PROJECT IN

BIOLOGY
Submitted by:

Bautista, Kristine Emerald, G.

Ginaga, Tirzah, B.
Martinez, Hannah, C.
Trinidad, Alyssa Mae

Submitted to:
Sir. Simon Jude Baterina
 Table
Of DIVERSITY OF LIFE
Biological System of Classification Diversity Among Animals
Contents

KINGDOM MONERA

KINGDOM PROTISTA

ALGAE

CLASS ASCOMYSETES

CLASS BASIDIOMYCETES

CLASS DEUTEROMYCETES

KINGDOM PLANTAE

ASCOMYSETES
 “Biological System of Classification Diversity
Among Animals”
KINGDOM MONERA

 Definition of Kingdom Monera

It is exceptionally astonishing to realize that microbes alone possess a
total realm in the progressive system of living life forms. They are the
ubiquitous life forms of the living scene. We can discover microscopic
organisms all over. This property can be owed to the way that microbes
have a wide scope of assortment, and many of them are adjusted to
make do in outrageous natural conditions. An enormous number of
microscopic organisms likewise live on different living beings as
parasites. The organisms that belong to this kingdom are usually
unicellular and are mostly found in a moist environment.

 Characteristics of Kingdom Monera

The characteristics of the organisms belonging to this kingdom include:

 The Monerans are unicellular organisms.

 The cell wall is rigid and made up of peptidoglycan.
 Asexual Reproduction through binary fission.
  They contain 70S ribosomes.
 Flagella serves as the locomotory organ.
 It lacks organelles like mitochondria, lysosomes, plastids, Golgi bodies, endoplasmic reticulum, centrosome, etc.
 These are environmental decomposers and mineralizers.

 Bacteria
Bacteria are microscopic organisms that can survive in diverse
environments. They can be beneficial as well as harmful. They
possess a simple structure without a nucleus and a few cell organelles.

The bacteria are surrounded by two protective coverings- the outer cell
wall and the inner cell membrane. Some bacteria are also covered by
a capsule. Few bacteria like Mycoplasma do not have a cell wall.

They exhibit autotrophic and heterotrophic modes of nutrition.

Autotrophic bacteria derive nutrition from inorganic substances. They
derive carbon and hydrogen from atmospheric carbon dioxide, H2,
H2S, and NH3. Heterotrophic bacteria depend upon external organic
materials for their food. These can be saprotrophs, parasites, and
symbionts.
Bacterial Shape

There are several types of bacterial structure, which are described below.

Names Definition Picture

Bacilli

These are rod-shaped bacteria with or

without flagella.

These bacteria are spherical or oval.

These can be micrococcus (single),
diplococcus (in pairs), tetra coccus (in
fours), streptococcus (in chains), and
staphylococcus (in clusters like grapes).
Cossi

These bacteria are spherical or oval.

These can be micrococcus (single),
diplococcus (in pairs), tetra coccus (in
fours), streptococcus (in chains), and
Spirillum staphylococcus (in clusters like grapes).

Vibrio’s
These are commas or small kidney-
shaped bacteria with flagella on one
end.
 Classification of Monera

Kingdom Monera is classified into three sub-kingdoms- Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, and Cyanobacteria.

NAME CLASSIFICATION

 These are the most ancient bacteria found in the most extreme habitats such as salty areas (halophiles),
Archaebacteria hot springs (thermoacidophiles) and marshy areas (methanogens).
 The structure of the cell wall is different from that of the other bacteria which helps them survive in
extreme conditions.
 The mode of nutrition is autotrophic.
 The nucleotide sequences of its t-RNA and r-RNA are unique

 Eubacteria are also known as “true bacteria”.

Eubacteria  The cell wall is rigid and made up of peptidoglycans.
 It moves with the help of flagella.
 A few bacteria contain short appendages on the cell surface, known as pili which help the bacteria during
sexual reproduction. Pili also helps a pathogen to attach to the host.

 They are blue-green algae.

