Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures I

CHAPTER TWO

BASIC CONCEPTS OF DESIGN

2.1. Introduction

Design is a process used in engineering to specify how to create or do something. A design must
satisfy such requirements like functional, performance and resource usage. It is also expected to
meet restrictions on the design process, time of completion, cost, or the available tools for doing
the design.

“Structural design can be defined as a mixture of art and science, combining the engineer’s
feeling for the behavior of a structure with a sound knowledge of the principles of statics,
dynamics, mechanics of materials, and structural analysis, to produce a safe economical structure
that will serve its intended purpose” (Salmon and Johnson 1990). It is the process of determining
the dimensions and layout of the load resisting (structural) components of a structure to satisfy
the purpose of use, to possess safety and durability, and to be economical. In civil works,
buildings, bridges, dams, retaining walls, highway pavements, aircraft landing strips are typical
with individual specialized design procedure.

Structural Analysis is the assessment of the performance of a given structure under given loads
and other effects, such as support movements or temperature change.

Figure 2.1 Reinforced Concrete Building Components

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This course provides the first encounter on the analysis and design of the individual structural
elements of reinforced concrete structures with emphasis on:

 Beams – horizontal members carrying lateral loads and subjected to flexural and shear
stress,
 Slabs – horizontal plate elements carrying gravity loads and subjected to flexural stress,
and
 Columns – vertical members carrying primarily axial load but generally subjected to axial
compressive force with or without bending moment.

In Reinforced Concrete buildings, architectural planning and design is carried out to determine
the arrangement and layout of the building to meet the client’s requirements. The structural
engineer then determines the best structural system or forms to realize the architect’s concept.
The structural analysis versus design cycle is represented by the flowchart in figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2 The Structural Design Process

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Once the form and structural arrangement have been finalized the structural design procedure
consists of the following:

Step 1: Idealization of the structure into component parts

Step 2: Load estimation on the various structural components

Step 3: Analysis to determine the maximum internal stresses and strains

Step 4: Design of sections and reinforcement arrangements

Step 5: Detail drawings and bar schedule preparation

Serviceability, Strength and Structural Safety

To serve its purpose, a structure must be safe against collapse and serviceable in use.

Serviceability requires that deflections be adequately small; that cracks, if any, be kept to
tolerable limits; that vibrations be minimized; etc. Durability requirements are concerned with
the deterioration and decay of materials with age and environmental impact.

Safety requires that the strength of a structure, built as designed, could be predicted accurately,
safety could be ensured by providing a carrying capacity just barely in excess of the known
loads. However there are a number of sources of uncertainty in the analysis, design and
construction of RC structures. These sources of uncertainty, which require a definite margin of
safety, may be listed as follows:

i. Actual loads may differ from those assumed.

ii. Actual loads may be distributed in a manner different from that assumed.
iii. The assumptions and simplifications inherent in any analysis may result in calculated
load effects – moments, shears, etc. different from those that, in fact, act in the structure.
iv. The actual structural behavior may differ from that assumed, owing to imperfect
knowledge.
v. Actual member dimensions may differ from those specified.
vi. Reinforcement may not be in its proper position.
vii. Actual material strength may be different from that specified.

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The purpose of structural design is to provide a structure with least possible construction and
maintenance costs, provision of necessary space and of all guaranteeing satisfactory performance
during the lifetime of the structure. Satisfactory performance in this context implies that under all
unfavorable action of load combination imposed on the structure:

 The existence of adequate safety against collapse must be ensured,

 Limited deformation showing structure function shall not be impaired, and
 Adequate safety against any hazardous events to enable escape of the occupants must be
possible.

Hence, design involves selection of structural forms, assessment of the dimension of the various
members for the selected structural forms to satisfy the stated performances, maintaining a
proper balance between safety and economy.

Therefore, a structure must be designed on the basis of strength, serviceability and durability
requirements.

2.2. Design Philosophy

There are three methods of concrete design. These are:

1. The Working Stress Design (WSD) method

2. The Ultimate Strength Design (USD) method (also called Load Factor Method (LFD))
3. The Limit State Design (LSD) method
2.2.1. The Working Stress Design (WSD) method

In this method the section of reinforced concrete members are designed assuming straight line
stress-strain relationships, i.e., the response and stresses are elastic. The stresses in the concrete
and steel at service load are kept below a stress called allowable or permissible stress, which is
obtained dividing the ultimate strength of the materials by safety factor. For instance, the
allowable compressive stress in extreme fiber of concrete should not exceed 0.425𝑓𝑐𝑘 and that of
tensile stress in steel 0.52𝑓𝑦𝑘 , for class-I works.

The internal bending moments and forces for a structure are calculated assuming linear elastic
behavior. Because of elastic stress distribution is assumed in design, it is not really applicable to
a semi-plastic (elasto-plastic) material such as concrete, nor is it suitable when deformations are

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not proportional to the load, as in slender columns. It has also been found to be unsafe when
dealing with the stability of structures subject to overturning forces. This method was used from
1900-1950 for the design of reinforced concrete members.

