Results in Physics 48 (2023) 106434

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Results in Physics
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rinp

Peak amplitude difference sensitivity (PADS): An interrogation technique

for PCF-SPR sensors using symmetrical arrays of plasmonic layers
Mohammad Rakibul Islam *, Tahmina Tabassum Treena , Nasir Muhammad Munim ,
Syed Iftekhar Ali
Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department, Islamic University of Technology, Board Bazar, Gazipur 1704, Bangladesh

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In this research paper, plasmonic materials are used in some arrays consisting of gold and aluminum-doped zinc
Wavelength sensitivity (WS) oxide (AZO) to make a unique photonic crystal fiber sensor with multiple loss peaks. Using plasmonic layer
Sensing arrays, a unique dispersion relation with several peaks has been introduced. Compared to a sensor with a single
Multiple resonance
peak, the proposed sensor has multiple peaks that can be applicable for different wavelength range to detect the
Arrays of plasmonic layers
Peak amplitude difference sensitivity (PADS)
refractive index efficiently. A new interrogation technique named Peak Amplitude Difference Sensitivity (PADS)
is proposed in this manuscript while in this sensor, the maximum PADS of 396.175 RIU− 1 and maximum
wavelength sensitivity (WS) of 85,300 nm/RIU is achieved. Furthermore, the sensor has a high wave­
length resolution of 1.17 × 10− 6 RIU. With an ultra-high linearity of R2 = 0.99978, this sensor obtained a high
figure of merit (FOM) of 370.8 RIU− 1, indicating precise detection accuracy. The proposed design can lead to
major improvements in the ultra-high precision in detecting the biological organic molecules and can be used in
extensive applications.

Introduction characteristics to be more variable and constant. In addition, this form of

Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) is an electro-optical incident that
occurs for the movements of free electrons of molecules, ions, and solid
metals. Unlike THz sensors [1–3], Photonic Crystal Fiber (PCF) based
SPR sensors exhibit oscillation at the metal-dielectric interface. The
terahertz (THz) band consists of a wide frequency region from 0.1 to 10
THz. To create a THz sensor, a waveguide, a power supply, and a de­
tector are required. Recently, several THz waveguides have been pro­
posed, including the Bragg waveguide [4], metal wires [5], metal tubes
[6], etc. Nevertheless, the majority of these waveguides are not partic­
ularly effective in increasing the relative sensitivity. Consequently,
several photonic crystal fiber (PCF) THz waveguides have been manu­
factured to overcome this problem. Surface Plasmon Polariton (SPP)
describes the movement of plasmonic surface waves at the interface
[7,8]. Surface Plasmons have very high sensitivity to the refractive
indices of the medium. SPR occurs at the intersecting point of the
fundamental mode and the plasmonic mode. This point is referred as the
phase-matching point. The PCF-SPR sensor is used for measuring the RI
variation of the analyte with the shifting in wavelengths. This sensor
prevents common fibers from being entangled and allows optical
sensor is far quicker than previous methods of detecting substances. One
of the major features of this sensor is its optical characteristics that can
be altered by modifying the size, location, and shape of the core hole in
the PCF. The PCF-SPR sensor outperforms its predecessor, in terms of
performance for outstanding flexibility, enhanced relative sensitivity,
less material, confinement loss (CL), a longer life, and light guidance
ability. Typical optical sensors consist of a V-grooved waveguide, a
prism, and a wavelength slot. As a result, the sensor becomes too costly
and cumbersome to use. PCF-SPR sensors, on the contrary, are inex­
pensive and lightweight. PCF-based sensors could be utilized to study
RNA and DNA [9–11], monitor complex environments [12], identify
cross-sensitivity issues [13], detect cancerous cells [14–16], detect
formalin [17,18], temperature sensing [19], and produce surface plas­
mon resonance-based biosensors [20–22], to name a few applications.
The primary objective in designing and building the PCF-SPR sensors
are to achieve effective coupling between the fundamental and plas­
monic modes. This is accomplished by optimizing the settings of the air
hole ring lattice, the size of the air holes, the thickness of the used
plasmonic materials, etc. [23]. Numerous configurations, such as long-
period Bragg grating, microfluidic slot-based constructions, inner