Cyanobacteria  They are photosynthetic in nature.
 They are usually found in the aquatic region.
 They also play a role in fixing atmospheric nitrogen.
 Examples include Anabaena, nostoc, spirulina etc.
 KINGDOM PROTISTA
Definition of Kingdom Protista
Protists are simple eukaryotic organisms that are neither plants nor
animals or fungi. Protists are unicellular in nature but can also be
found as a colony of cells. Most protists live in water, damp terrestrial
environments or even as parasites.

The term ‘Protista’ is derived from the Greek word “protistos”,

meaning “the very first “. These organisms are usually unicellular,
and the cells of these organisms contain a nucleus which is bound to
the organelles. Some of them even possess structures that aid
locomotion like flagella or cilia.

Characteristics of Kingdom Protista

The primary feature of all protists is that they are eukaryotic organisms. This means that they have a membrane-enclosed
nucleus. Other characteristic features of Kingdom Protista are as follows:
1. These are usually aquatic, present in the soil or in areas with moisture.
2. Most protist species are unicellular organisms, however, there are a few multicellular protists such as kelp. Some species
of kelp grow so large that they exceed over 100 feet in height. (Giant Kelp).
3. Just like any other eukaryote, the cells of these species have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
4. They may be autotrophic or heterotrophic in nature. An autotrophic organism can create its own food and survive. A
heterotrophic organism, on the other hand, must derive nutrition from other organisms such as plants or animals to
survive.
5. Symbiosis is observed in the members of this class. For instance, kelp (seaweed) is a multicellular protist that provides
otters protection from predators amidst its thick kelp. In turn, the otters eat sea urchins that tend to feed on kelp.
6. Parasitism is also observed in protists. Species such as Trypanosoma protozoa can cause sleeping sickness in humans.
 7. Protists exhibit locomotion through cilia and flagella. A few organisms belonging to the kingdom Protista have
pseudopodia that help them to move.
8. Protista reproduces by asexual means. The sexual method of reproduction is extremely rare and occurs only during times
of stress.

 Types of Protists
The protists are basically classified into three main types of protists (detached discussion in section: Protist Classification):
1. Animal-like protists: heterotrophs and motile.
2. Plant-like protists: autotrophs with the capability to carry out photosynthesis.
3. Fungi-like protists: heterotrophs characteristically have cell walls in the cells and spores’ formation is the reproduction
method.

 Summary
• Protists are a diverse kingdom, including all eukaryotic organisms that are neither animals, nor plants, nor fungi.
• For classification, the protists are divided into three groups: animal-like protists, plant-like protists, and fungi-like protists.

ALGAE
 Algae
The word algae represent a large group of different organisms from different phylogenetic groups, representing many taxonomic
divisions. In general algae can be referred to as plant-like organisms that are usually photosynthetic and aquatic, but do not have
true roots, stems, leaves, vascular tissue and have simple reproductive structures. They are distributed worldwide in the sea, in
freshwater and in moist situations on land. Most are microscopic, but some are quite large, e.g., some marine seaweeds that can
exceed 50 m in length.
The algae have chlorophyll and can manufacture their own food through the process of photosynthesis. Recently they are
classified in the kingdom of Protista, which comprise a variety of unicellular and some simple multinuclear and multicellular
eukaryotic organisms that have cells with a membrane-bound nucleus.
Almost all the algae are eukaryotes and conduct photosynthesis within membrane bound structures called chloroplasts, which
contain DNA. The exact nature of the chloroplasts is different among the different lines of algae.
 Types of Algae
The main phylogenetic groups of algae are.
Names Definition Picture

Cyanobacteria are aquatic and photosynthetic, that

Cyanobacteria is, they live in the water, and can manufacture their
(Blue- green Algae) own food. Because they are bacteria, they are quite
small and usually unicellular, though they often
grow in colonies large enough to see.

Chlorophyta (Green Algae) division of the kingdom of Protista consisting of the

photosynthetic organism commonly known as green
algae. The various species can be unicellular, multi-
cellular, coenocytic (having more than one nucleus
in a cell), or colonial. Chlorophyta are largely
aquatic or marine, a few types are terrestrial,
occurring on moist soil, on the trunks of trees, on
moist rocks and in snowbanks. Various species are
highly specialized.