The drawbacks of WSD are:

i. Reinforced concrete sections behave in-elastically at high loads; hence elastic theory
cannot give a reliable prediction of the strength of the members because inelastic strains
are not taken into account.
ii. Because reserve of strength in the inelastic range of stress-strain of concrete is not
utilized, the Working Stress Design Method is conservative and hence results in
uneconomical design.
iii. The stress-strain curve for concrete is nonlinear and is time dependent. Creep strains can
be several times elastic strains. Therefore, modular ratio used in WSD is a crude
approximation. Creep Strains can cause a substantial redistribution of stresses and actual
stresses in structures are far from allowable stress used in design.
2.2.2. The Ultimate Strength Design (USD) method

After about half a century of practical experience and laboratory tests the knowledge of the
behavior of structural concrete under load has vastly increased and the deficiencies of elastic
theory (working stress design method) have become evident.

In the ultimate strength method, sections are designed taking the actual inelastic strains into
account. The design stresses used are the ultimate strengths of materials and for safety the loads
are magnified or scaled up by load factors. Typical load factors used are 1.4 for dead load and
1.7 for live load. Structural analysis is carried out either assuming linear elastic behavior of the
structure up to ultimate load or by taking some account of the redistribution of actions due to the
non-linear behavior at high loads.

As this method does not apply factors of safety to material stresses, it cannot directly take
account of variability of the materials, and also it cannot be used to calculate the deflections or
cracking at working loads. USD method became accepted as an alternative design method in
building codes of ACI in 1956 and of UK in 1957. This method was popular from 1950 up to
1960s.

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2.2.3. The Limit State Design (LSD) method

The philosophy of the limit states method of design (LSM) represents a definite advancement
over the traditional design philosophies. Unlike WSD, which based calculations on service load
conditions alone, and unlike USD, which based calculations on ultimate load conditions alone,

LSM aims for a comprehensive and rational solution to the design problem, by considering
safety at ultimate loads and serviceability at working loads.

The LSM philosophy uses a multiple safety factor format which attempts to provide adequate
safety at ultimate loads as well as adequate serviceability at service loads, by considering all
possible ‘limit states’ (defined in the next section). The selection of the various multiple safety
factors is supposed to have a sound probabilistic basis, involving the separate consideration of
different kinds of failure, types of materials and types of loads. In this sense, LSM is more than a
mere extension of WSD and ULD. It represents a new ‘paradigm’ — a modern philosophy.

More recently, it has been recognized that the design approach for reinforced concrete should
ideally combine the best features of ultimate strength and working stress design.

This is desirable because if sections are proportioned by ultimate strength requirements alone
there is a danger that although the load factors are adequate to ensure safety against strength
failure, the cracking and deflections at service loads may be excessive. Cracking may be
excessive if the steel stresses are high or if the bars are badly distributed.

Deflections may be critical if the shallow section, which are possible in USD, are used and the
stress are high. Thus, to ensure a satisfactory design, the deflections and crack widths must be
checked for service loads to make sure that they lie within reasonable limiting values dictated by
functional requirements of the structure. This check requires the use of elastic theory. Therefore,
in the LSD method structures will be designed for strength at ultimate loads (ULS), and
deflection and crack width checked at service loads (SLS).

This design philosophy is gaining acceptance in many countries throughout the world including
Ethiopia. ES EN 1992:2015 is based on the LSD method.

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What does mean Limit States?

When a structure or structural element becomes unfit for its intended use, it is said to have
reached a limit state. The limit states for reinforced concrete structures can be divided into three
basic groups:

i. Ultimate limit states: - these involve a structural collapse of part or all of the structure.
Such a limit state should have a very low probability of occurrence, because it may lead
to loss of life and major financial losses. The major ultimate limit states are as follows:
a) Loss of equilibrium of a part or all of the structure as a rigid body. Such a failure would
generally involve tipping or sliding of the entire structure and would occur if the
reactions necessary for equilibrium could not be developed.
b) Rupture of critical parts of the structure leading to partial or complete collapse. The
majority of this document deals with this limit state. Chapters 3 consider flexural failures;
Chapter 4 shear failures; and so on.
c) Progressive collapse. In some structures, an overload on one member may cause that
member to fail. The load acting on it is transferred to adjacent members which in turn
may be overloaded and fail causing them to shed their load to adjacent members causing
them to fail one after another until a major part of the structure has collapsed. This is
called a progressive collapse. Progressive collapse is prevented or at least is limited by
one or more of the following:
i) Controlling accidental events by taking measures such as protection against vehicle
collisions or explosions.
ii) Providing local resistance by designing key members to resist accidental events.
iii) Providing minimum horizontal and vertical ties to transfer forces.
iv) Providing alternative lines of support to anchor the tie forces.
v) Limiting the spread of damage by subdividing the building with planes of weakness
sometimes referred to as structural fuses.

