GENERAL NAVIGATION

1. What are cardinal, ordinal directions & Secondary Intercardinal Directions?

CARDINAL – N, S, E, W
ORDINAL – NE, NW, SE, SW
SECONDARY INTERCARDINAL – NNE, ENE, ESE, SSE, SSW, WSW, WNW, NNW

2. Define Sexagesimal System used in navigation?

● Sexagesimal system uses the fact that a clockwise rotation from north
through east, south and west and back to north is a circle of 360 degrees,
north is thus 000 degrees, east becomes 090 degrees, south 180 degrees
and west 270 degrees, north can be 360 or 000 degrees.
● When the north datum is with respect to the geographic north pole then the
directions are termed as true directions and shown as 000(T), 090(T), 135(T),
etc
● 090(M) will be the direction with respect to the magnetic north and 090(C )
will be the direction with the datum as the compass north.
3. With simple diagram explain the dimensions of the earth.

4. State the reason for seasons and mention all prominent seasons experienced by us.
 The predominant cause of the Seasons is the inclination (tilt) of the earth. The
Earth’s axis is inclined (tilted) at an angle of 66.5° to its orbital plane and this is often
stated as 23.5° to the normal to the orbital plane (90°- 66.5° = 23.5°).
● The sun appears vertically above 23½°S on the 21st of December. This is
known as:-
NH - Winter Solstice SH - Summer Solstice
● The sun will appear above 23½°N on the 21st of June at the:-
NH - Summer Solstice SH - Winter Solstice
● The sun crosses the equator from South to North on about 21st March. This
is known as:-
NH - Spring Equinox SH - Autumn Equinox
● Six months later it crosses the equator from North to South on about 21st
September.
NH - Autumn Equinox SH - Spring Equinox
5. Mention at least 3 properties of the latitude that is also a grate circle.
● Equator is a great circle whose plane is at the right angles to the axis of
rotation of the earth.
● It lies in an East – West direction and cuts the earth into northern and
southern hemisphere.
● It is the datum for defining Latitude.
6. Define the term Great Circle Vertices
● The Northern Vertex of the G/C is simply the northern most point on that
G/C. Same for the Southern Vertex. They will always be Diametrically
Opposite to each other and Distance between them will be 10800 nm or
20000 Km
● The two vertices will always lie on a meridian and its anti-meridian and will
have equal Lat value with opposite hemisphere.
● The direction of the G/C at either vertex will be E-W i.e. 090 – 270.
● A G/C will cross the Equator at two points whose longitude is 90° removed
from the longitude of the vertex.
● A G/C will cross the Equator at an angle equal to the Lat of its vertex.
● Meridians and the Equator are special cases of G/C which cut the Equator at
90° and 0° respectively
7. What is a Prime meridian?
The Prime meridian is the basis from which all lines of longitude are measured, the
Prime meridian is zero degrees longitude.
The prime meridian does the same thing for longitude that the equator does for
latitude.
It runs the royal observatory at Greenwich (in London, England) and is referred to as
the Greenwich Meridian.
The prime meridian is the datum for defining longitude.
8. State the difference in Principle between Latitude and Longitude.

9. List out the difference & similarities between international date line and anti-meridian
● At 180 degrees of the Prime Meridian in the Pacific Ocean is the
Antimeridian and International Date Line is drawn with reference of this line
● The International Date determines where the new day begins in the world.
 ● Now because of this, the International Date Line is not actually a straight
line, rather it follows national borders so that a country isn’t divided into
two separate days.
10. Properties of latitudes
● Arc of meridian intercepted between equator and the place or point on the
earth.
● Latitude is termed as north if place is north of equator and termed as south
if place is south of equator.
● Maximum latitude can be 90 deg N or S
● It is measured in deg min and sec
11. Properties of longitudes
● Shorter arc of equator intercepted between Prime/ Greenwich/ Zero
meridian passing through the place.
● Termed as East if the place is East of Prime meridian and as West if the place
is West of Prime meridian
● Maximum longitude can be 180 deg E or W
● It can be measured in deg, min and sec
12. Define GRATICULE
● The network formed on a map or the surface of a globe by the Prime
Meridian, the meridians, the Equator and the parallels of latitude is called
the Graticule.
● Using the graticule, the position of any point can be accurately and
unambiguously defined. However, position is defined by angular
measurement (degrees, minutes, and seconds of arc), not by distance, as on
Cartesian co-ordinates.
13. Explain the occurrence and significance of Equinox.
The equinoxes are the only time when both the Northern and Southern
Hemispheres experience roughly equal amounts of daytime and nighttime. On
Earth, there are two equinoxes every year:
The sun crosses the equator from South to North on about 21st March.

