Unit 1: Introducing Gender

Gender refers to socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities, and attributes. The terms
'man', 'masculine', 'woman', and 'feminine' denote gender. Sex and gender, and the terms,
'male/female' and 'man/woman' are often used and understood interchangeably.

Gender and development are considered important areas in the study of social sector issues in
development. The historical development of societies has placed women at distinctively
disadvantageous position. Historical studies reflect that women have played a marginal role in
the, development of societies. However, modern development theories attribute significant
participation by all sections of society, including women as a gender category, in the
development process, Women constitute almost half of human population, and their role in the
development process has critical significance in the success of failure of nations.
After reading this unit, you will be able to: establish relationship between gender and
development; define gender and describe various components of gender and development; and
analyze various indicators of gender and development (GDI, GEM).

What is gender and what are the differences between sex and gender?

Gender refers to the economic, social, political, and cultural attributes and opportunities
associated with being women and men. The social definitions of what it means to be a woman or
a man vary among cultures and change over time. Gender is a sociocultural expression of
particular characteristics and roles that are associated with certain groups of people with
reference to their sex and sexuality.

As you can see, ‘sex’ and ‘gender’ have different meanings – so you must be sure to use them
accurately and not interchangeably. In the rest of the module, we will mainly be concerned with
the term ‘gender’ and explore why this is such a vital issue in youth development work.

First, we introduce other gender concepts that can be used as tools for the investigation of gender
issues.
Gender’ refers to the socially constructed roles and responsibilities of women and men in a
given culture or location while sex’ refers to the ‘supposed’ biological differences between men
and women.

Sex refers to biologically defined and genetically acquired differences between males and
females, according to their physiology and reproductive capabilities or potentialities. It is
universal and mostly unchanging, without surgery.

‘Sex’ is a biological concept, while ‘gender’ is a social construct. The concept of gender is a
crucial tool for exploring the unevenness of development and how it affects men and women in
different ways.

It is important to understand sex and gender beyond binaries. Gender relations are socially
constructed and vary in time and place and amenable to change. It follows the rules of
patriarchy- an ideology and social system where men are considered superior to women.
Dominance and subordination mixed with co-operation, force and violence are used to sustain
the gender relations.

Gender concepts and definitions

Gender refers to the economic, social, political, and cultural attributes and opportunities
associated with being women and men. The social definitions of what it means to be a woman or
a man vary among cultures and change over time. Gender is a sociocultural expression of
particular characteristics and roles that are associated with certain groups of people with
reference to their sex and sexuality.

Gender Analysis is a methodology that both:

Gender analysis: A method for investigating the nature of the social relationships between men
and women in every sphere of society: identifying inequalities and highlighting how power is
distributed between them: who does what? Who possesses what? Who gains? Who loses? In
order to be effective, gender analysis has to break down and show the links between the public
and private spheres.
 Describes existing gender relations in a particular environment, ranging from within households
or firms to a larger scale of community, ethnic group, or nation. It involves collecting and
analyzing sex-disaggregated data and other qualitative and quantitative information.
 Organizes and interprets, in a systematic way, information about gender relations to make clear
the importance of gender differences for achieving development objectives.

Gender Assessment examines how a program or project addresses and responds to gender

disparities and inequalities through its objectives, activities, and policies. It responds to two key
questions:

1. How will the different roles and status of women and men within the community, political
sphere, workplace, and household affect the work to be undertaken?

2. How will the anticipated results of the work affect women and men differently? And their
relative status?

Note: Gender equality and gender equity are not the same thing, though the terms are often
used interchangeably.

Gender Equity is the process of being fair to women and men. To ensure fairness, measures
must be taken to compensate for historical and social disadvantages that prevent women and men
from operating on a level playing field.

Gender Equity: Gender equity means justice so that resources are fairly distributed, taking into
account different needs.

Gender Equality is the state or condition that affords women and men, girls and boys equal
enjoyment of human rights, socially valued goods, opportunities, and resources

Or
Gender equality: Gender equality means women and men have equal rights and should have the
same entitlements and opportunities. Equality is rights-based.
The concept that women and men, girls and boys have equal conditions, treatment and
opportunities for realizing their full potential, human rights and dignity, and for contributing to
(and benefitting from) economic, social, cultural and political development.