A structure is said to have general structural integrity if it is resistant to progressive collapse. For
example, an explosion or a vehicle collision may accidentally remove a column that supports an
interior support of a two-span continuous beam. If properly detailed, the structural system may
change from two spans to one long span. This would entail large deflections and a change in the

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load path from beam action to catenary or tension membrane action. Most building Codes
require continuous ties of tensile reinforcement around the perimeter of the building at each floor
to reduce the risk of progressive collapse. The ties provide reactions to anchor the catenary
forces and limit the spread of damage. Because such failures are most apt to occur during
construction, the designer should be aware of the applicable construction loads and procedures.

d) Formation of a plastic mechanism. A mechanism is formed when the reinforcement

yields to form plastic hinges at enough sections to make the structure unstable.
e) Instability due to deformations of the structure. This type of failure involves buckling.
f) Fatigue. Fracture of members due to repeated stress cycles of service loads may cause
collapse.
ii. Serviceability limit states. These involve disruption of the functional use of the
structure, but not collapse. Because there is less danger of loss of life, a higher probability
of occurrence can generally be tolerated than in the case of an ultimate limit state. Design
for serviceability is will discussed in Chapter 5. The major serviceability limit states
include the following:
a) Excessive deflections for normal service. Excessive deflections may cause machinery to
malfunction, may be visually unacceptable, and may lead to damage to nonstructural
elements or to changes in the distribution of forces. In the case of very flexible roofs,
deflections due to the weight of water on the roof may lead to increased depth of water,
increased deflections, and so on, until the strength of the roof is exceeded. This is a
ponding failure and in essence is a collapse brought about by failure to satisfy a
serviceability limit state.
b) Excessive crack widths. Although reinforced concrete must crack before the
reinforcement can function effectively, it is possible to detail the reinforcement to
minimize the crack widths. Excessive crack widths may be unsightly and may allow
leakage through the cracks, corrosion of the reinforcement, and gradual deterioration of
the concrete.
c) Undesirable vibrations. Vertical vibrations of floors or bridges and lateral and torsional
vibrations of tall buildings may disturb the users. Vibration effects have rarely been a
problem in reinforced concrete buildings.

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iii. Special limit states. This class of limit states involves damage or failure due to abnormal
conditions or abnormal loadings and includes:
a) Damage or collapse in extreme earthquakes,
b) Structural effects of fire, explosions or vehicular collisions,
c) Structural effects of corrosion or deterioration, and
d) Long-term physical or chemical instability (normally not a problem with concrete
structures).
2.2.3.1. Limit state design process

The normal procedure is to design for a critical limit state and then to check for the other limit
states are satisfied. The critical state for reinforced concrete structures is usually the ultimate
limit state. However, water-retaining structures and pre-stressed concrete is usually designed at
the serviceability limit state with checks on the ultimate limit state.

Limit-states design is a process that involves:

1) The identification of all potential modes of failure (i.e., identification of the significant
limit states),
2) The determination of acceptable levels of safety against occurrence of each limit state,
3) Structural design for the significant limit states.

For normal structures, step 2 is carried out by the building-code authorities, who specify the load
combinations and the load factors to be used. For unusual structures, the engineer may need to
check whether the normal levels of safety are adequate. For buildings, a limit-states design starts
by selecting the concrete strength, cement content, cement type, supplementary cementitious
materials, water–cementitious materials ratio, air content, and cover to the reinforcement to
satisfy the durability requirements of Eurocode. Next, the minimum member sizes and minimum
covers are chosen to satisfy the fire-protection requirements of the local building code. Design is
then carried out, starting by proportioning for the ultimate limit states followed by a check of
whether the structure will exceed any of the serviceability limit states. This sequence is followed
because the major function of structural members in buildings is to resist loads without
endangering the occupants. For a water tank, however, the limit state of excessive crack width is
of equal importance to any of the ultimate limit states if the structure is to remain watertight. In

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such a structure, the design for the limit state of crack width might be considered before the
ultimate limit states are checked. In the design of support beams for an elevated monorail, the
smoothness of the ride is extremely important, and the limit state of deflection may govern the
design.

2.2.3.2.Compulsory Ethiopian Standard Recommendations for Limit States Design

The salient features of LSD, as prescribed by the code, are covered here. Details of the design
procedure for various limit states of collapse and serviceability are covered in subsequent
sections.

2.2.3.2.1. Material

When dealing with the most economical structure associated with safety and serviceability
requirements, the variability exists between construction materials and the construction process
itself. We should be able to state a design philosophy to cope with the various criteria required to
define the serviceability or usefulness of any structure in a rational manner.

The essential basis for the LSD method is to consider each limit state and to provide a suitable
margin of safety. To obtain values for this margin of safety it was proposed that probability
considerations should be used and the design process should aim at providing acceptable
probabilities so that the structure would not become unfit for use throughout its specified life.

