CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS II

ECE 2215

B.Sc. and B.Ed in Civil Engineering

Year 2.3
 Course Outline:
• Timber: Nature and properties of wood, seasoning and effect of
moisture, defects, testing, grading. Basic and allowable stresses,
durability and preservations, uses, fire resistance.
• Steel: Methods of manufacture, types, properties, uses, methods of
working, heat treatment, welding, defects and fatigue.
• Introduction to Polymers and Plastics: types, properties and
deteriorations.
• Masonry: Building stone, blocks and brick types; properties, uses,
deterioration, design. Mixes and properties of mortar. Quality control
tests in masonry and mortar
• Lab Work - Grading of timber. Bending, tensile and shear tests of
timber, steel, polymers and masonry walls.
 Expected Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this course the student should be able to:
a) Describe the nature and properties of wood, timber seasoning, timber
grading and defects
b) Explain timber strength properties, durability and preservation, fire
resistance.
c) Explain the methods of manufacture for structural steel, types, uses,
methods of working, defects and fatigue
d) Describe polymers and plastics and their engineering properties
e) Identify types and properties of materials used for masonry.
 Course Assessment:
• Continuous Assessment Tests (CATs) - 15%
• Regular assignments - 15%
• Final Examination - 70%
• Class Attendance - Very important
 Course References:
1. Somayaji, S. (2011). Civil engineering materials. Pearson Education India.
2. Mamlouk M. S., Zaniewski J. P., (2010), Materials for civil and construction
engineers, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education

Other References:
1. Kohler J., (2007), Reliability of timber structures, vdf Hochschulverlag AG
2. Salmon C. G., Johnson J. E., (1980), Steel structures: Design and behavior, 2nd
Edition, Harper & Row
3.Llewellyn D.T., Hudd R. C., (1998), Steels, Metallurgy and applications,
Butterworth Heinemann
4. Kasal B., Tannert T., (2010), In situ assessment of structural timber, Springer
 TIMBER
Definitions:
• Wood is a hard fibrous material that forms the main substance of the
trunk or branches of a tree or shrub used for fuel or timber.
• Timber is processed wood prepared for use in building and carpentry of
houses, ships, or other structures.
• Lumber is used to describe felled trees. It’s something much more
crude than timber; usually, lumber will still have its bark. An easy way
to understand the broad difference between timber and lumber is that
lumber is less processed than timber.
PROPETIES OF GOOD TIMBER
 TYPES OF WOOD
There are two types of wood:-
1. Soft wood - Softwood comes from conifer, which usually
remains evergreen.
2. Hard wood - hardwood comes from deciduous tree's which lose
their leaves annually. The trees from which hardwood is
obtained tend to be slower growing, meaning the wood is
usually denser.
 PROCESSING OF TIMBER
• Wood from trees is converted in to usable timber for structural
element using the following process:-
• Felling of trees
• Seasoning of wood
• Grading of wood
• Conversion of wood
• Preservation of timber
• Application of timber in construction
 PROCESSING OF TIMBER
1. Felling of trees – This is the processing of cutting down trees that
naturally fall to the ground.
2. Seasoning of wood – It is water removal from wood up to optimum
moisture content.
3. Grading of wood – sorting of timber into groups based on their
properties.
4. Conversion of wood – it involves cutting or sawing of timber in to
suitable section appropriate for construction
5. Preservation of timber – treatment of timber to enhance its durability
6. Application of timber - Use of timber for construction purposes
 SEASONING OF TIMBER
• This is the process of extracting moisture from timber under
controlled conditions leaving moisture that is uniformly
distributed throughout the mass
• Seasoning of wood is the reduction of the moisture or sap
content of it to the point where, under normal conditions of use,
no further drying out will take place.
 PURPOSE OF SEASONING TIMBER
• Reduce the shrinkage and warping on drying.

• Increase strength, durability and workability.

• Reduce its tendency to split and decay.

• It is easier to paint and polish seasoned timber.

• Reduces its weight i.e., it becomes lighter.

• Becomes easier to treat with preservatives.

 SEASONING OF TIMBER
• Types of seasoning include:-
• Natural or Air seasoning
• Kiln or artificial seasoning
• Water seasoning
• Boiling
• Electric seasoning
• Chemical seasoning
Note: Read and make short notes on types of seasoning of
timber
 GRADING OF TIMBER
• Grading is simply sorting a production run in to groups that have similar
properties.
• Timber grading is a process through which timbers with similar structural
properties are sorted into different groups.
• Grading standards make it easier for a designer to communicate what is
required in a piece of timber to the supplier.
• The timber grading procedure can be carried out in a variety of ways,
including:
• Visual stress grading
• Machine stress grading
• Machine proof grading
• Tests on timber - Quality Control
 GRADING OF TIMBER
• Visual stress grading – timber characteristics are assessed
visually and timber is sorted based on presence or absence of
natural characteristics.
• Machine stress grading – machine is used to determine the
stiffness of timber. Scanning can also be done as a non-destructive
way of grading.
• Machine proof grading – Grading using a proof load where
timber is subjected in to a load to determine its strength
characteristics.
• Testing of timber – verification of grade properties by testing –
deflection, moisture content, shear, compression etc.,
 TESTS ON TIMBER - (QUALITY CONTROL)
In order to find the quality and sustainability of the Timbers, Various Quality
tests are performed. Some of these tests include