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: rakibultowhid@yahoo.com (M.R. Islam).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rinp.2023.106434
Received 21 February 2023; Received in revised form 4 April 2023; Accepted 6 April 2023
Available online 18 April 2023
2211-3797/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
M.R. Islam et al.
metal-coated, outer metal-coated, D-shaped formation, etc., have been
examined for PCF-SPR-based detecting applications [24]. PCF-SPR
sensors are classified into two distinct sensing systems. One is respon­
sible for internal sensing, whilst the other is responsible for external
sensing. Attempts and research have been made to apply metal to the
exterior of the air openings in the cladding zone. The findings demon­
strate a substantial consequence with a high sensitivity to imple­
mentation possibilities [25]. The analyte channels in internally coated
SPR sensors can only be filled in certain ways, making their fabrication
more difficult. Filling and emptying these channels with analytes are
complex and time-consuming processes [26].
Consequently, the SPR phenomenon is dependent upon the selection
of a suitable plasmonic material. SPR sensors can be constructed using
gold (Au), silver (Ag), copper (Cu), and aluminum (Al) oxides, as well as
other oxides (Indium tin oxide, TiO2). Gold and silver are the most
common metals. Silver might be an excellent option because of its
sensitivity; however, it is less helpful due to chemical and oxidation
problems [27,28]. Gold is also used because of its chemical stability,
compatibility with living organisms, mutability, and resistance to
oxidation in water [29].
Mollah et al. [30] developed a gold-layered dual-polarized sensor
with maximum amplitude sensitivity (AS) of 2044 RIU− 1 and wave­
length sensitivity (WS) of 12,000 nm/RIU. This kind of sensor often
functions between the visible and near-infrared region of the electro­
magnetic spectra due to the higher plasma frequency of gold. If the
spectrum is to be expanded to encompass a wide range of wavelengths,
plasmonic materials that operate at longer wavelengths must be used.
Due to low plasma frequency and charge carriers, aluminum-doped zinc
oxide (AZO) functions in the near infra-red (NIR) spectrum. As an
alternative, a plasmonic material can be used that operates in a wider
range of wavelengths. Dash et al. [31] introduced an AZO-coated PCF-
SPR sensor with a maximum WS of 5,000 nm/RIU for y-polarization
between 1,600 and 2,000 nm. Diverse PCF-based SPR sensors, including
those with an internally sensing structure, D-shaped structure, exter­
nally metal-coated structure, etc., have been shown to improve sensi­
tivity and improve detection [23,32–34]. Liu et al. established a metal-
coated, analyte-filled plasmonic sensor with an ultrawide RI detection
range and WS of 6300 nm/RIU (1.0 to 1.43) was found [35]. Li et al.
presented an additional PCF structure with an internal metal coating
that performs within a defined RI of 1.40 to 1.44 [36]. It has an AS of
1739.28 RIU− 1 and a peak WS of 9180 nm/RIU. It is extremely difficult
to attach the plasmon layer to the surface of the microscopic air holes
considering their fragility. Liu et al. recently suggested a D-shaped PCF-
SPR sensor exhibiting WS of 15,000 nm/RIU and an AS of 442,47 RIU− 1
across a wide refractive index detecting region [37]. Singh et al. sug­
gested a D-shaped PCF sensor with maximum WS of 33,500 nm/RIU
[38]. Nevertheless, they have a little interest in AS research, which is a
low-cost method of observing the characteristics of the sensor. In a D-
shaped configuration, the decreased distance between the core and the
metal makes it more sensitive but polishing makes it more difficult to
produce. Slotted microfluidic devices are now highly sensitive [39–42].
However, they are difficult to manufacture due to the difficulty of
designing and installing plasmonic materials in the appropriate areas.
The plasmonic and dielectric layers can be attached to the exterior of
the PCF sensor using a method called “external coating”. Liu et al. sug­
gested a basic, coated, squared lattice structure, which displayed a
maximum WS of 7,250 nm/RIU with a resolution of 1.1 × 10− 5 RIU
[43]. In recent times, Haider et al. developed the novel solid core plas­
monic sensor with high sensitivity and resolution. The sensor has a
maximum AS of 631 RIU− 1 and WS of 11,000 nm/RIU [32]. Jia et al.
developed a polarization-dependent plasmonic sensor with a maximum
WS of 7,738 nm/RIU for RI ranging from 1.20 to 1.30 [44]. Firoz et al.
presented a newly constructed SPR sensor with an alphabetic core,
with a maximum WS of 12,000 nm/RIU, and an AS of 933 RIU− 1 [45].
The confinement loss is decreased for this alphabetic-core structure,
making it more difficult for light to reach the core.
2
Results in Physics 48 (2023) 106434
This research is unique for using four arrays of two plasmonic ma­
terials placed at right angles to detect an analyte. This structure can
differentiate between analytes with multiple peaks, enabling to utilize
any of them based on the wavelength range preferences. This is an
essential characteristic of the PCF-based SPR optical sensors for pro­
ducing multiple peaks using arrays of two separate plasmonic materials.
Prior research has been investigated dual or multiple peaks, but these
multiple peaks were due to higher-order SPP modes and not for using
the arrays of different plasmonic materials [46]. Chu et al. introduced D-
shaped PCF Sensor obtaining a Sub-peak of Secondary SPR. Two parallel
PCFs were used to identify three loss peaks for detecting low RI in the
NIR region, however only one was applied for sensing [47]. This
research provides a PCF-SPR sensor, utilizing four arrays of two differ­
ent plasmonic materials, gold (Au) and AZO, positioned at right angles.
This sensor is designed to create unique multiple peaks under operating
resonance conditions in the ultraviolet, mid-infrared, and infrared re­
gions. This increases the chances of accurately detecting the analyte
since the full resonance condition occurs several times. Due to this, it is
possible to investigate a wide range of wavelength by investigating a
separate resonance peak. This approach for verifying accuracy was also
established in recent research [48]. In addition, the ability to detect
multiple peaks makes it an ideal sensor for “Quantum Entanglement”
research. One of the most prominent features of the suggested sensor is
its symmetrical design. Consequently, the confinement loss values of x-
polarization are identical to those of y-polarization. Therefore, we have
analyzed the y-polarization only. The suggested sensor has a maximum
AS of 793 RIU− 1 and a maximum WS of 85,300 nm/RIU. In addition, it
has a maximum amplitude resolution and wavelength resolution of