Accepting the fact that the strengths of construction materials vary, as do also the loads on the
structure, two partial safety factors will now be used. One will be for materials and is
designated 𝛾𝑚 ; the other, for loading, is termed 𝛾𝑓 . These factors will vary for the various limit
states and different materials. As new knowledge on either materials or loading becomes
available the factors can be amended quite easily without the complicated procedures to amend
one overall factor used in previous codes.

The limit states failure criteria can be summarized as follows:

Design load effects 𝑸𝒅 ≤ Design resistance 𝒇𝒅

𝑓𝑘
𝛾𝑓 𝑄𝑛 ≤
𝛾𝑚

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Where 𝑸𝒅 = Design load effects = 𝛾𝑓 𝑄𝑛

𝑄𝑛 = Nominal load

𝛾𝑓 = Partial safety factor for loads

𝑓
𝒇𝒅 = Design resistance = 𝛾 𝑘
𝑚

𝑓𝑘 = Characteristic material strength

𝛾𝑚 = Partial safety factor for materials

Each of these terms are discussed in the following sections.

a) Partial factors for materials 𝜸𝒎

𝛾𝑚 allows for differences that may occur between the strength of the material as determined from
laboratory tests and that achieved in the structure. The difference may occur due to a number of
reasons including method of manufacture, duration of loading, corrosion and other factors.

Table 2.1N: Partial factors for materials for ultimate limit states

Design situations: - sets of physical conditions representing the real conditions occurring during
a certain time interval for which the design will demonstrate that relevant limit states are not
exceeded.

Persistent design situation: - design situation that is relevant during a period of the same order as
the design working life of the structure. Generally it refers to conditions of normal use.

Accidental design situation:- design situation involving exceptional conditions of the structure or
its exposure, including fire, explosion, impact or local failure.

The value for partial factors for materials for serviceability limit state verification should be
taken as those given in the particular clauses of this ES EN 1992:2015 code. The recommended
value is 1.0.

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Concrete

The difference in values for the two materials is indicative of the comparative lack of control
over the production of concrete the strength of which is affected by such factors as water/cement
ratio, degree of compaction, rate of drying, etc., which frequently cannot be accurately controlled
on site to conditions in factory.

Design compressive strength of Concrete, 𝒇𝒄𝒅

The compressive strength of concrete is denoted by concrete strength classes which relate to the
characteristic (5% fall) cylinder strength 𝒇𝒄𝒌 , or the cube strength 𝒇𝒄𝒖 .

The value of the design compressive strength is defined as

𝜶𝒄𝒄 𝒇𝒄𝒌
𝒇𝒄𝒅 =
𝜸𝒄

𝜸𝒄 = is the partial safety factor for concrete

𝒇𝒄𝒌 = is the characteristics cylindrical compressive strength of concrete

𝜶𝒄𝒄 = is the coefficient taking account of long term effects on the compressive strength and of
unfavorable effects resulting from the way the load is applied.

For use of 𝜶𝒄𝒄 refer to the national annex, the recommended value is 0.85. EC recommends a
value of 1.

Design tensile strength of Concrete, 𝒇𝒄𝒕𝒅

Design strength of concrete in tension is

𝜶𝒄𝒕 𝒇𝒄𝒕𝒌𝟎.𝟎𝟓
𝒇𝒄𝒕𝒅 =
𝜸𝒄

Where 𝒇𝒄𝒕𝒌𝟎.𝟎𝟓 = is the characteristics cylindrical tensile strength of concrete with 5% fractile

For use of 𝜶𝒄𝒕 refer to the national annex, the recommended value is 0.85. EC recommends a
value of 1.

𝒇𝒄𝒕𝒌𝟎.𝟎𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟕 ∗ 𝒇𝒄𝒕𝒌

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𝟐
𝟎. 𝟑 ∗ (𝒇𝒄𝒌 ) ⁄𝟑 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒇𝒄𝒌 ≤ 𝑪𝟓𝟎/𝟔𝟎
𝒇𝒄𝒕𝒌 ={ 𝒇𝒄𝒎
𝟐. 𝟏𝟐𝒍𝒏 [𝟏 + ( )] 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒇𝒄𝒌 > 𝑪𝟓𝟎/𝟔𝟎
𝟏𝟎

Where the tensile strength is determined as the splitting tensile strength,𝒇𝒄𝒕,𝒔𝒑 an approximate
value of the axial tensile strength,𝒇𝒄𝒕𝒌 may be taken as:

𝒇𝒄𝒕𝒌 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝒇𝒄𝒕,𝒔𝒑

The mean flexural tensile strength of reinforced concrete members depends on the mean axial
tensile strength and the depth of the cross-section. The following relationship may be used:

The characteristic strength for 𝒇𝒄𝒌 and the corresponding mechanical characteristics necessary
design are given in the following.

ℎ
𝑓𝑐𝑡𝑚 (1.6 − )
𝑓𝑐𝑚,𝑓𝑙 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥. { 1000
𝑓𝑐𝑡𝑚

Where: ℎ is the total member depth in mm

𝑓𝑐𝑡𝑚 is the mean axial tensile strength following from Table 3.1.