Gender equality is, therefore, the equal valuing by society of the similarities and the differences
of men and women, and the roles they play. It is based on women and men being full partners in
the home, community and society. Equality does not mean that women and men will become the
same but that women’s and men’s rights, responsibilities and opportunities will not depend on
whether they are born male or female.

Equality does not mean that women and men will become the same but that women and men’s
rights, responsibilities and opportunities will not depend on whether they are born male or
female. Gender equality implies that the interests, needs, and priorities of both women and men
are taken into consideration, recognizing the diversity of different groups of women and men.
Gender equality is not a women’s issue but should concern and fully engage men as well as
women. Equality between women and men is seen both as a human rights issue and as a
precondition for - and indicator of - sustainable people-centered development.

Gender Inequality and discrimination

Gender inequality is the social phenomenon in which men and women are not treated equally.

The treatment may arise from distinctions regarding biology, psychology, or cultural norms
prevalent in the society. Some of these distinctions are empirically grounded, while others appear
to be social constructs. Studies show the different experiences of genders across many domains
including education, life expectancy, personality, interests, family life, careers, and political
affiliation. Gender inequality is experienced differently across different cultures and also

affects non-binary people. Examples Gender inequalities in relation to technology, Attempts in

equalizing household work, Gender inequality in relationships, Gender roles in parenting and
marriage, Gender pay differences, Customer preference studies, Professional education and
careers, Income disparities linked to job stratification, Energy poverty, Property inheritance,
Structural marginalization, Gender stereotypes.
Gender inequality is discrimination on the basis of sex or gender causing one sex or gender to
be routinely privileged or prioritized over another. Gender equality is a fundamental human right
and that right is violated by gender based discrimination.

Gender discrimination: The differences of treatment accorded to women and men in the
spheres of public activity, such as legal status or the way the educational system favours one
gender more than another.

Gender equality is considered a critical element in achieving Decent Work for All Women and
Men, in order to effect social and institutional change that leads to sustainable development with
equity and growth. Gender equality refers to equal rights, responsibilities and opportunities that
all persons should enjoy, regardless of whether one is born male or female.

In the context of the world of work, equality between women and men includes the following
elements:

1. Equality of opportunity and treatment in employment

2. Equal remuneration for work of equal value
3. Equal access to safe and healthy working environments and to social security
4. Equality in association and collective bargaining
5. Equality in obtaining meaningful career development
6. A balance between work and home life that is fair to both women and men
7. Equal participation in decision-making at all levels.

GENDER EQUALITY AND ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY

Research on agricultural productivity in Africa shows that reducing gender inequality could
significantly increase agricultural yields. For instance, studies have shown that giving women
farmers in Kenya the same level of agricultural inputs and education as men farmers could
increase yields of farmers by more than 20 per cent.
Research on economic growth and education shows that failing to invest in women’s education
can lower the gross national product (GNP). Everything else being equal, countries in which the
ratio of female-to-male enrolment in primary or secondary education is less than .75 can expect
levels of GNP that are roughly 25 per cent lower than countries in which there is less gender
disparity in education.

Research on gender inequality in the labour market shows that eliminating gender discrimination
in relation to occupation and pay could both increase women’s income and contribute to national
income. For instance, estimates reveal that if gender inequality in the labour market in Latin
America were to be eliminated, not only would women’s wages rise by about 50 per cent, but
national output would rise by 5 per cent.

Gender inequality also reduces the productivity of the next generation – the World Bank reports
mounting evidence that increases in women’s well-being yield productivity gains in the future.
The probability of children being enrolled in school increases with their mothers’ educational
level and extra income going to mothers has more positive impact on household nutrition, health
and education of children than extra income going to fathers.

Research shows that gender inequality hampers a positive supply response to structural
adjustment measures by reducing women’s incentives to produce tradable goods as a result of
increases in women’s time burdens.