➢Moisture content test

➢Tensile strength test

➢Compressive strength test

➢Shear strength test

➢Bending test
 TESTS ON TIMBER - (QUALITY CONTROL)
Moisture content test – Determines the moisture content in wood, before and
after seasoning. Weighing machine and drying oven are used for his test.

Shear strength test – It determines the ability of timber to resist failure by

sliding when a load is applied along a plane. It is important when timber is used
as a slab.

Bending test - It determines the deflecting ability of timber. It is necessary when

timber is used as a beam. The test defines timbers modulus of rupture and
modulus of elasticity.
 TESTS ON TIMBER - (QUALITY CONTROL)
Tensile strength test – Determines the breakage strength of timber.

It defines the load bearing capacity of wood.

• Tensile strength = Maximum load applied / Cross sectional Area

Compressive strength test – Determines the crushing strength of timber. It

defines the load that wood can support over a period of time.

• Compressive strength = Maximum load / Cross sectional area

 CONVERSION OF TIMBER
• Timber conversion is the process by which tree trunks (or logs) are cut to
suit the requirements for use e.g. joinery and for carpentry.

• Assignment 1: Question 1

• Discuss the different ways of conversion of wood to timber for use.

 PRESERVATION OF TIMBER
• Timber preservation is any treatment of timber for the purpose
of extending the useful life of the timber.
• Preservatives used include:-
• Coal tar
• ASCU
• Chemical salts
• Oil paints
• Solignum paints
• Creosote oil
 TYPES OF TIMBER PRESERVATIVES
• Coal tar – It is heated and liquid hot tar is applied on timber surface using a
brush
• ASCU - ASCU is a chemical preservative which is available in powder form. It
is dissolved in water to get preservative solution. ASCU contains hydrated
arsenic pent oxide, copper sulphate or blue vitriol and sodium dichromate or
potassium dichromate in it.
• Chemical salts - Chemical salts like copper sulphate, mercury chloride and
zinc chloride are used as preservative which can be dissolved in water to get
liquid solution.
• Oil paints - Oil paints are suitable for well-seasoned wood. They are generally
applied in 2 or 3 coats. Oil paints prevents timber from moisture. If timber is
not seasoned, then oil paints may lead to decay of timber by confining sap.
 TYPES OF TIMBER PRESERVATIVES
• Solignum paints - Solignum paints are applied in hot condition using
brush. They are well suitable for preserving timber from white ants.
Solignum paints can be used by adding color pigments so, the timber has
good appearance.
• Creosote oil - Creosote oil is prepared by the distillation of tar. It is black
or brown in color. It contains unpleasant smell. It is applied on well
seasoned timber by subjecting it to high pressure conditions for 2 hours.
 PRESERVATION OF TIMBER
• Methods of application of preservatives on timber include:-
• Brushing
• Spraying
• Injecting under pressure
• Dipping and stepping
• Charring
• Hot and cold open tank treatment
 PRESERVATION OF TIMBER
• Some of the methods of preserving timber include:-
• Brushing - involves application of preservatives coats using brushes.
• Spraying – The preservative solution is sprayed on the surface using
a spray gun. It is time saving and effective compared to brushing
• Injecting under pressure - The preservative is injected into the
timber under high pressure conditions. It requires a special treatment
plant, hence it is costly
• Dipping and stepping(wetting) – Timber is dipped in the
preservative for a specified period of time, hence the solution
penetrates the timber better than spraying or brushing.
 PRESERVATION OF TIMBER
• Some of the methods of preserving timber include:-
• Charring – Timber surface is wetted for 30minutes then burnt up to
a depth of 15mm from the top surface. The burnt surface protects the
inner timber from insects and decay
• Hot and cold open tank treatment – Timber is placed in an open
tank which contains preservative solution. This solution is then
heated for few hours at 85 to 95 degree Celsius. Then, the solution is
allowed to cool and timber gets submerged with this gradual cooling.
• Termite Shield – Preservation of the base of timber columns by
construction of suitable barrier between timbe and the natural
ground.
 METHODS OF TIMBER PRESERVATION

(a). Brushing (b). Spraying

©. Charing (d). Dipping & Stepping (e). Hot and Cold open tank treatment
 PROPERTIES OF TIMBER