The modulus of elasticity of a concrete is controlled by the moduli of elasticity of its

components. Approximate values for the modulus of elasticity 𝐸𝑐𝑚 , secant value between 𝜎𝑐 =
0 and 0.4𝑓𝑐𝑚 for concretes with quartzite aggregates, are given in Table 3.1. For limestone and
sandstone aggregates the value should be reduced by 10% and 30% respectively. For basalt
aggregates the value should be increased by 20%.

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Figure 2.3: Schematic representative of the stress-strain relation of structural analysis (the use
0.4𝑓𝑐𝑚 for the definition of 𝐸𝑐𝑚 is approximate).

As per ES EN 1992-1-1:2015 recommendation, 𝐸𝑐𝑚 can be given by:

𝑓𝑐𝑚 0.3
𝐸𝑐𝑚 = 22 [( )]
10

Where 𝑓𝑐𝑚 = 𝑓𝑐𝑘 + 8 (𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑃𝑎)

Poisson’s ratio may be taken equal to 0.2 for un-cracked concrete and 0 for cracked concrete.
Unless more accurate information is available, the linear coefficient of thermal expansion may be
taken equal to10 ∗ 10−6 𝐾 −1 .

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Table 3.1 Strength and deformation characteristics for concrete

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Stress-strain relations for the design of cross-sections

For the design of cross-sections, the following stress-strain relationship may be used.

𝜀𝑐 𝑛
𝜎𝑐 = 𝑓𝑐𝑑 [1 − (1 − ) ] 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝜀𝑐 ≤ 𝜀𝑐2
𝜀𝑐2

𝜎𝑐 = 𝑓𝑐𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝜀𝑐2 ≤ 𝜀𝑐 ≤ 𝜀𝑐𝑢2

Where: 𝑛 is the exponent according to Table 3.1 of Eurocode

𝜀𝑐2 is the strain at reaching the maximum strength according to Table 3.1 of Eurocode

𝜀𝑐𝑢 is the ultimate strain according to Table 3.1 of Eurocode

Figure 2.4: Parabola-rectangle diagram for concrete under compression

Other simplified stress-strain relationships may be used if equivalent to or more conservative

than the one defined above, for instance bi-linear according to the following figure (compressive
stress and shortening strain shown as absolute values) with values of 𝜀𝑐3 and 𝜀𝑐𝑢3 .

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Figure 2.5: Bi-Linear stress-strain relation

A rectangular stress distribution as given in the figure below may be assumed. The factor 𝜆,
defining the effective height of the compression zone and the factor 𝜂, defining the effective
strength, follow from:

𝜆 = 0.8 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑐𝑘 ≤ 50𝑀𝑃𝑎

(𝑓𝑐𝑘 −50)
𝜆 = 0.8 − 𝑓𝑜𝑟 50 < 𝑓𝑐𝑘 ≤ 90𝑀𝑃𝑎 and
400

𝜂 = 1.0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑐𝑘 ≤ 50𝑀𝑃𝑎

(𝑓𝑐𝑘 −50)
𝜂 = 1.0 − 𝑓𝑜𝑟 50 < 𝑓𝑐𝑘 ≤ 90𝑀𝑃𝑎
200

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Figure 2.6: Rectangular stress distribution

Reinforcing steel

Design stress of steel for both in tension and compression 𝑓𝑦𝑑 ,

𝑓𝑦𝑘
𝑓𝑦𝑑 =
𝛾𝑠

The application rules for design and detailing in this ES EN are valid up for specified yield
strength 𝑓𝑦𝑘 = 400 − 600𝑀𝑃𝑎.

For normal design, either of the following assumptions may be made

a) an inclined top branch with a strain limit of 𝜀𝑢𝑑 and a maximum stress of
𝑘𝑓𝑦𝑘
⁄𝛾 at 𝜀𝑢𝑘 , where 𝑘 = (𝑓𝑡⁄ )
𝑠 𝑓𝑦 𝑘

b) A horizontal top branch without the need to check the strain limit.

𝑓
The recommended value of 𝜀𝑢𝑑 is 0.9𝜀𝑢𝑘 and the value of ( 𝑡⁄𝑓 ) is given in Annex C of
𝑦 𝑘

Eurocode 2.

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Figure 2.6 Idealized and design stress-strain diagrams for reinforcing steel (for tension and
compression)

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ACTIONS

The term action is used in the Eurocodes in order to group together generically all external
influences on a structure’s performance. It encompasses loading by gravity and wind, but
includes also vibration, thermal effects, fire and seismic loading.

Separate combinations of actions are used to check the structure for the design situation being
considered. For each of the particular design situations an appropriate representative value for
each action is used.

Representative values of actions

The main actions to be used in load cases used for design are:

 Permanent actions G: e.g. self-weight of structures and fixed equipment;

 Variable actions Q: e.g. imposed loads on building floors and beams; snow loads on
roofs; wind loading on walls and roofs
 Accidental actions A: e.g. fire, explosions and impact.