Chrysophyta (Golden Algae) Large group of eukaryotes algae commonly called

golden algae, found mostly in freshwater. Originally,
they were taken to include all such forms except
diatoms and multicellular brown algae, but since
then they have been divided into several different
groups based on pigmentation and cell structure. In
many cryophytes the cell walls are composed of
cellulose with large quantities of silica
Phaeophyta (Brown Algae)
phylum of the kingdom Protista consisting of those
organisms commonly called brown algae. Many of
the world's familiar seaweeds are members of the
Phaeophyta. Like the chrysophytes brown algae
derive their color from the presence, in the cell
chloroplasts, of several brownish carotenoid
pigments, as fucoxanthin. With only a few
exceptions, brown algae are marine, growing in the
colder oceans of the world, many in the tidal zone,
where they are subjected to great stress from wave
action; others grow in deep water. There are
approximately 1500 species of Phaeophyta.

Rhodophyta (Red Algae)

The phylum of the kingdom Protista consists of the
photosynthetic organisms commonly known as red
algae. Members of the division have a characteristic
clear red or purplish color imparted by accessory
pigments called phycobilin’s. The red algae are
multicellular and are characterized by a great deal
of branching, but without differentiation into complex
tissues. Most of the world's seaweed belongs to this
group. Although red algae are found in all oceans,
they are most common in warm-temperate and
tropical climates, where they may occur at greater
depths than any other photosynthetic organisms.
 CLASS ASCOMYCETES

What are Ascomycetes?

Ascomycetes are organisms that belong to the phylum Ascomycota. The phylum Ascomycota is the largest in the kingdom of
fungus, with about 64000 species. They are part of the Dikaryon sub-kingdom.

Example of Ascomycetes
Some of the significant members of the species ascomycetes are:
Cup Fungi Penicillium Cladonia
Baker's Yeast Black Truffle Neurospora

Definition of Ascomycetes
The presence of asci and spores characterizes a class of fungi that has two different reproductive phases, a perfect stage, and
an imperfect stage. The group includes yeast, penicillium, aspergillus, truffles, and certain mildews.

General Characteristics of Ascomycetes

 The reproductive structure of the ascomycetes is known as ascus or asci.

 Most of the ascomycetes are terrestrial, parasitic, or coprophilous.
 It might be unicellular or multicellular fungi.

 The mycelium of the ascomycetes is made up of septate or branched hyphae and the cell wall is made up of chitin
or ꞵ-glucans.
 Ascomycetes have cytoplasmic continuity due to septal pores.
 In ascomycetes, asexual reproduction is by the formation of conidia exogenously on conidiophores and Sexual
reproduction is by conjugation between two gametangia. They can be either homothallic or heterothallic.
 In ascomycetes, the fruiting body is called ascocarp and there are mainly four types of ascocarps. Ascomycetes
examples of ascospores are cleistothecium, perithecium, apothecium, and Asco stroma.
 Ascospores are produced endogenously in ascii.

Ascomycetes Life Cycle is divided into two groups which are Asexual and Sexual Reproduction Life
Cycle.

Asexual Reproduction Life Cycle

 Most of the species undergo asexual reproduction by the formation of multinucleated conidia. Conidia.
 are formed from the nonindigenous cells.
 These cells are formed at the tip of modified hyphae called conidiophores or conidia bearers.

Sexual Reproduction Life Cycle

The sexual life cycle of ascomycetes involves nuclear fusion and meiosis, which occurs only in those possessing ascii
because it is within the young ascus where the events occur. Ascospores include one or more haploid nuclei and therefore
most of the ascomycetes have a haploid vegetative mycelium. Mycelium is also capable of sexual reproduction, which
occurs by fragmentation, budding or formation of conidia, chlamydospore, and sclerotia.