This is known as:-

NH - Spring Equinox, SH - Autumn Equinox

Six months later it crosses the equator from North to South on about 21st September. NH - Autumn
Equinox, SH - Spring Equinox

14. State the Two special cases of Great Circle Vertices.

Meridians and the Equator are special cases of G/C which cut the Equator at 90° and
0° respectively
15. What are Small circles.
● Meridians and the Equator are special cases of G/C which cut the Equator at
90° and 0° respectively
● Any circle on the surface of the earth which is smaller than GC
● Examples parallels of latitude
16. List the lines that are both Great Circles and also Rhumb Lines.
 ● Equator
● All meridians (along with its associated anti-meridian)
● Great circle vertices
17. What is True Direction?
Direction with reference to the poles about which the Earth spins (North or South)
and the direction in which the Earth spins (East). This is known as True direction.
18. Define magnetic direction
The magnetic pole to which the magnetic compass points is directions measured
from the magnetic poles are called magnetic directions
Magnetic Direction is measured from magnetic North clockwise through 360°, and is
suffixed by the letter ‘M’. e.g. 043(M)
19. Define variations
● In aerial navigation, the difference between true and magnetic directions is
called variation
● The amount of variation depends on your location in relation to the poles
● Points of equal variation can be connected by an line on a map, That line can
be called as "isogonic" lines.
● West is best (+), East is least (-)
● Termed east when MN is east of Tn and west if MN is west of TN
● Maximum variation can be 180 deg E or W
20. What is deviation?
● Local magnetic fields in an aircraft caused by electrical current flowing in the
structure, in nearby wiring or any magnetized part of the structure, cause a
compass error called deviation
● Deviation manifests itself differently between aircraft and depending on
heading however, but it is not affected by the geographic location
● In aerial navigation, it is the difference between the magnetic direction and
compass direction.
● Termed east if Compass N is east of MN and west if CN is west of MN
● Deviation East – compass least
● Deviation west – compass best
21. With respect to earth’s magnetism, what is the “Angle of Dip”

22. What are Isogonal & agonic Lines.

 ● Points of equal variation can be connected by an line on a map, That line
can be called as "isogonic" lines
● Lines joining places of zero variation
23. What are Isoclinals & Aclinic Lines
● Isoclinals are lines on a map or chart joining places of equal magnetic dip.
● Aclinic Lines is the name given to isoclinals joining places of zero dip.
24. Define planned track, track made good & Track Error Angle.
The track you intended to fly is called the “planned track”. The track you actually
make over the ground (presumably because the actual wind is different from the
forecast) is called the “track made good” (or TMG). The difference between them is
called “Track Error Angle”
25. What will be the effect on variation and deviation as the latitude progresses towards the
pole?
The variation and deviation will increase as the latitude progresses towards the pole.
26. You are flying from A to B, which is a required track of 125°(T). You find that your position
is 40 NM from B and 2 NM left of the required track. What track must you fly to arrive
overhead R?

27. You are flying from N to P, which is a required track of 315°(T). You find that your position
is 40 NM outbound from N and 6 NM left of the required track. What is your track made
good?

28. If an aircraft is 3° off required track at a range of 120 NM, how far in nautical miles (NM) is
the aircraft off required track?