1.26 × 10− 5 RIU and 1.17 × 10− 6 RIU, respectively. A high figure of
merit of 370.8 has been achieved. This study analyzes various shifts of
multiple resonant peaks for a specific analyte. The detection methods of
SPR are complicated by several factors, one of which is the spectrum of
wavelengths. Another factor is the various sorts of light sources [49]. In
addition, a new term is established for sensitivity: peak amplitude shift
sensitivity. According to our knowledge, it has never been quantitatively
investigated in previous research articles. Therefore, this SPR sensing
methods can be used to accurately identify chemical compounds, food
quality, and illnesses because to their high sensitivity and linearity. This
is due to their compatibility with a wide array of wavelengths.
Novel design, materials and numerical modeling
In Fig. 1(a), the cross-section of the geometric structure of the sug­
gested sensor is illustrated in two-dimension. This design is built
using COMSOL Multiphysics 6 software. As seen in Fig. 1(a), the unde­
fined analyte layer is next to the Perfectly Matched layer (PML), which is
located outside the cladding section for external sensing. Under the
analyte layer, there are four arrays composed of two distinct plasmonic
layers composed of gold and AZO. These arrays are positioned perpen­
dicular to one another. Gold is used since it is inert and chemically
stable. Moreover, AZO was chosen because it operates in a frequency
range where evanescent waves have a higher probability of penetrating
deeper [50].
In this research, the thickness of the gold and AZO layer is repre­
sented by tg and tAZO , respectively. In addition, the features of gold and
AZO can be identified using Eqs. (1) and (2) [51].
ω2D ΔεΩ2L
εg = ε∞ − − (1)
ω(ω + jγD ) (ω − Ω2L ) − jΓL ω
2
where εg represents the dielectric constant of gold, ω represents the
angular frequency, and λD = 31.84π THz represents damping frequency,
and ε∞ = 5.9673 represents the permittivity. Additionally, ωD =
4227.24π Hz represents the plasmon frequency, while Δε is the
weighting factor. In addition, spectral width is written as ΓπL = 209.72
THz, while oscillator strength can be written as ΩL
π = 1300.14 THz.
M.R. Islam et al.
Fig. 1. (a) The 2D schematic of the suggested PCF-SPR sensor, (b) Stack preform for fabrication arrangement, (c) Experimental set-up for the proffered sensor for
practically sensing applications.
ω2p f1 ω21
εAZO = εb − + (2)
ω(ω + jγp ) (ω21 − ω2 − jωγ1 )
where εb = 3.5402 represents the polarization response of the core
electrons, and ωp = 1.7473 represents the plasma frequency. The
remaining constants are γp = 0.04486 eV, f1 = 0.5095, ω1 = 4.2942 eV,
and γ1 = 0.1017 eV. Two plasmonic materials are combined for
improving in the detection of analytes using a broad spectrum of
wavelengths with various refractive indices. The array of the structure is
organized such that the AZO is in the center and gold surrounds the AZO.
Fused silica is the background material. In Fig. 1(b), the stack preform of
the suggested sensor is depicted. The large air holes are indicated by the
thin wall capillaries. On the contrary, the small air holes are indicated by
the thick wall capillaries. The stack and draw process is utilized for that.
Fig. 1(c) depicts a proposed experimental design. A broad-spectrum
light source can be utilized to transport light throughout the suggested
PCF core. It activates the mode of the analyte channel. Liquid can be
injected into the sensor channel using a syringe pump and a micro-
capillary needle with a tapered tip. The optical spectrum analyzer
(OSA) has the ability to determine the range of losses. When the RI of the
analyte varies, the loss spectrum either blueshifts or redshifts. The index
of refraction is denoted by n, whereas the wavelength is indicated by λ in
μm. Consequently, Sellmeier equation is utilized to determine the
characteristics of fused silica [52].
B1 λ2 B2 λ 2 B3 λ2
n2 (λ) = 1 + 2
− 2 − 2 (3)
λ − C1 λ − C2 λ − C3
The coefficients B1 = 0.696, B2 = 0.408, B3 = 0.897, C1 = 0.0047
μm2, C2 = 0.014 μm2, C2 = 97.934 μm2 in the following Sellmeier
equation are known as Sellmeier coefficients in Eq. (3). The four large air
holes form a square ring, and the eight smaller ones form an octagonal
ring. The larger air holes have a radius denoted by r2, while the smaller
ones have a radius denoted by r1. However, the energy required for the
surface plasmon modes can only be transferred by the core modes. The
gaps between the large air holes are aligned with the four arrays of
plasmonic layers, as shown in Fig. 1. Additionally, the use of air holes
and plasmonic materials into this design assists in the bending of the
3
Results in Physics 48 (2023) 106434
core.
Optimum structure investigation
Using COMSOL Multiphysics 6, the finite element method is utilized
to determine the effects of the combination of AZO and gold on the
sensitivity of the suggested structure. Additionally, the effects of the
thickness of both plasmonic layers as well as the radii of the air holes are
also analyzed. The optimal geometric parameters were then determined.
Here, four consecutive peaks are analyzed. Primarily, the thickness of
the gold and AZO plasmonic layer were 30 nm and 20 nm.
The thickness of gold plasmonic layer
The thickness of gold layer gradually increased from 30 nm to 40 nm
with a step of 10 nm and the confinement loss of the fiber for RI 1.422 is
seen in Fig. 2(a). The resonance wavelength for mainly the last three
peaks increases as the layer thickness increases. Amount of damping loss
is related to thickness of gold layer. As a result, the confinement loss is
decreased with the penetration of the evanescent filed [27]. The thick­
ness of the gold layer varies between 30 nm and 40 nm, as a result,
significant redshift happens, which is followed by a reduction in prop­
agation loss. Fig. 2(c) illustrates the figure of loss spectra for the thick­
ness of 35 nm for the gold plasmonic layer. So, the highest sensitivity
was observed as 4,000 nm/RIU for the third peak and 20,000 nm/RIU
for the fourth peak using 35 nm gold layer. Hence, the optimal thickness
is chosen as 35 nm for gold plasmonic layer.
The thickness of AZO plasmonic layer
Fig. 2(b) illustrates the confinement loss of the fiber when the AZO
layer thickness was changed from 20 nm to 30 nm with an increment of
5 nm for RI value of 1.422. As the layer thickness increases, the reso­
nance wavelength for the first and fourth peak alters, as seen in Fig. 2(b).
The confinement loss shows a non-linearity in this region. Fig. 2(d) il­
lustrates the figure of loss spectrum for the thickness of 25 nm for the
AZO plasmonic layer. The optimal thickness of the AZO plasmonic layer
is selected at 25 nm where the loss peaks are 4.3487 dB/cm, 21.862 dB/
M.R. Islam et al. Results in Physics 48 (2023) 106434