Summary
 Ascomycetes or sac fungi are members of the phylum Ascomycota.
 Ascomycota (along with Basidiomycota) forms the subkingdom Dikaryon and is the largest phylum of fungi, with over
64000 known species.
 Ascus refers to a sexual pore bearing cell and is a defining characteristic of ascomycetes.
 CLASS BASIDIOMYCETES

Definition of Basidiomycetes
• The fungal group Basidiomycota, also known as the club fungi, includes some of the most familiar fungi. Basidiomycetes play a key
role in the environment as decomposers of plant litter. They are distinguished from other fungi by their production of basidiospores,
which are borne outside a club-shaped, spore-producing structure called a basidium. These spores rarely germinate or mature.

Example:

Puffballs Jelly fungi Cryptococcus

Mushrooms Smuts Rusts

Classification of Basidiomycetes
Basidiomycetes are classified into two subclasses based on the septation/partition of the basidium.

Heterobasidiomycetes Homobasidiomycetes

• Also known as Holobasidiomycetes. • Do not have fragmented Basidia.

• Have fragmented Basidium. • They grow in numerous habitats such as grassland, dung,
• They are obligatory parasites and can cause severe diseases termite, mounds, and wooden logs.
in many crops. • Includes rusts, and smug fungi.
• Includes (3) orders which is Tremellales, Uredinales, and • Includes (2) series Hymenomycetes, and Gastromycetes.
Ustiginales.
Life Cycle of Basidiomycetes
The Basidiomycetes share several characteristics with
Ascomycetes regarding their general life cycle pattern. The
holophrase somatic body, represented by primary mycelium,
is produced by the basidiospore following germ tube
germination. Often, oidia are produced by the main
mycelium. The oidia can act as spores and produce primary
mycelia, or they can participate in the development of
dikaryotic secondary mycelia by spermatizing with other
primary mycelia that are compatible with one another.
Somatogamy between two suitable primary mycelia can also
produce secondary mycelium. The basidium forms from the
dikaryotic apical cell of the hypha of the secondary mycelium.

The dikaryotic hyphal cells may produce resting spores.

Basidium is produced by each spore that is resting on
germination. Karyogamy occurs in the diplophase condition
that produces basidiospores, which is followed immediately
by meiosis and results in the production of haploid
basidiospores. The halophilic somatic body is produced
when the basidiospores germinate. The life cycle is
completed. The three phases of the life cycle are the
holophrase, dikaryophase, and diplophase, with the
dikaryophase being significantly longer than the other two
and nutritionally distinct from the holophrase. Additionally, the
holophrase is visible. The diplophase, which is relatively brief
in nearly all fungi, is followed by meiosis.
 CLASS DEUTEROMYCETES

Definition of Deuteromycetes
• This phylum includes fungi which exhibit only an asexual mode of reproduction. Hence, they are termed imperfect fungi. When
the sexual mode of reproduction is discovered, they are placed into other classes. They reproduce by asexual spores called
conidia. Their mycelium is branched and septate unlike that of Phycomycetes. They are either saprophytic or parasitic.
Deuteromycetes hold great economic importance. They act as decomposers of organic matter and play an important role in
mineral recycling. They are also known as ‘second class’s fungi. Deuteromycetes are responsible for various plant diseases and
cause the degradation of food.

Characteristic Features of Deuteromycetes

 The mycelium has well-developed, profusely branched, and septate hyphae possessing multinucleate cells and simple pore
septa.
 The hyphae may be intercellular or intracellular and their cell wall chiefly contains chitin-glucan.
 They exhibit only an asexual mode of reproduction in various ways like hyphal fragments, budding, arthrosporous,
chlamydospores, or most commonly conidia.
 They do not exhibit sexual reproduction but a parasexual cycle generally operates in their life to fulfill the requirements of
sexual reproduction.
 Deuteromycetes play a vital role in the decomposition of organic matter and bring about the recycling of nutrients in nature.

Examples of Deuteromycetes

Trichoderma Early Blight Arthrobotrycs

Cercospora Colletotrichum Wilts
Summary
• Deuteromycetes is an artificial class of fungi that includes all those fungi in which the sexual stage is not known.
• Some of the Deuteromycetes are unicellular like yeasts and are often studied along with the latter.
• Asexual reproduction mainly occurs by conidia along with some other types of spores (like oidia and chlamydospores).
• It is believed that most members of Deuteromycetes are ascomycetes in which sexual reproduction is absent.
• Some members are saprophytes or parasites while many of them are decomposers of litter and help in mineral cycling.