Permanent actions
The characteristic value of a permanent action Gk  may be a single value if variability is known
to be low (e.g. the self-weight of quality-controlled factory-produced members). If the variability
of G cannot be considered as small, and its magnitude may vary from place to place in the
structure, then an upper value Gk ,sup and a lower value Gk ,inf may occasionally be used.

Variable actions
Up to four types of representative value may be needed for the variable and accidental actions.
The types most commonly used for variable actions are:

 The characteristic value Qk

and combinations of the characteristic value with other variable actions, multiplied by
different combination factors:
 The combination value  0Qk
 The frequent value  1Qk
 The quasi-permanent value  2Qk
Explanations of the representative values and the design situations in which they arise are given
below. The ‘ x ’ factors generally reduce the value of a variable action present in an accidental
situation compared with the characteristic value.

A. Combination value of  0Qk

The combination value is used for checking:

1. Ultimate limit states;

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2. Irreversible serviceability limit states (e.g. deflections which fracture brittle fittings or
finishes).
It is associated with combinations of actions. The combination factor  0 reduces Qk because of
the low probability of the most unfavourable values of several independent actions occurring
simultaneously.

B. Frequent value  1Qk

The frequent value is used for checking:

1. Ultimate limit states involving accidental actions;

2. Reversible serviceability limit states, primarily associated with frequent combinations.
In both cases the reduction factor  1 multiplies the leading variable action. The frequent value
 1Qk of a variable action Q is determined so that the total proportion of a chosen period of time
during which Q exceeds  1Qk is less than a specified small part of the period.

C. Quasi-permanent value  2Qk

The quasi-permanent value is used for checking:

1. Ultimate limit states involving accidental actions;

2. Reversible serviceability limit states.
Quasi-permanent values are also used for the calculation of long-term effects (e.g. cosmetic
cracking of a slab) and to represent combinations of variable seismic actions. The quasi-
permanent value  2Qk is defined so that the total proportion of a chosen period of time during
which Q exceeds  2Qk is a considerable part (more than half) of the chosen period.

Load combinations for design

The values of actions to be used in design are governed by a number of factors. These include:

1. The nature of the load. Whether the action is permanent, variable or accidental, as the
confidence in the description of each will vary.
2. The limit state being considered. Clearly, the value of an action governing design must be
higher for the ultimate limit state than for serviceability for persistent and transient design
situations. Further, under serviceability conditions, loads vary with time, and the design
load to be considered could vary substantially. Realistic serviceability loads should be
modeled appropriate to the aspect of the behavior being checked (e.g. deflection, cracking
or settlement). For example, creep and settlement are functions of permanent loads only.
3. The number of variable loads acting simultaneously. Statistically, it is improbable that all
loads will act at their full characteristic value at the same time. To allow for this, the
characteristic values of actions will need modification.

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Consider the case of permanent action Gk  and one variable action Qk  only. For the ultimate
limit state the characteristic values should be magnified, and the load may be represented as
 GGk   QQk , where the  factors are the partial safety factors. The values of  G and  Q will be
different, and will be a reflection of the variabilities of the two loads being different. The gamma
factors account for:

1)The possibility of unfavourable deviation of the loads from the characteristic values
2)Inaccuracies in the analyses
3)Unforeseen redistribution of stress
4)Variations in the geometry of the structure and its elements, as this affects the
determination of the action effects.
Now consider the case of a structure subject to variable actions Q1 and Q2 simultaneously. If Q1
and Q2 are independent, i.e. the occurrence and magnitude of Q1 does not depend on the
occurrence and magnitude of Q2 and vice versa, then it would be unrealistic to use
 Q,1Qk ,1   Q,2Qk ,2 as the two loads are unlikely to act at their maximum at the same time. Joint
probabilities will need to be considered to ensure that the probability of occurrence of the two
loads is the same as that of a single load. It will be more reasonable to consider one load at its
maximum in conjunction with a reduced value for the other load. Thus, we have two
possibilities:

 Q,1Qk ,1   0,2  Q,2Qk ,2  (2)

Or

 0,1  Q,1Qk ,1    Q,2Qk ,2 (3)

Multiplication by  0 is said to produce a combination value of the load. It should be noted that
the values of  and  0 vary with each load.

The above discussion illustrates the thinking behind the method of combining loads for an
ultimate limit state check. Similar logic is applied to the estimation of loads for the different
serviceability checks.

I. Ultimate limit state

The following ultimate limit states shall be verified as relevant:

a) EQU: Loss of static equilibrium of the structure or any part of it considered as a rigid
body, where:
 Minor variations in the value or the spatial distribution of actions from a single
source are significant, and
 The strengths of construction materials or ground are generally not governing;

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b) STR: Internal failure or excessive deformation of the structure or structural members,

including footings, piles, basement walls, etc., where the strength of construction
materials of the structure governs;
c) GEO: Failure or excessive deformation of the ground where the strengths of soil or rock
are significant in providing resistance;
d) FAT: Fatigue failure of the structure or structural members.
Combinations of actions

1) Persistent and transient situations – fundamental combinations.