Fig. 2. CL profile of the suggested sensor for variation in (a) tg, (b) tAZO, figure of loss spectrum for optimum thickness of (c) 35 nm gold layer, (d) 25 nm AZO layer.

cm, 60.286 dB/cm and 260.87 dB/cm, respectively. If the thickness of
the plasmonic layer increases further, it gets harder for light to pass
through. As a result, the sensitivity decreases. So, the optimum thickness
of AZO plasmonic layer is set to 25 nm.
The radii of the air holes
The structure with analytes of RI 1.422 for small air hole radius r1
was analyzed. The small radius was incremented by 0.1 µm, varying ­
from 0.8 µm to 1.0 µm. To get the best optimum results, loss curves of
the suggested sensor by varying the radii of small and large air holes are
depicted in Fig. 3(a, b). Fig. 3(a) shows that confinement losses
increase as the radius decreases from 1.0 µm to 0.8 µm due to the fact
that light can be directed more effectively into the cladding than into the
air gaps [53]. Consequently, 0.9 µm was selected as the ideal small air
hole radius due to its outstanding coupling and wavelength sensitivity.
Similarly, the large air hole radius r2 is incremented by 0.05 µm, star­
ting from 1.2 µm to 1.3 µm. The maximum confinement loss for the
big air holes with a radius of 1.25 m is 260.87 dB/cm, as illustrated in
Fig. 3(b). Furthermore, the peak loss can be decreased by altering the
radius of the large air holes. Therefore, there are fewer surface plasmons,
which have a lesser effect on the SPR sensor, resulting in a low­
er sensitivity [52]. This is proven by a maximum WS of 85,300 nm/RIU
for a r2 of 1.25 µm. Consequently, this value is selected as the optimal
option.