KINGDOM PLANTAE
Characteristic of Kingdom Plantae
• Plantae includes multicellular organisms except for some earliest relatives of algae.
• They are eukaryotes, i.e., a eukaryotic cell has a nucleus and membrane-bound cellular organelles.
• Cellulose-containing cell wall occurs around the cell.
• A mature plant commonly maintains a single large central vacuole bound by a tonoplast (membrane).
• Starch and lipids (oil/fat) is the reserve food of plants.
• In all plants, cells occur double membrane-covered cell organelles, called plastids. Some plastids possess photosynthetic
pigments (chlorophylls). They are called chloroplasts.
• Autotrophic nutrition, in which plants make their own food with the help of photosynthesis.
• Indefinite growth in plants is mainly because of the presence of growing points.
• The irregular body form of the plants is due to the presence of branches.

Classification of Kingdom Plantae

Kingdom Plantae is further divided into several divisions based on several criteria. Foremost first classification among plants depends
on the well-differentiated plant body or different components. The next level of classification is based on whether the differentiated plant
body has special tissues (vascular tissues-the xylem and phloem) for the transport of water and other substances within the plant body.
Depending on many criteria, the plant kingdom is classified into divisions described below:
 Pteridophyta Gymnosperms
Phylum
Bryophytes Angiosperm
Tracheophya

Phylum Bryophyta
Bryophyta (Gk: Bryon = moss; phyton = plants) is the grouping that consists of the simplest and primitive land plants. We also regard
these as ‘the amphibians of the plant kingdom’. Bryophytes are most common in moist and shady places. Some bryophytes also grow
in diverse habitats like extremely dry or watery habitats. They reproduce sexually. Antheridium is the male sex organ. On the other
hand, archegonium is the female sex organ.

Characteristics of Bryophyta
1. Bryophytes are small multicellular green land plants. These simple land plants are limited to shady damp places. They are also
known as amphibians of the plant kingdom.
2. Their plant body is a flat, green thallus in liverworts (Riccia, Marchantia) and leafy, erect structures in mosses (Funaria,
Sphagnum). They lack real roots, stems and leaves and have no flowers.
3. A true vascular system is absent in bryophytes.
4. The sex organs are multicellular.
5. An embryo is formed upon fertilization.
6. Examples: Riccia, Marchantia, Anthoceros, Funaria, Barbola.
7. The dominant phase is a free-living gametophyte.
8. They show heteromorphic alternation of generation.
9. These include mosses and liverworts.
 LIVERWORTS MOSSES
The leaves are without a midrib. The leaves generally have a nonvascular midrib.
Branching is dichotomous. Branching is lateral.
Rhizoids are unicellular. Rhizoids are multicellular and branched.
They have a dorsiventral symmetry. The thallus is closely Mosses possesses radial symmetry, though it may be erect,
appressed to the substrate. hanging or creeping.
Examples: Riccia, Marchantia. Examples: Funaria, Sphagnum.

Classification of Bryophytes
There are (3) Classes of Bryophytes:

NAME DEFINITION PICTURE

• The body of Moss is usually leafy-like.
CLASS MUSCI (MOSSES) • Most prefer dump shaded locations in the temperate
zone.

• The name liverwort arose because the lobes of the

CLASS (LIVERWORTS) thallus resemble the lobes of the liver.
• Many have a flattened body called thallus, but some
have a leafy appearance.