In the following paragraphs, various generalized combinations of loads are expressed
symbolically. It should be noted that the ‘+’ symbol in the expressions does not have the normal
mathematical meaning, as the directions of loads could be different. It is best to read it as
meaning ‘combined with’.

EN 1990 gives three separate sets of load combinations, namely EQU (to check against loss of
equilibrium), STR (internal failure of the structure governed by the strength of the construction
materials) and GEO (failure of the ground, where the strength of soil provides the significant
resistance).

Equilibrium: Equilibrium is verified using the load combination Set A in the code, which is as
follows:

 G,JGk , j   Q,1Qk ,1   Q,i 0,i Qk ,i (4)

 G, j ,supGk , j ,sup is used when the permanent loads are unfavourable, and  G, j ,infGk , j ,inf is used when
the permanent actions are favourable. Numerically,  G, j ,sup  1.1 ,  G, j ,inf  0.9 , and  Q  1.5
when unfavourable and 0 when favourable.

The above format applies to the verification of the structure as a rigid body (e.g. overturning of
retaining walls). A separate verification of the limit state of rupture of structural elements should
normally be undertaken using the format given below for strength. In cases where the
verification of equilibrium also involves the resistance of the structural member (e.g.
overhanging cantilevers), the strength verification given below without the above equilibrium
check may be adopted. In such verifications,  G, j ,inf  1.15 should be used.

Strength: when a design does not involve geotechnical actions, the strength of elements should
be verified using load combination Set B. two options are given. Either combination (6.10) from
EN 1990 or the less favourable of equations (6.10a) and (6.10b) may be used:

 G, jGk , j   Q,1Qk ,1   Q,i 0,i Qk ,i (5)

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 G, j ,supGk , j ,sup is used when the permanent loads are unfavourable , and  G, j ,infGk , j ,inf is used when
the permanent actions are favourable. Numerically,  G, j ,sup  1.35 ,  G, j ,inf  1.0 , and  Q  1.5
when unfavourable and 0 when favourable (EN1990)

 G, jGk , j   Q,i 0,i Qk ,i (6)

 G, jGk , j   Q,1Qk ,1   Q,i 0,iQk ,i (7)
Numerically,   0.925, G, j ,sup  1.35, G, j ,inf  1.0 and  Q  1.5 when unfavourable and 0 when
favourable (EN 1990)

The above combinations assume that a number of variable actions are present at the same time.
Qk ,1 is the dominant load if it is obvious, otherwise each load is in turn treated as a dominant
load and the other as secondary. The dominant load is then combined with the combination value
of the secondary loads. Both are multiplied by their respective  values.

The magnitude of the load resulting from equations (6.10a) and (6.10b) will always be less than
that from equation (6.10).

Now turning to the factors  G,inf and  G,sup , it will be noted that the numerical values are
different in the verification of equilibrium and that of strength. For instance, in an overhanging
cantilever beam, the multiplier for self-weight in the cantilever section will be 1.1 G,sup  and
that in the anchor span will be 0.9  G,cnf  . The possible explanation for  G,sup being 1.1 and not
1.35 as in the strength check is that

a) The variability in self-weight of the element is unlikely to be large

b) The factor 1.35 has built into it an allowance for structural performance (which is
necessary only for strength checks)
c) The loading in the cantilever will also generally include variable actions, partial safety
factors for which will ensure a reasonable overall safety factor.
When a design involves geotechnical action, a number of approaches are given in EN 1990, and
the choice of the method is a Nationally Determined Parameter.

2) Accidental design situation

The load combination recommended is

Gk , j  Ad   1,iQk ,1   2,iQk ,i (8)

where Ad is the design value of accidental action, Qk ,1 is the main variable action accompanying
the accidental action and Qk ,i are other variable actions.

Accidents are unintended events such as explosions, fire or vehicular impact, which are of short
duration and which have a low probability of occurrence. Also, a degree of damage is generally
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acceptable in the event of an accident. The loading model should attempt to describe the
magnitude of other variable loads which are likely to occur in conjunction with the accidental
load. Accidents generally occur in structures in use. Therefore, the values of variable actions will
be less than those used for the fundamental combination of loads in (1) above. To provide a
realistic variable load combining with the accidental load, the variable actions are multiplied by
different (and generally lower)  factors. Multiplier  1 is applied to the dominant action, and
 2 to the others. Where the dominant action is not obvious, each variable action present is in
turn treated as dominant.  Q for accidental situations is unity.

Multiplication by  1 is said to produce a frequent value of the load, and multiplication by  2 the
quasi-permanent value. Numerical values for  1 and  2 are given in EN 1990.

3) Seismic design situations

Gk , j  AEd   2,iQk ,i (9)
j 1 i 1

II. Serviceability limit state

Combination of actions

1) Characteristic combination.
Gk, j  Qk,1   0,iQk,i (10)
i 1

This represents a combination of service loads, which can be considered rather infrequent. It
might be appropriate for checking sates such as micro cracking or possible local non-catastrophic
failure of reinforcement leading to large cracks in sections.