Women’s time burdens are an important constraint on growth and development – women are a
much over-utilized resource, not an underutilized resource. The benefits of reducing this gender-
based constraint can be considerable. For instance, a study in Tanzania shows that reducing such
constraints in a community of smallholder coffee and banana growers increases household cash
incomes by 10 per cent, labour productivity by 15 per cent, and capital productivity by 44 per
cent.
GENDER INEQUALITIES

Inequalities in political power (access to decision-making, representation, etc.) Women are

under-represented in political processes throughout the world. It is important to look at and
understand gender differences in power within formal decision-making structures (such as
governments, community councils, and policy-making institutions).

Given the under representation of women and the low visibility of women’s perspectives, the
fact that women often have different priorities, needs and interests than men is often not
apparent. National, regional or sub-regional priorities, or even the specific needs and priorities of
a community, are often defined without meaningful input from women.

Inequalities in political power (access to decision-making, representation, etc.)

Women are under-represented in political processes throughout the world. It is important to look
at and understand gender differences in power within formal decision-making structures (such as
governments, community councils, and policy-making institutions). Given the under
representation of women and the low visibility of women’s perspectives, the fact that women
often have different priorities, needs and interests than men is often not apparent. National,
regional or sub-regional priorities, or even the specific needs and priorities of a community, are
often defined without meaningful input from women.

Inequalities within households

Inequalities in negotiating and decision-making potential and access to resources have been
documented within households. This has prompted questions about both research and policy
which is based on the assumption that households function as units where each member benefits
equally. The investigation of differences and inequalities at the household level is relevant to an
understanding of a range of key issues, including the ability of women and men to respond to
economic incentives, the design of effective strategies for HIV/AIDS prevention, and appropriate
and equitable social security policies.
Differences in legal status and entitlements

Despite national constitutions and international instruments that proclaim equal rights for women
and men, there are many instances in which equal rights to personal status, security, land,
inheritance and employment opportunities are denied to women by law or practice. Addressing
the resulting constraints for women is important as an end in itself, but it is also essential for
formulating effective national strategies for increasing economic productivity and growth,
reducing poverty and achieving sustainable resource management. Action to secure women’s
rights is not just a concern of a small group of women activists, but rather the responsibility of
the international community as a whole.

Gender division of labour within the economy

In most countries, women and men are distributed differently across manufacturing sectors,
between formal and informal sectors, within agriculture, and among occupations. Women are
also more likely than men to be in low-paid jobs and “non-standard” work (part-time, temporary,
home-based), and likely to have less access than men to productive assets such as education,
skills, property and credit. These patterns mean that economic trends and economic policies are
likely to have different implications for women and men. For example, trade liberalization has
had uneven impacts by sector, with consequences for both gender equality and economic growth
that have only recently become the subject of investigation.

Inequalities in the domestic/unpaid sector

In many countries it is women who shoulder most of the responsibilities and tasks related to the
care and nurturing of the family (including laundry, food preparation, and childcare, care of the
sick and cleaning). In many countries in the South, women also make an important contribution
to family food production and water and firewood provision. These tasks add to women’s
workload and are often an obstacle to engaging in political action or expanding economic
activities. Recent research has sought to demonstrate the relationships between this “reproductive
work” and the “productive” sector of the economy – in particular the dependence of all
productive activities on the creation and maintenance of a healthy labour force through this work
at the household level, and the way in which the reproductive sector can be affected by the
consequences of economic policies related to trade, investment and public expenditure. There
has been an important shift from focusing on how economic policies have affected welfare in a
gender-specific manner, to illustrating 7 how gender biases negatively affect the outcome of
these same economic policies.

Violence against women

Gender inequality is also manifested in gender-based violence, either by a woman’s intimate

partner (domestic violence), by an enemy army as a weapon of attempted ‘ethnic cleansing’ or in
sexual exploitation through, for example, trafficking of women and girls.

Discriminatory attitudes

Gender inequalities are not only economic, but are also reflected in other ways that are difficult
to measure and change. Ideas about appropriate behaviour, independence, and aptitudes are often
grounded in gender stereotypes and vary for women and men. Ideas and practices tend to reflect
and reinforce each other (the one providing the rationale for the other), which contributes to the
complexity of achieving change.

Causes of Gender Inequality

Over the years, the world has gotten closer to achieving gender equality. There is better
representation of women in politics, more economic opportunities, and better healthcare in many
places of the world. However, the World Economic Forum estimates it will take another century
before true gender equality becomes a reality.