• The sporophytes of hornworts look like small green

CLASS ANTHOCEROTAE (HORNWORTS) broom handles. Its shape is unique among bryophytes.
• Hornworts have cell that contain only single
Chloroplast.
Economic Importance of Bryophyta
 Prevention of Soil Erosion: Specially mosses form dense mats over the soil and prevent soil erosion.
 Soil Formation: They take part in building soil in rocks and crevices formed by lichens.
 Water Retention: This property is employed to keep seedlings and cut plants moist during transportation and propagation.
In older times, Sphagnum was used in place of absorbent cotton.
 Peat: Sphagnum (Bog moss) often grows in acidic marshes. The dead parts of moss and other plants are slowly
carbonized, compressed, and fossilized over thousands of years to produce a dark spongy mass called peat. The peat
blocks are used as fuel. Peat is also good manure. It overcomes soil alkalinity and increases its water retention and
aeration.
 Other Uses: They are a good source of animal food in rocky and ice-clad areas.

KEY TERMS

Liverworts - a small flowerless green plant with leaflike stems or lobed leaves, occurring in moist habitats.

Mosses - a small flowerless green plant that lacks true roots, growing in damp habitats and reproducing by means of spores released
from stalked capsules.

Phylum Pteridophyta

Classification of Pteridophyta
• The root, stem and leaves made up the plant body.
• Pteridophyta has well developed vascular system (xylem and phloem) for the transport of water and other substances, from one
part of the plant body to another.
• These are non-flowering plants and do not produce seeds.
• Multicellular sex- organs covered by sterile cells.
• A fertilized egg develops into an embryo.
 • Examples: Club mosses – Selaginella, Lycopodium; horsetails – Equisetum; and ferns – Marsilea, Azolla, Adiantum, Dryopteris,
Pteris and Pteridium.
• Sperms are flagellate.
• Heteromorphic generation of alternation is present.
• An embryo stage is present.
• The most conspicuous of the pteridophytes are the ferns (Pteropsida).

General Characteristics of Pteridophyta

1. They have roots, stems, and leaves but no flowers.
2. Leaves are compounded with leaflets known as pinna.
3. They possess clearly defined vascular system (Having xylem and Phloem)
4. They show alternation of generations.
5. Sexual reproduction
6. They have spirongira.

Economic Importance of Pteridophyta

 Pteridophytes commonly known as Vascular Cryptogams, are the seedless vascular plants that evolved after bryophytes.
Besides being a lower plant, pteridophytes are economically very important.
 The dry fronds of many ferns are used as cattle feed.
 Pteridophytes are also used as a medicine. The decoction of foliage of Lycopodium is used in homeopathy to treat diarrhea,
bladder irritability, eczema, rheumatism, constipation, and inflammation of liver. The Flavonoids and saponins present in
Equisetum have diuretic affect. The fern, Dryopteris, yields an anthelminthic drug. Sporocarps of Marsilea are rich source of
starch and eaten for their nutritive value as food. Osmunda cinnamomic is used externally for rheumatism and internally for joint
pain. The chemically active principal ‘Marceline’ isolated from Marsilea is found to be very effective against sedative and anti-
convulsant principle.
 Aquatic pteridophyte Azolla is used as a biofertilizer. Azolla forms a symbiotic relationship with cyanobacteria and therefore, the
former is used in water-logged rice fields as a green manure which provides nitrogen to the plant.
 Phylum Tracheophyta

Major Characteristics of Phylum Tracheophyta

1. Tracheophyta is the largest and most advanced of the plant divisions.
2. The sporophyte (2n) is the dominant stage in the tracheophyte life cycle.
a. Recall that the gametophyte is the dominant life stage in the bryophyte life cycle.
b. In tracheophytes, the sporophyte is independent and autotrophic and possesses specialized vascular tissue.
3. The largest and most conspicuous differences between tracheophytes from bryophytes are vegetative and morphological
differences.
4. Tracheophytes possess true vascular tissue. Thus, they are called the vascular plants while bryophytes are called the non-
vascular plants.
a. (2) types of specialized tissue of vascular function are called.
• Xylem – conducts water and dissolved minerals upward from the roots.
• Phloem – conducts sucrose and other organic compounds throughout the plant.
b. (2) functions of the vascular tissues (xylem and phloem) are
• Transport of food, water, and minerals in plant body.
• Support of plant

Classification

Psilopsida • They are the most primitive.