Fig. 3. CL profile of the suggested sensor for variations of (a) r1, and (b) r2.

4
M.R. Islam et al. Results in Physics 48 (2023) 106434

Results and discussion refractive index 1.422.

Multiple resonance
Analyte RI detection

When the evanescent field frequency and the electron vibration

The suggested sensor can detect analytes from resonance wavelength
frequency in a plasmonic material coincide, surface plasmon resonance
of 400 to 2000 nm with refractive indices between 1.36 and 1.423. For
(SPR) occurs. Due to their comparable effective indices, it is difficult to
the abovementioned range of refractive indices, the confinement loss is
distinguish between core-guided mode and SPP mode at certain wave­
calculated, which can be written as [48].
lengths. This indicates that the fiber can absorb the highest amount of
light at this wavelength. Here, resonance takes place, and the confine­ 2π
α(dB/cm) = 8.686 × ( ) × Im(neff ) × 104 (4)
ment loss peak is prominent. As a result of the simultaneous use of four λ
arrays of two different plasmonic materials, the evanescent field is
where λ denotes the operating wavelength, and Im(neff ) denotes the
segmented into different parts in the proposed sensor. This enables each
imaginary part of the effective index.
material to simultaneously generate a variety of SPP modes. The optical
Fig. 5 illustrates the loss spectra of the proposed sensor for a variety
distribution of core guided and SPP modes are represented in Fig. 4.
of analytes, which ranges between 1.36 and 1.423. As the RI increases,
Fig. 4(a-d) depicts the SPP modes and Fig. 4(e-h) depicts the core-guided
the resonant peaks redshift. In addition, RI of analytes must be detected
mode for the consecutive four peaks. Because each material is unique,
as organic chemical substances, food quality, and illnesses with higher
the frequencies at which the SPP mode match to the core mode varies.
precision for their higher sensitivity between 1.36 and 1.423. Therefore,
Consequently, there are several unique phase-matching conditions and
the suggested sensor can be utilized for the biomedical domain.
resonant wavelength peaks. Both the plasmonic layer, AZO and gold
contributes to the multiple peaks. Here, four phase-matching conditions
can be found. As a result, four loss peaks are analyzed. The dispersion Maximum spectral sensitivity
relations between the core-guided mode (orange dotted line) and SPP
modes (green, maroon, and black lines) for four peaks is shown in Fig. 4 The spectral sensitivity of a material describes the variation of
(i). It demonstrates that the greatest loss peaks of 4.3487 dB/cm, 21.862 detectability with changes in wavelength or frequency. Wavelength
dB/cm, 60.276 dB/cm, and 260.87 dB/cm, respectively, attained at Interrogation is preferable than Amplitude Interrogation technique due
wavelengths of 0.469 µm, 0.813 µm, 0.940 µm, and 1.827 µm for to its high sensitivity and wider detection range [64]. The wavelength of
the resonance varies from 1.827 µm to 1.912 µm whenever the RI varies

Fig. 4. Optical distribution of the (a, b, c, d) SPP mode and (e, f, g, h) core-guided mode for first, second, third, and fourth peaks, respectively at analyte RI of 1.422,
and (i) dispersion relations of the suggested sensor for RI = 1.422.

