to wideband
noise, which covers a wide range of frequencies. Narrowband noise is
commonly used in signal processing and communication systems.
In the time domain, narrowband noise appears as a random fluctuation
around a central value. This fluctuation can be described using statistical
measures such as the mean and variance. The waveform of narrowband
noise may resemble that of a sine wave, but with random variations in
amplitude and phase.
The autocorrelation function of narrowband noise is a periodic function
with a period equal to the inverse of the noise bandwidth. The
autocorrelation function describes the correlation between the noise at
different points in time.
The power spectral density (PSD) of narrowband noise is approximately
constant over the frequency range of the noise. This makes narrowband
noise useful in communication systems, as it can be easily filtered out
using a bandpass filter.
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4. (a)Obtain the expression for figure of merit of AM(DSB-FC) system

The figure of merit of an AM (DSB-FC) system can be defined as the ratio
of the desired power (i.e. power in the message signal) to the total
transmitted power. Mathematically, it can be expressed as:
FOM = Pm / Pt
where, Pm = power in the message signal Pt = total transmitted power
For an AM (DSB-FC) system, the power in the message signal can be
calculated as:
Pm = (Am/2)^2 / 2R
where, Am = amplitude of the message signal R = load resistance
The total transmitted power can be calculated as:
Pt = Pc (1 + m^2/2)
where, Pc = carrier power m = modulation index
Substituting the above expressions in the equation for FOM, we get:
FOM = (Am/2)^2 / 2R / [Pc (1 + m^2/2)]
Simplifying the expression, we get:
FOM = (Am/Pc)^2 / [8R(1 + m^2/2)]
Therefore, the expression for the figure of merit of an AM (DSB-FC)
system is (Am/Pc)^2 / [8R(1 + m^2/2)].
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(b) Discuss about different sources of noise.

Thermal Noise: Also known as Johnson noise or white noise, it is caused
by the random motion of electrons in a conductor. This noise is present in
all electronic devices and increases with temperature.
Shot Noise: It is caused by the random arrival of electrons at a point in a
circuit. This noise is predominant in devices that involve the flow of
current across a potential barrier, such as diodes and transistors.
Transit-time Noise: It is caused by the finite time taken by electrons to
travel across a device. This noise is significant in devices with high-
frequency operation, such as microwave transistors.
1/f Noise: Also known as flicker noise, it is caused by fluctuations in the
resistance of a device due to changes in the concentration of impurities.
This noise is more prominent at lower frequencies.
Intermodulation Noise: It is caused by the nonlinear behavior of devices,
which can cause the mixing of different frequencies and produce new
signals at unwanted frequencies.
Crosstalk: It is caused by the coupling of signals between two or more
circuits due to electromagnetic interference. This noise is more prominent
in high-density electronic systems.
Atmospheric Noise: It is caused by natural sources such as lightning, solar
storms, and cosmic rays. This noise affects radio communication systems
operating at frequencies above a few megahertz.
External Noise: It is caused by man-made sources such as power lines,
electrical appliances, and electronic devices. This noise can be reduced by
proper shielding and grounding techniques.
5. (a)A pulse modulation system has a maximum signal frequency of 10
kHz and uses a sampling frequency of 50 kHz. Determine the minimum
number of bits required to quantize the signal using PCM.
The minimum number of bits required for PCM can be calculated using the
following formula: n = ceil(log2(2B/T)) where B is the maximum signal
frequency and T is the sampling period.
In this case, B = 10 kHz and T = 1/50 kHz = 20 μs. Therefore, n =
ceil(log2(2 x 10 kHz / 20 μs)) = ceil(log2(1000)) = 10 bits
Therefore, a minimum of 10 bits is required to quantize the signal using
PCM.
(b) A PAM signal is transmitted using a baseband system with a pulse
width of 5 μs and a pulse amplitude of ±2 V. Determine the signal-to-
noise ratio (SNR) required for a transmission of 10 km over a coaxial
cable with an attenuation of 0.3 dB/km and a bandwidth of 100 MHz.
Solution: The received signal power can be calculated using the following
formula: Pr = Pt × 10^(-2αd) × Gt × Gr × (λ / 4πd)^2 where Pt is the
transmitted power, α is the attenuation coefficient, d is the distance of
transmission, Gt and Gr are the gain of the transmitting and receiving
antennas, and λ is the wavelength of the signal.
In this case, we assume Pt = 1 W, Gt = Gr = 1, and λ = c/f = 3 x 10^8 /
100 MHz = 3 m. The attenuation for a distance of 10 km is 0.3 dB/km x
10 km = 3 dB. Therefore, Pr = 1 x 10^(-3) × 1 × 1 × (3 / 4π x 10 km)^2
= 2.92 x 10^(-17) W
The noise power can be calculated using the following formula: Pn = kTB
where k is Boltzmann's constant, T is the temperature in kelvin, and B is
the bandwidth.
In this case, we assume T = 300 K and B = 100 MHz. Therefore, Pn =
1.38 x 10^(-23) x 300 x 100 x 10^6 = 4.14 x 10^(-12) W
The SNR can be calculated as: SNR = Pr / Pn = 2.92 x 10^(-17) / 4.14 x
10^(-12) = 7.06 x 10^(-6)
Therefore, the required SNR for transmission over a distance of 10 km is
7.06 x 10^(-6).
(c) Can you explain the operation of a PWM demodulator using a phase-
locked loop (PLL)?
A phase-locked loop (PLL) is a feedback control system that can be used
to demodulate a PWM signal. The PLL consists of three main components:
a phase detector, a low-pass filter, and a voltage-controlled oscillator
(VCO).
The PWM signal is applied to the phase detector, which compares the
phase of the PWM signal to the phase of the output of the VCO. The phase
detector generates a voltage proportional to the phase difference between
the two signals. This voltage is then filtered by the low-pass filter to
remove the high-frequency components of the PWM signal, leaving only
the average DC value of the PWM signal. The filtered voltage is then used
to adjust the frequency of the VCO, which generates a signal with a
frequency proportional to the voltage.
If the frequency of the VCO is exactly twice the frequency of the PWM
signal, then the PLL will lock onto the PWM signal and the output of the
VCO will be a square wave with the same duty cycle as the original PWM
signal. The frequency of the VCO is then proportional to the amplitude of
the original analog signal, which can be recovered by low-pass filtering
the output of the VCO.
One advantage of using a PLL for PWM demodulation is that it can track
changes in the frequency of the PWM signal, which can occur due to
changes in the load or other factors. The PLL can also provide a high level
of noise rejection, making it well-suited for use in noisy environments.