• The stem is photosynthetic and dichotomously branched.
• Rhizoids are present.
• Leaves are mostly absent.
• The sporophyte is homosporous synangium.
 Lycopsida
• They are commonly known as club moss.
• Well-differentiated plant body with adventitious root, stem, rhizophores and leaves.
• The sporophyte is homosporous or heterosporous.
• Examples- Selaginella, Lycopodium.

• Commonly known as horsetail.

• Well-differentiated plant body with roots arising from nodes of the underground rhizome,
Sphenopsida stem, and scaly leaves.
• Homosporous, sporangia are borne on strobili.
• Examples- Equisetum.

Pteropsida • Commonly known as a fern.

• Well-differentiated plant body with roots, stem, and leaves.
• The sporophyte is homosporous or heterosporous.
• Antherozoids are multileveled.
• Examples- Equisetum
 Class Filicinae (ferns)

Definition of Filicinae
• Filicinae or (Ferns) also called Monilophytes, is anyone of the group about 12,000 species of plants. Unlike Mosses, they have
xylem and phloem, making them vascular plants. They have stems, leaves, and roots like other vascular plants. Ferns do not
have either seeds or flowers; they reproduce via spores.

• The larges ferns are the leptosporangiate ferns, but ferns as defined here include horsetails, whisk ferns, marattoid ferns, and
ophioglossoid ferns. The term Pteridophyte also refers to ferns, and possibly other seedless vascular plants. A Pteridologist is
the specialist in the study of ferns and lycophytes.

Ecology
 Fern species live in a wide variety of habitats, from remote mountain elevations to dry dessert rock faces, to bodies of water or in
an open field.
 Many ferns depend on associations with mycorrhizal fungi many ferns only grow within specific pH ranges; from instance, the
climbing fern (Lygodium) will only grow in moist, intensely acid soil, while the bulblet bladder fern (Cystopteris bulbiferal), with an
overlapping range, is only found on limestone.

Evolution
Ferns first appeared in the fossil record 360 million years ago in the carboniferous but many of the current families and species did not
appear until roughly 145 million years ago in the late cretaceous.

Economic Uses
Ferns are not of the major economic importance, but some are grown or gathered for food, as ornamental plants, or for remediating
contaminated soils. Some are significant weeds. They also featured in mythology, medicine, and art.
 Class Gymnospermae

Definition of Gymnospermae
The word “Gymnosperm” comes from the Greek words “gymnos” (naked) and “sperma” (seed), hence known as “Naked seeds.”
Gymnosperms are seed-producing plants, but unlike angiosperms, they produce seeds without fruits. These plants develop on the
surface of scales or leaves, or at the end of stalks forming a cone-like structure.

General Characteristics of Gymnospermae

1. They are xerophytic, with sunken stomata and thick cuticles.
2. The xylem is without vessels and phloem lacks companion cells.
3. Reproductive organs are usually in the form of cones or strobili. The male cones are made up of microsporophyll’s and female
cones are made up of megasporophylls.
4. Microsporophyll’s bear microsporangia.
5. Large number of microspores (pollen grains) are produced in microsporangia after reduction division, which later form male
gametophytes.
6. Male gametophytes of all gymnosperms produce pollen tubes.
7. In the nucellus of megasporangia (ovules) one of the cells forms a megaspore mother cell which after reduction division forms a
linear tetrad of megaspores of which only one is functional.
8. Functional megaspore forms female gametophyte (also called endosperm). Thus, the endosperm is a pre-fertilization tissue in
gymnosperms).

Economic Importance of Gymnospermae

1. Edible seeds

2. Timber

3. Paper
Classification of Gymnospermae
Name Definition Picture
Cycadophyta Cycads are dioecious (meaning individual plants are
either all male or female). Cycads are seed-bearing
plants where most of the members are now extinct.
They flourished during the Jurassic and late Triassic
era.