29. If an aircraft is 2 miles off required track at a range of 40 NM, what is the angle off track?

30. State few main applications of the 1 in 60 Rule besides navigation

● Calculation of height on a glide slope.
● Calculation of rate of descent to maintain a glide slope.
● Calculation of shallow slopes, particularly runway slopes.
● Calculation of distance off required track using radio aids such as VOR/DME
31. Define Topographical map.
● A topographic map or topographic sheet is a type of map characterized by
large-scale detail and quantitative representation of relief features, usually
using contour lines.
● Traditional topographic map to shows both natural and artificial features of
the corresponding place.
● Official topographic maps must adopt to national grid referencing system.
32. What are 3 basic characteristics of topographic maps
● RELIEF
● LOCAL SALIENT FEATURES
● SCALE
33. What are Contours in a Topographical map, what dose the distance between them signify
regarding the slop gradient.
 ● Lines drawn joining all places which are at the same elevation above mean
sea level are called contours and the intervals at which they are drawn can
be read from the chart.
● These contours may be depicted in feet or meters.
● Contours which are close together indicate steeply sloping ground whereas
widely spaced contours indicate gently sloping ground.
34. List all the ideal features of a visual checkpoint.
● In the planning stage, the pilot will study the route and select visual
checkpoints normally occurring at about 5 to 10 minute intervals.
● A visual checkpoint will be a significant ground feature which can be
overflown or used as a reference to fly an appropriate distance away from.
● Ideally, the checkpoint should be recognizable from some distance away to
allow for timely alterations of heading.
● Visual checkpoints do not need to be exactly on track; a good feature close
to track is better than a poor feature on track.
35. Give at least 6 examples of a Typical Visual Checkpoints.
● Coastlines
● Water Features
● Mountains/Hills
● Towns/Villages.
● Roads.
● Power stations/ isolated factories
36. What is the purpose of Legend section of a map?
legend is a list of symbols that appear on the map, it is a visual explanation of the
symbols used on the map
37. What are restricted and prohibited airspace in a Map?
Prohibited airspace refers to an area (volume) of airspace within which flight of aircraft
is not allowed, usually due to security concerns.
It is one of many types of special use airspace designations and is depicted on
aeronautical charts with the letter "P" followed by a serial number.
It differs from restricted airspace in that entry is typically forbidden at all times from all
aircraft and is not subject to clearance from ATC or the airspace's controlling body.
38. Define Convergency.
Convergency is defined as the angle of inclination between two selected meridians
measured at a given latitude.
Convergency = chlong in deg * sin(mean lat)
Higher the latitude, more the convergency
More chlong, more is convergency.
39. Define conversion angle
The difference between Great Circle direction and Rhumb Line direction joining two
given points is called Conversion Angle
CA = ½ * convergency
CA = ½ * chlong in deg * sin mean lat
40. What is departure, how does it vary as latitude varies?
Departure is the distance between two meridians along a specified parallel of
latitude, usually in nautical miles.
It results from the convergence of the meridians at different latitudes.
 Departure is maximum at the equator where 1° Change of Longitude (Ch. Long)
equals 60’ of arc of a Great Circle
Departure (nm) = Ch.Long (min) × cos.lat
It varies as cos of the latitude as latitude varies.
41. What are “Perspective” and “Non-perspective” Charts?
• Perspective” and “Non-Perspective” Charts : Charts produced directly from a projection are
called perspective or geometric projections.
• Charts produced by mathematical methods are called non-perspective charts.
• Most of the charts we use are in this latter, non-perspective category but they can be
thought of as perspective projections which have been modified mathematically.
42. List few Properties of an Ideal Chart
● REPRESENTATION OF THE EARTH’S SURFACE
✔ Angles on the Earth’s surface should be represented by the same
angles on the chart.
✔ Scale should be constant and ‘correct’.
✔ Areas should be represented with their true shape on the chart.
✔ Equal areas on the Earth’s surface should be shown as equal areas
on the chart
● NAVIGATION REQUIREMENTS
✔ Rhumb Lines should be straight lines
✔ Great Circles should be straight lines.
✔ Latitudes/Longitudes should be easy to plot
✔ Adjacent sheets should fit correctly.
✔ Coverage should be worldwide
● ORTHOMORPHISM / CONFORMALITY
✔ navigation bearings must be “correct” and the critical
property is that angles on the Earth must be
represented correctly on the chart
43. Define Orthomorphism
Of all the ideal properties, the only essential one is that navigation bearings must be
“correct” and the critical property is that angles on the Earth must be represented
correctly on the chart