5
M.R. Islam et al.
Fig. 5. CL profile of the sensor for analytes for RI 1.36 to 1.423.
from 1.422 to 1.423. This structure has a maximum WS of 85,300 nm/
RIU, which can be computed utilizing the wavelength interrogation
equation [50].
ΔλPeak
sλ = (nm/RIU)
Δna
Here, ΔλPeak and Δna represent, the difference between two succes­
sive resonant wavelengths and two refractive indices, respectively.
Fig. 6(a, b, c,d) depicts the WS of the four investigated peaks in different
wavelengths. We found the best WS of 2,000 nm/RIU for the first peak.
Fig. 6. WS for variations in (a) first, (b) second, (c) third, and (d) fourth peaks for different RIs.
Results in Physics 48 (2023) 106434
The next two peaks obtain the sensitivities of 7,000 nm/RIU and 4,000
nm/RIU. For the fourth peak, the highest wavelength sensitivity of
85,300 nm/RIU is obtained for the RI of 1.422. Fig. 6 illustrates the
sensitivity analysis for using two separate plasmonic layers using an
array.
Maximum amplitude sensitivity
Variations in amplitude at a single wavelength are measured in
amplitude interrogation [45,54]. Since this method does not need
any spectral change, it is much simpler and less expensive [64]. AS can
be computed using the formula below [55],
1 ∂a (λ, na )
sA = − (RIU − 1 ) (6)
α(λ, na ) ∂na
Here, α(λ, na ) represents the CL for a certain wavelength of any
refractive index, ∂α(λ, na ) represents the difference in CL between
the two consecutive RIs, and ∂na denotes the difference in two successive
RI. Fig. 7 shows the AS sensor for analytes with RI from 1.36 to 1.423.
For analyte RI values between 1.36 and 1.423, the sensor produces a
maximum AS of 800.037 RIU− 1 at 0.746 µm for the second peak and a
maximum AS of 793 RIU− 1 at 1.826 µm for the fourth peak. Clearly, this
demonstrates the effectiveness and reliability of our design.
(5) Effective calibration of the sensor
Effective sensor calibration requires a sensor with greater linearity. As
seen in Fig. 8, the regression analysis techniques are utilized to evaluate
the performance of our sensor, in addition to adjusting various parameters
and evaluating the sensing performance for various analyte RIs. Fig. 8 (a,
b, c, d) illustrates the polynomial curve fitting of resonant wavelengths
6
M.R. Islam et al. Results in Physics 48 (2023) 106434

Fig. 7. AS with analyte RI varying from 1.36 to 1.422 for (a) first peak, (b) second peak, (c) third peak, and (d) fourth peak.

Fig. 8. Polynomial fit for the (a) first (b) second, (c) third, (d) fourth peak of resonant wavelengths.

with R–squared values for numerous peaks in serial order. Our model 5.16196x2 − 13.68314x +9.48799 with the coefficient value of R2 =
displays four simultaneous peaks. Consequently, four curve fittings are 0.997015, which is closer to 1. For the second peak, the cubic fitting
feasible. For the first peak, the quadratic fitting equation y = equation y = 761.03x3 − 3139.20x2 +4318.39x − 1980.49 with the

7
M.R. Islam et al. Results in Physics 48 (2023) 106434

coefficient value of R2 = 0.99978. For the third peak, the cubic fitting detection efficiency of the system and displays slight RI measurement
equation y = 313.42358x3 − 1295.68036x2 +1785.89462x − 819.84699 variations accurately. The optimal RIU resolution is reached to 1.26 ×
with the coefficient value of R2 = 0.99798. For the fourth peak, the fifth 10− 5 RIU when the RI is kept at 1.422 according to the following
order equation y = 1.30405x5 − 9.05057x4 +25.12436x3 − 34.87071x2 equation [42].
+24.19766x − 6.71619 with the coefficient value of R2 = 0.98091, Δna
guarantees good sensor performance, as illustrated in Fig. 8(a-d). R(A) = (RIU) (9)
sA

Δna = 0.01 represents the difference between the successive two RIs,
Sensor length and sA represents the AS. The wavelength interrogation technique is an
alternative way for assessing the resolution of a sensor. It can be
The sensor length is inversed of confinement loss. In addition, high computed by equation [42].
confinement loss limits the sensor length. It can be computed using the
formula below [56] R(ω) =
Δλmin
(RIU) (10)
sλ
1
L= (cm) (7)
α(λ, na ) where Δλmin is the minimum difference between the successive two
resonance wavelength and sλ is the WS. The highest obtained wave­
From Fig. 9, the sensor length is displayed using the Eq. (7). The
highest sensor length obtained is 0.233258 cm for the suggested length resolution is 1.17 × 10− 6 RIU. Consequently, the proposed sensor
structure. has the precise detection capability of RI deviations on the order of 10− 6 .