Ginkgophyta The Ginkgo trees are characterized by their large size

and their fan-like leaves. Also, Ginkgo trees have
many applications ranging from medicine to cooking.
Ginkgo leaves are ingested as a remedy for memory-
related disorders like Alzheimer’s.
Gnetophyta Gnetophytes usually consist of tropical plants, trees,
and shrubs. They are characterized by flowery leaves
that have a soft coating. This coating reveals an
ancestral connection with the angiosperms.
Gnetophytes differ from other members of this class
as they possess vessel elements in their xylem.
Coniferophyta These are the most known species among the
gymnosperm family. They are evergreen; hence they
do not shed their leaves in the winter. These are
mainly characterized by male and female cones which
form needle-like structures.

KEY POINTS
 Gymnosperms are non-flowering plants belonging to the sub-kingdom Embophyta.
 The seeds are not enclosed in an ovary or fruit. They are exposed on the surface of the leaf-like structures of the gymnosperms.
 They can be classified as Coniferophyta, Cycadophyta, Ginkgophyta and Gnetophyta.
 Class Angiospermae

These plants are the most common plants and the largest group of plants on earth. It is estimated that there are around 270,000
known species present. They account for 80% of all the living plants that are known! They have great economic importance, as
they are an important source of food and a very important ecological component.

What is Angiosperm?
Flowering plants are called angiosperms. The flowering plants are the most dominant vascular plants that are found in fauna all
around the world. The pleasing and attractive colors of their flowers certainly add much more color and brighten the landscape of
any place. Due to the presence of flowers and enclosed seeds, they are called the phanerogams. Scientifically speaking, in
these plants, the seeds are enclosed, with the ovules present in a hollow ovary.

Reproduction and Fertilization

In Angiosperms the flower is the reproductive organ.
One of its basic functions is to produce seeds
through sexual reproduction. The lifecycle of
angiosperms shows the alternation of generations.
The haploid gametophyte alternates with the diploid
sporophyte.

The characteristic double fertilization occurs here,

wherein one of the sperm fuses with the egg and
forms the zygote (syngamy). The other sperm fuses
with polar nuclei and forms the endosperm (Triple
fusion). As the two processes of syngamy and triple
fusion occur, the whole process is called double
fertilization. The following figure shows the double
fertilization.
Classification of Angiosperm
Based on the types of cotyledons present, angiosperms are divided into two classes. They are monocotyledons and dicotyledons. The
dicotyledonous angiosperms have two cotyledons in their seeds and the monocotyledonous angiosperms have one cotyledon.

Monocotyledonous Plants
The monocots have some distinct features that include the presence of
adventitious roots, simple leaves with parallel venation, and trimerous flowers. The
number of vascular bundles is more and is closed. Some of the examples include
bamboos, sugarcane plants, bananas, cereals, lilies etc.

Dicotyledonous plants
The dicotyledonous plants have two cotyledons with a tap root system. The venation seen in the
leaves is reticulate. Flowers can be tetramerous or pentamerous. Vascular bundles are generally
arranged in a ring and number between two to six. Examples include Grapes, Dandelions,
Sunflower, Tomatoes, and Potatoes etc.
 REFERENCE

https://byjus.com/biology/monera/
https://byjus.com/biology/protista/
https://www.vedantu.com/neet/ascomycetes
https://collegedunia.com/exams/ascomycetes-general-
characteristics-reproduction-importance-examples-
biology-articleid-3104
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/basidiomycetes/
https://studylib.net/doc/5577890/filicinae--
gymnospermae--angiospermae
https://www.toppr.com/guides/biology/plant-
kingdom/angiosperms/#:~:text=the%20double%20f
ertilization.-
,Classification%20of%20Angiosperms,monocotyle
donous%20angiosperms%20have%20one%20cot
yledon.

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/deuteromycetes/

https://www.ucbmsh.org/colleges-in-
dehradun/courses/botany-courses-in-
dehradun/economic-importance-
pteridophytes#:~:text=Besides%20being%20a%20lowe
r%20plant%2C%20pteridophytes%20are%20economic
ally,feed.%20Pteridophytes%20are%20also%20used%
20as%20a%20medicine.

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/kingdom-plantae/

https://byjus.com/biology/gymnosperms/

https://byjus.com/biology/pteridophyta/