What drives the gap between genders? Here are 10 causes of gender inequality:

1. Uneven access to education

Around the world, women still have less access to education than men. ¼ of young women
between 15-24 will not finish primary school. That group makes up 58% of the people not
completing that basic education. Of all the illiterate people in the world, ⅔ are women. When
girls are not educated on the same level as boys, it has a huge effect on their future and the kinds
of opportunities they’ll get.

2. Lack of employment equality

Only 6 countries in the world give women the same legal work rights as men. In fact, most
economies give women only ¾ the rights of men. Studies show that if employment became a
more even playing field, it has a positive domino effect on other areas prone to gender inequality.

3. Job segregation

One of the causes for gender inequality within employment is the division of jobs. In most
societies, there’s an inherent belief that men are simply better equipped to handle certain jobs.
Most of the time, those are the jobs that pay the best. This discrimination results in lower income
for women. Women also take on the primary responsibility for unpaid labor, so even as they
participate in the paid workforce, they have extra work that never gets recognized financially.

4. Lack of legal protections

According to research from the World Bank, over one billion women don’t have legal protection
against domestic sexual violence or domestic economic violence. Both have a significant impact
on women’s ability to thrive and live in freedom. In many countries, there’s also a lack of legal
protections against harassment in the workplace, at school, and in public. These places become
unsafe and without protection, women frequently have to make decisions that compromise and
limit their goals.

5. Lack of bodily autonomy

Many women around the world do not have authority over their own bodies or when they
become parents. Accessing birth control is frequently very difficult. According to the World
Health Organization, over 200 million women who don’t want to get pregnant are not using
contraception. There are various reasons for this such as a lack of options, limited access, and
cultural/religious opposition. On a global scale, about 40% of pregnancies are not planned and
while 50% of them do end in abortion, 38% result in births. These mothers often become
financially dependent on another person or the state, losing their freedom.

6. Poor medical care

In addition to limited access to contraception, women overall receive lower-quality medical care
than men. This is linked to other gender inequality reasons such as a lack of education and job
opportunities, which results in more women being in poverty. They are less likely to be able to
afford good healthcare. There’s also been less research into diseases that affect women more
than men, such as autoimmune disorders and chronic pain conditions. Many women also
experience discrimination and dismissal from their doctors, broadening the gender gap in
healthcare quality.

7. Lack of religious freedom

When religious freedom is attacked, women suffer the most. According to the World Economic
Forum, when extremist ideologies (such as ISIS) come into a community and restrict religious
freedom, gender inequality gets worse. In a study performed by Georgetown University and
Brigham Young University, researchers were also able to connect religious intolerance with
women’s ability to participate in the economy. When there’s more religious freedom, an
economy becomes more stable thanks to women’s participation.

8. Lack of political representation

Of all national parliaments at the beginning of 2019, only 24.3% of seats were filled by women.
As of June of 2019, 11 Heads of State were women. Despite progress in this area over the years,
women are still grossly underrepresented in government and the political process. This means
that certain issues that female politicians tend to bring up – such as parental leave and childcare,
pensions, gender equality laws and gender-based violence – are often neglected.

9. Racism

It would be impossible to talk about gender inequality without talking about racism. It affects
what jobs women of color are able to get and how much they’re paid, as well as how they are
viewed by legal and healthcare systems. Gender inequality and racism have been closely-linked
for a long time. According to Sally Kitch, a professor and author, European settlers in Virginia
decided what work could be taxed based on the race of the woman performing the work. African
women’s work was “labor,” so it was taxable, while work performed by English women was
“domestic” and not taxable. The pay gaps between white women and women of color continues
that legacy of discrimination and contributes to gender inequality.

10. Societal mindsets

It’s less tangible than some of the other causes on this list, but the overall mindset of a society
has a significant impact on gender inequality. How society determines the differences and value
of men vs. women plays a starring role in every arena, whether it’s employment or the legal
system or healthcare. Beliefs about gender run deep and even though progress can be made
through laws and structural changes, there’s often a pushback following times of major change.
It’s also common for everyone (men and women) to ignore other areas of gender inequality when
there’s progress, such as better representation for women in leadership. These types of mindsets
prop up gender inequality and delay significant change.