Novel peak amplitude difference sensitivity (PADS)

Figure of merit (FOM)
FOM is a method for comparing the efficiency of one sensor relative
to its alternatives. An increased FOM value can be required for a sensor
to perform effectively. A lower FWHM (Full Width Half Maxima) value
results in higher FOM, according to equation [50].
Sλ
FOM = (RIU − 1 )
FWHM
While optimizing the model, the proposed design obtains a high FOM
value of 370.8 RIU− 1. Using several peaks, this substantially higher FOM
value has not been explored in any previously. Consequently, the per­
formance of the suggested sensor is better than other sensors of earlier
research [46,57].
As noted earlier, the suggested design of this sensor yields multi­
ple separate loss peaks at distinct resonant wavelengths for a particular
refractive index. Fig. 10 (a, b) illustrates the correlation between the
difference in peak amplitude between first and third loss peaks for the
same RI with the difference in peak amplitude between second and
fourth loss peaks for the structure. The amplitude difference between
(8) each pair of peaks rises from 1.36 to 1.422 due to the presence of mul­
tiple peaks. Using the correlation of the difference of peak amplitude for
the analyte RI, a unique measure of sensitivity named as Peak Amplitude
Difference Sensitivity is established. An equation is used to calculate the
new term which is shown below:

1 (α(λp3 , na ) − α(λp1 , na )) − (α(λp3 , nb ) − α(λp1 , nb ))

SPA− PA = RIU − 1
(11)
(α(λp3 , nb ) − α(λp1 , nb )) nb − na

6
Resolution up to 10− order where SPA− PA is the peak amplitude difference sensitivity, α(λp1 , na ) is
the first loss peak for refractive index na , α(λp3 , na ) is the third loss peak
Resolution is an essential characteristic of a sensor since it defines the for refractive index na , α(λp1 , nb ) is the first loss peak for refractive index
nb , α(λp3 , nb ) is the third loss peak for refractive index nb . Eq. (11) is used
to find PADS for first and third peak. The same equation can also be used
to find PADS for second and fourth peak. Thus, a relationship between
the four peak amplitudes is analyzed and related. The relationship of the
difference between the first and third peaks and the difference between
the second and fourth peaks for the same analyte RI is therefore corre­
lated with a high coefficient of R2 = 0.95051 while the equation remains
the same for the second pairs of peaks. Thus, a high linearity is found.
The correlation between the even and odd numbered peak amplitudes
with the same refractive index is seen in Fig. 10.
The suggested sensor achieved a maximum Peak Amplitude Differ­
ence Sensitivity (PADS) of 396.175 RIU− 1. Fig. 11 illustrates the
PADS between RI values of 1.36 and 1.422 for first to third peak and
second to fourth peak. By analyzing the difference in peak amplitude
between the multiple resonance wavelengths of the proposed sensor, a
unique parameter is analyzed and established for detecting analytes.
This would be a significant step toward label-free, detection with high
precision of a wide range of wavelength using multiple peak analysis.
From Fig. 11, it is seen that there are two peak amplitude difference
sensitivities for four different peaks. The correlation between the two
Fig. 9. Sensor length for four peaks.

8
M.R. Islam et al. Results in Physics 48 (2023) 106434

Fig. 10. Difference of peak amplitude difference of (a) third to first peak (b) fourth to second peak.

Fig. 11. Novel Peak Amplitude Difference Sensitivity within RI span 1.36–1.42 for (a) first to third peak, and (b) second to fourth peak.