What are some of the physical and mechanical properties

of good timber?
 Physical Properties of Good Quality Timber
• Some of the physical properties of timber include:-
1. Durability 9. Fire Resistance
2. Strength 10. Appearance
3. Permeability 11. Color
4. Hardness 12. Shape
5. Toughness 13. Smell
6. Elasticity 14. Sound
7. Workability
8. Structure
 Physical Properties of Good Quality Timber
Durability
• Timber can resist being damaged by biological, chemical, and physical agents
and carry the load for a long duration without being damaged.
Strength
• The strength of wood means resistance against failure. Good timber does not fail
easily and it should be able to bear the design load.
Permeability
• Permeability of wood refers to water absorption capacity of wood. A good timber
absorbs an average of 8 to 12% of water by its weight when placed in water.
• Factors affecting permeability of timber include:- age of timber, type of
cut, moisture content of timber, types of timber, etc.
 Physical Properties of Good Quality Timber
Hardness
• The hardness of wood refers to resistance to penetration by external objects.
Toughness
• Toughness is the resistance against sudden shocks and vibrations. A good timber is
resistant to sudden impact load and vibration.
• The toughness of timber is improved by the interlocking system.
Elasticity
• Elasticity is the ability of timber to its original shape after removing the load.
A good timber should be elastic in nature.
Workability
• Workability of timber means easy to cut into the desired shape and sizes with
minimal wastage.
 Physical Properties of Good Quality Timber
Fire resistance
• The thermal conductivity of timber is depends on factors like density, porosity, and
moisture content. Various types of timber are resistant to fire certain limits.
Appearance
• Freshly cut timber should have a shinning surface
Color
• The color of wood or timber is indicates its strength. Dark color indicates high
strength while light color indicates low strength.
Shape
• The shape of wood affects its conversion to timber for use in construction. Good
timber should retain its shape during the process of seasoning.
Fibers and Structure
• It should have straight and closed fibers and compact medullary rays
 Physical Properties of good timber
Weight
• Weight of timber depends on its density. Heavy weigh timber is more durable
compared to light weight timber.
Defects resistant
• A good timber means is highly resistant to defects caused by natural forces like
knots, shakes, burls, fungal defects, dry rot, wet rot, blue stain, etc.
Smell
• An unpleasant smell is indicating the timber is decayed and the sweet
smell of timber is good timber for engineering works.
Sound
• When struck the timber produces a clear ringing sound that means timber is good.
Dull sounds indicate the damaged timber.
 Mechanical Properties of timber
• Some of the mechanical properties of timber include:-
• Viscoelasticity
• Compression
• Shear
• Moisture content
• Deflection
• Modulus of Elasticity (MOE)
• Modulus of Rapture (MOR)
 Mechanical Properties of timber
• Viscoelasticity – Wood has both plastic and elastic properties when
subjected to loading. It is elastic up to a certain level then it becomes
plastic. Figure below shows the viscoelastic property of wood.
 Mechanical Properties of timber
• Compression – This indicate the load bearing capacity of wood and it is
determined by calculation of the maximum allowable stress that wood can
resist.
Stress = Maximum Load/Surface Area
• Shear – Its the ability of timber to resist failure by sliding when a load is
applied along a plane. This is also determined by the allowable stress wood
can withstand before failure.
• Figure 1 and 2 below indicate the two compression and shear respectively
 Mechanical Properties of timber

Fig. 1 – Compression parallel to grain Fig. 2 – Shear stress on a sample

 Mechanical Properties of timber
• Moisture Content – The moisture in timber influences all mechanical
properties. Strength of timber increases with decrease in moisture up to an
optimum amount. That is why seasoning is necessary.
• Deflection – This indicates the bending properties of timber when
subjected to a load. Deflection is well defined by two factors:-
• Modulus of elasticity (MOE) that measures the stiffness of timber
• Modulus of rapture (MOR) that measures the maximum strength that can
be resisted by a member.
• Both MOE and MOR are expressed in stress form.
• The Figure below illustrates deflection in wood.
Mechanical Properties of timber

Fig. 3 – Bending of a wood beam

 DEFECTS IN TIMBER
• Defects in timber are flaws that limit their ultimate use. Timber
comes from trees, hence it undergoes a lot of physical,
biological and environmental effects from growth until the end
of processing.

• Assignment 1: Question 2 - Discuss the different causes and

types of defects in timber.
 TIMBER CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
• These are techniques that are used in the industry for
construction using timber.
• Assignment 1: Question 3 – Discuss the different ways that
timber is used for construction
 ECE 2215 - Assignment 1 – submitted by 22/6/22
Question 1
Discuss the different ways of conversion of wood to timber for
use
Question 2
Discuss the different types of defects in timber and illustrate their
causes.
Question 3
Discuss the different ways that timber is used for construction