44. Explain, when can a map be called a Conformal chart?

● The meridians and parallels on the chart must intersect at right angles
● The second condition relates to the scale at a point on the chart. (At any
point on a chart, scale should be the same in all directions, or should change
at the same rate in all directions.)
45. State the 2 properties that is desirable but can never be obtained on a Map.
● Scale can never be constant and correct. We can modify charts
mathematically to give nearly constant scale in small areas, but not over
large areas.
● The shapes of large areas cannot be represented perfectly. However, it is
possible to represent the shapes of small areas reasonably accurately.
46. Why did Mercator make his chart non-perspective chart?
Mercator mathematically adjusted the positions of the parallels of latitude to make
the chart orthomorphic/conformal.
47. Define LMT & UTC
● Local Mean Time (LMT) is a type of solar time, a timekeeping method using
the Sun's movements across the sky. It is based on the average length of a
solar day. When the mean sun transits (crosses) a particular meridian, the
Local Mean Time (LMT) at all places on that meridian is 1200 hrs (midday,
noon). Similarly, when the mean sun transits the anti-meridian of a point,
the LMT at the point is 0000hrs (2400hrs) or midnight
● LMT at the Greenwich Meridian is known as Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)
also called Zulu ‘Z’, which used to be the Earth’s standard time. The present
standard time is called Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) which for all
practical purposes is the same as GMT. Co-ordinated Universal Time (UTC)
changes at a constant rate and is regulated against International Atomic
Time (IAT) derived from atomic clocks. UTC is the datum for world time.
48. State Kepler’s First Law
The orbit of each planet is an ellipse with the sun at one of the foci.
49. State Kepler’s Second Law
● The line joining the planet to the sun, known as the radius vector, sweeps
out equal areas in equal time.
● As the distance from the sun varies the speed of the planet along its orbit
will vary.
● Speed will be lowest when planet is furthest from Sun and faster when it is
closest.
50. Define the term ‘Civil’ Day.
A ‘civil’ day should be:
● Related to periods of light and darkness so that1200hrs is always about
halfway between sunrise and sunset. The civil day should therefore be based
on the Sun.
● Of a constant length.
51. What is an Apparent Solar Day?
An apparent Solar Day is measured against the real or apparent Sun. An apparent
solar day is the period of time between two successive passages of the sun across a
meridian.
52. What is the meaning of the term perihelion & aphelion?

53. What are the difference between Civil Twilight, Nautical Twilight & Astronomical Twilight
● Before sunrise, there is a period when it becomes light and after sunset
there is a perod when it remains light. These periods are called generally
‘TWILIGHT’.
● VISUAL horizon is below the SENSIBLE horizon.
✔ Civil twilight – sun 6 deg or less below sensible horizon
(duration 21 mts near equator)
✔ Nautical twilight – sun 6deg – 12 deg below horizon
✔ Astronomical twilight – sun 12 deg – 18 deg below horizon
54. Why is grid navigation used?

• The main reason is that, at high latitudes, the amount of

meridian convergence becomes significant.
• But grid can be used at all latitudes, particularly on long routes
because grid uses a great circle course for a heading reference.

55. Define Grid North.

• In order to obtain a constant straight line track direction, a datum meridian is selected and
lines parallel to this meridian are drawn at suitable intervals on the chart to form a grid.
• The direction of the Datum meridian is known as Grid North.
• The direction of the track measured from Grid north is constant and is known as Grid
direction
 56. State various errors of a gyro.

The errors of a gyro are

• Real Drift (also known as Random Wander),

• Earth Rate, and
• Transport Wander.

57. Define the term ‘Cocked Hat’

The intersection of three position lines usually forms a triangle - called a ‘cocked hat’ - and
the fix is then taken to be at the point where the bisectors of the angles of the triangle
would meet.