Peak Amplitude Difference Sensitivity is very high which is R2 =
0.9332. So, any one of those parameters can be used to detect the target
refractive index. In case of detection confirmation, the second parameter
can be used. That means if the distinct parameters of the first and third
peaks is used to detect, even if the results are almost identical for
different refractive indexes, the distinct parameter of the second and
fourth peaks can be used to check and further verify that result making it
convenient to detect any analyte more accurately than sensors having a
single peak. Since there are multiple peaks, while working with AS,
there can be misconduct while finding out unknown RI as there will be
multiple value of maximum AS for same RI in different wavelength re­
gion. Even with WS, multiple peaks may not have same red-shift or blue
shift for any particular RI. WS sometimes required higher spectral
changes which can be costly and in efficient while applying for mass
detection technique as well. So, we proposed this new parameter PADS
which takes at least 2 distinct peaks from 2 spectral range into the ac­
count and compare it with the reference value and gives us the result of
unknown RI just like AS but with higher precision and higher accuracy.
Comparative study
The suggested sensor is compared to the previous research. The re­
sults are shown in Table 1 to illustrate that our sensor provides superior
performance and a novel methodology for evaluating sensitivity.
Fabrication process
SPR-based PCF sensors can be fabricated. The proposed sensor is
easier to implement as it has round air holes. The manufacture of the
suggested sensor is illustrated in Fig. 12. The suggested sensor’s core and
cladding can be manufactured utilizing the stack-and-draw approach
[60]. First, capillaries with both thick and thin walls will be created. The
capillaries will be made one hundred times larger than the suggested
size. The configuration of these capillaries and solid rods can be

Table 1
Performance analogy of the suggested sensor compared to previously recorded sensors.
Ref. Structure Type RI Range (na) Max. Ws (nm/ Max. As FOM Wav. Peak Amp. Difference
RIU) (RIU− 1) (RIU− 1) Resolution Sensitivity
(RIU) (RIU− 1)

[58] D shaped 1.33–1.45 7900 – 93.7 1.26 × 10–5 –

Plasmonic Sensor
6
[32] Asymmetric core-based biosensor 1.33–1.40 11,000 631 157 9.09 × 10− –
5
[36] Internally metal-coated PCF sensor 1.40–1.44 9,600 1739.3 407 1.09 × 10− –
6
[59] Grating-based PCF SPR sensor 1.33–1.36 10,600 633 – 9.43 × 10− –
6
[40] Modified external PCF SPR sensor 1.33–1.44 17,000 34,00 320 5.88 × 10− –
5
[33] D-shaped PCF with gold-graphene 1.32–1.40 33,500 – – 2.98 × 10− –
layer
Proposed Array based PCF SPR sensor 1.36–1.423 85,300 800.037 370.8 1.17 × 10− 6 396.175
work

9
M.R. Islam et al.
Fig. 12. Fabrication steps of the proposed array-based sensor.
determined by how the air holes in the proposed sensor are rearranged.
The cane, intermediate preform, will subsequently be formed according
to requirements. AZO and gold layers can be fabricated using a two-step
photolithography process [61]. Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) can
be applied to cover the whole surface of the fiber with one of the plas­
monic layers [62]. Following this, a mask will be used to cover the
required region for the initial plasmonic layer. For the second plasmonic
layer, the same procedures will be applied. To establish the sensor layer,
two pumps are required. The first will allow analytes to enter the layer,
while the second will remove analytes from the layer [63]. With these
approaches, the suggested sensor can be made using existing
fabrication methods.
Conclusion
The unique design with arrays of plasmonic layers of the proposed
sensor enables it to function in the visible to infrared regions, making it
suitable for both broadband applications and biological sensing
requiring deeper tissue penetration. The maximum WS is 85,300 nm/
RIU, and its maximum AS is 793 RIU− 1 for the proposed sensor. More­
over, a maximum amplitude resolution of 1.26 × 10− 5 RIU and wave­
length resolution of 1.17 × 10− 6 RIU is achieved. The proposed sensor
also showed a high FOM of 370.8. AZO can be used as an intermediate
plasmonic material. Thus, it can be a superior solution for high sensing
qualities when all factors are considered. Multiple loss peaks have been
investigated numerically independently, and then variations in peak
amplitudes have been evaluated. This brings us to a new term for
sensitivity: peak amplitude difference sensitivity (PADS). Moreover, this
sensor obtained maximum PADS of 426.894 RIU− 1. In conclusion, our
proposed sensor has raised the likelihood of reliable detection of ana­
lytes by expanding the sensing parameter sensing techniques.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Mohammad Rakibul Islam: Conceptualization, Supervision,
Writing – review & editing. Tahmina Tabassum Treena: Conceptual­
ization, Software, Writing – original draft. Nasir Muhammad Munim:
Conceptualization, Software, Writing – original draft. Syed Iftekhar Ali:
Supervision, Writing – review & editing.
10
Results in Physics 48 (2023) 106434
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
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