2) Frequent combination
Gk, j  1,1Qk,1   2,iQk,i i 1 (11)
This represents a combination that is likely to occur relatively frequently in service conditions,
and is used for checking cracking.

3) Quasi-permanent combination
Gk, j   2,iQk,i i  1 (12)
This will provide an estimate of sustained loads on the structure, and will be appropriate for the
verification of creep, settlement, etc.

It should be realized that the above combinations describe the magnitude of loads which are
likely to be present simultaneously. The actual arrangement of loads in position and direction
within the structure to create the most critical effect is a matter of structural analysis (e.g. loading
alternate or adjacent spans in continuous beams).

Values of  factors

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Table 2 – Recommended values of  factors for buildings

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Classification of actions

Actions shall be classified by their variation in time as follows:

a) Permanent actions (G):- action that is likely to act throughout a given reference period
and for which the variation in magnitude with time is negligible, or for which the
variation is always in the same direction (monotonic) until the action attains a certain
limit value. E.g. self-weight of structures, fixed equipment and road surfacing, and
indirect actions caused by shrinkage and uneven settlements. Actions caused by water
may be considered as permanent and/or variable actions depending on the variation of
their magnitude with time.

b) Variable actions (Q):- action for which the variation in magnitude with time is neither
negligible nor monotonic. E.g. imposed loads on building floors, beams and roofs, wind
actions or snow loads.

c) Accidental actions (A):- action usually of short duration but of significant magnitude, that
is unlikely to occur on a given structure during the design working life. E.g. explosions,
or impact from vehicles. Snow, wind and seismic actions may be variable or accidental
actions, depending on the available information on statistical distributions and site
location.

Actions shall also be classified by their origin

a) Direct action: - set of forces (loads) applied to the structure

b) In direct action: - Set of imposed deformations or accelerations caused for example, by

temperature changes, moisture variation, uneven settlement or earthquakes (indirect
action).

Actions classification by their spatial variation

a) Fixed action: - action that has a fixed distribution and position over the structure or
structural member such that the magnitude and direction of the action are determined
unambiguously for the whole structure or structural member if this magnitude and
direction are determined at one point on the structure or structural member.

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b) Free action: - action that may have various spatial distributions over the structure.

Actions classification by their nature and/or the structural response

a) Static action:-action that does not cause significant acceleration of the structure or
structural members.

b) Dynamic action: - action that causes significant acceleration of the structure or structural
members.

c) Quasi-static action: - dynamic action represented by an equivalent static action in a static

model.

Single action: - action that can be assumed to be statistically independent in time and space of
any other action acting on the structure.

Self-Weight of Construction Works

The self-weight of the construction works should in most cases, be represented by a single
characteristic value and be calculated on the basis of the nominal dimensions and the
characteristic values of the densities. The self-weight of the construction works includes the
structural and non-structural elements including fixed services as well as the weight of earth
and ballast.

Non-structural elements include: roofing; surfacing and coverings; partitions and linings; hand
rails, safety barriers, parapets and kerbs; wall cladding; suspended ceilings; thermal insulation;
fixed services (equipment for lifts and moving stairways; heating, ventilating and air
conditioning equipment; electrical equipment; -pipes without their contents ; cable trunking and
conduits.)

Characteristic values of self-weight

The determination of the characteristic values of self-weight, and of the dimensions and densities
shall be in accordance with ES EN 1990:2015, 4.1.2. Nominal dimensions should be those as
shown on the drawings.
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Imposed Loads on Buildings

Imposed loads on buildings are those arising from occupancy. Values given in this Section,
include: normal use by persons; furniture and moveable objects (e.g. moveable partitions,
storage, the contents of containers); vehicles; anticipating rare events, such as concentrations of
persons or of furniture, or the moving or stacking of objects which may occur during
reorganization or redecoration. Heavy equipment (e.g. in communal kitchens, radiology rooms,
boiler rooms etc) are not included in the loads given in this Section. Loads for heavy equipment
should be agreed between the client and the relevant Authority.

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The imposed loads specified in this part are modelled by uniformly distributed loads, line loads
or concentrated loads or combinations of these loads. For the determination of the imposed loads,
floor and roof areas in buildings should be sub-divided into categories according to their use.

Categories

Areas in residential, social, commercial and administration buildings shall be divided into
categories according to their specific uses.

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Values of imposed actions

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The categories of loaded areas, as specified in Table 6.1, shall be designed by using
characteristic values 𝑞𝑘 (uniformly distributed load) and 𝑄𝑘 (concentrated load).

Where necessary 𝑞𝑘 and 𝑄𝑘 should be increased in the design (e.g. for stairs and balconies
depending on the occupancy and on dimensions). Where floors are subjected to multiple use,
they shall be designed for the most unfavorable category of loading which produces the highest
effects of actions (e.g. forces or deflection) in the member under consideration.

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Design working life

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