58. Common misconception & facts about changes of seasons

There is a common misconception that the changes of seasons are governed by the
Earth’s distance from the Sun. This is not true. As the Sun’s heat is transmitted
radially, the effect of the distance change between 91.4 million statute miles at
perihelion and 94.6 million statute miles at aphelion would only be to change the
amount of heat received by the Earth by about 3%, not enough to explain the
marked changes between the summer and winter
59. What is Mean Solar Day
● The mean solar day is the average length of an apparent solar day
● It is of constant length and related to light and darkness; it is used as the
‘civil’ day and is divided into hours, minutes and seconds of ‘mean’ time.
● Speed of true sun varies
● Mean sun is an imaginary sun which revolves around the earth at uniform
speed which is the average speed of true sun
● So mean solar day is interval between two successive transits of mean sun
over a particular meridian
● It has exact 24 hours
60. What are Zone Times?
● Zone time in each zone is LMT of Central meridian so in any zone ZT and
LMT can not differ by more than 30 minutes. It was based on the fact that
the sun transits 15 deg in 1 hour.
● Zone number is the correction in hours to be applied to ZT to give LMT
 ● Globe is divided into 24 zones each of 15deg of longitude
● East is Minus and West is plus
● Central meridian of each zone is 15deg or a multiple of 15deg removed from
Greenwich meridian.
UTC = Zone Time + Zone Number
61. What is a Magnetic Compass?
A compass is an instrument designed to indicate direction on the surface of the
earth, relative to some known datum. The magnetic compass uses the horizontal
component of the earth’s field as its directional datum. The purpose of a magnetic
‘steering’ compass in an aircraft is to indicate heading, the direction in which the
aircraft is pointing.
62. State 3 ideal properties of a magnetic compass.
● HORIZONTAL
● SENSITIVE
● APERIODIC
63. Explain Hard Iron Magnetism in a aircraft
The total force at the compass position produced by permanent hard iron
magnetism can be resolved into three components. These components will be fixed
for a given aircraft and will not change with change of heading
64. How is Direct Indicating Magnetic Compass different from simple magnetic compass.

65. State the Accuracy Limits of a compass.

Accuracy Limit - JAR: ± 10°

66. Find the shortest distance between Point ‘A’ (3543N 00841E) and Point ‘B’ (5417N
17119W)

67. An aircraft flies 100NM in 20 minutes. How long does it take to fly 215 NM

68. What is Compass Swing

The basic method of determining deviation is to compare the aircraft’s heading

compass reading with magnetic heading as defined by a high quality ‘land or datum’
compass. This comparison of aircraft compass and magnetic datum readings is
carried out in an area selected specifically for this purpose.

Therefore the aims of a compass swing are as follows:

✔ To observe / determine the deviations / differences between Magnetic

North (observed on a Landing Compass) and Compass North (observed in
the aircraft) on a series of headings
✔ To correct / remove as much deviation as possible
✔ To record the residual deviation which is left after the Compass has been
adjusted

The magnetic deviation observed during a compass swing can be said to be derived
from Hard Iron and Soft Iron magnetism and this total field can in turn, for our purposes, be
later resolved into two further combined components (coefficients B and C)
69. What is Vertical Card Compass
The vertical card compass - which is also known as the B-type or E-type - is the direct
reading compass in general use. It is usually the main magnetic heading reference in
light aircraft and the standby compass in larger aircraft. It consists of a circular
compass card attached directly to the magnet assembly. This combined unit is
suspended in liquid within the compass bowl. A vertical lubber line on the glass
window of the bowl, enables the heading to be read off the compass card.
70. Explain about the Grid Ring Compass
The P-type compass or grid ring compass is found on older aircraft. It is more
accurate than the vertical card compass and is more stable. It is however heavier,
bulkier and more expensive. In addition it can only be read in straight and level
flight, as the grid ring has to be unclamped and aligned with the north reference
before a reading can be taken against the lubber line. The grid ring compass also
differs from the vertical card compass in that it achieves a greater periodicity by the
addition of damping wires which also rotate through the compass liquid.

71. Brief about DME as a nave aid

DME indicates slant range from the ground DME facility to the aircraft. Strictly, this
should be converted to plan range before plotting but, unless the height is given in
the question, it is not possible to do so. If the range is more than about 10nm the
difference is insignificant unless the aircraft is at high altitude.