Journal of Applied Psychology Copyright 1996 by the American Psychological Associa on. Inc.

1996, Vol. 81, No. 3, 318-325 0021-90IDA VS3.00

The Experience of Work and Turnover Intentions: Interactive Effects of

Value Attainment, Job Satisfaction, and Positive Mood
Jennifer M. George and Gareth R. Jones
Texas A&M University

The researchers proposed that the phenomenological experience of work is multifaceted

and that simultaneously considering the combined effects of the different aspects of the
work experience holds considerable promise for increasing understanding of turnover
intentions and other organizationally relevant outcomes. Research in subjective well-
being and other areas suggests that there are 3 important aspects of the experience of
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

work: attainment of values, attitudes, and moods. It was hypothesized and found that the
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

relationship between job satisfaction and turnover intentions is jointly moderated by

value attainment and positive mood. The nature of this triple interaction was such that
the job satisfaction-turnover intention relationship was strongest when workers' jobs did
not help them to attain terminal values and positive moods were experienced, and the
relationship was weakest when jobs helped workers to attain terminal values and positive
moods were experienced.

Voluntary turnover has been the subject of extensive
theorizing and research in the applied psychology litera-
ture because of its potential costs to organizations in
terms of loss of valuable human resources and disruption
of ongoing activities (Cascio, 1991). In many models,
turnover intentions are the immediate precursor to ac-
tual turnover (e.g., Horn, Caranikas-Walker, Prussia, &
Griffeth, 1992; Mobley, 1977; Mobley, Griffith, Hand, &
Meglino, 1979; Steers & Mowday, 1981), and the rela-
tionship between intentions to quit and actual turnover
has been well-documented in the literature (e.g., Horn,
Griffeth, & Sellaro, 1984; Steel & Ovalle, 1984). An im-
plicit theme in much of this work is that the way people
experience work influences their intentions to quit or
stay. The dominant mode in which this theme has been
explored is vis-a-vis the relationship between attitudes
like job satisfaction and turnover intentions, as well as
theorized intermediate links between job satisfaction and
intentions to quit (e.g., Bannister & Griffeth, 1986;
Dalessio, Silverman, & Schuck, 1986; Horn et al., 1992;
Jennifer M. George and Gareth R. Jones, Department of
Management, College of Business Administration and Gradu-
ate School of Business, Texas A&M University.
An earlier version of this article was presented at the Annual
Meeting of the Southwest Academy of Management, San Anto-
nio, Texas, March 1996.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed
to Jennifer M. George, Department of Management, Texas
A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843-4221.
Horn et al., 1984; Mobley, 1977; Mobley et al., 1979;
Mobley, Horner, & Hollingsworth, 1978).
In this article, we give the relationship between the ex-
perience of work and turnover intentions a closer and
more detailed look. We propose that the phenomenologi-
cal experience of work is multifaceted and that consider-
ing the combined effects of the different aspects of the
work experience holds considerable promise for increas-
ing our understanding of turnover intentions, as well as
other organizationally relevant outcomes.
Multifaceted Nature of the Experience of Work
In reviewing relevant literatures on subjective experi-
ence in work and in other domains of life, we came up
with three broad categories of constructs that each seem
to be prime contributors to the experience of work
(George & Jones, in press). More specifically, the litera-
ture on the subjective experience of work has focused on
(a) values and their attainment (e.g., Dawis, 1991; Meg-
lino, Ravlin, & Adkins, 1989; Nord, Brief, Atieh, & Doh-
erty, 1990; Ravlin & Meglino, 1987), (b) attitudes like
job satisfaction, job involvement, and organizational
commitment (e.g., Brooke, Russell, & Price, 1988;
Hulin, 1991; Locke, 1976; Mathieu & Farr, 1991), and
(c) work moods (e.g., George, 1989; George & Brief,
1992). Similarly, in the literature on overall subjective
well-being in life, three complementary aspects of well-
being have been identified: value attainment (e.g., how
one's life is evaluated relative to one or more standards or
values such as virtue or success; e.g., Coan, 1977; Tatar-

318
 RESEARCH REPORTS
kiewicz, 1976), life satisfaction (the extent to which one
is satisfied with one's life or has come to evaluate one's
life in positive terms; e.g., Andrews & Withey, 1974,
1976; Andrews & Inglehart, 1979), and the extent to
which a person experiences positive feelings or moods
(Bradburn, 1969;Diener, 1984).
Value attainment captures the extent to which a job
helps a worker to attain life values, attitudes capture how
one comes to evaluate the job, and moods capture how
one feels when performing the job. Theoretically, we pro-
pose that to obtain a full appreciation of how the experi-
ence of work affects such outcomes as turnover inten-
tions, these three aspects of the work experience should
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be considered simultaneously (George & Jones, in press).
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When considered simultaneously, value attainment, atti-
tudes, and moods are the phenomenological experience
of work.
Values refer to "enduring belief[s] that . . . specific
mode[s] of conduct or end-state [s] of existence . . .
[are] personally or socially preferable to an opposite or
converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence"
(Rokeach, 1973, p. 5). As conceptions of desirable end-
states of existence or modes of conduct, values help peo-
ple choose, evaluate, and give meaning to their work ex-
periences (Rokeach, 1973). The extent to which a job or
organization helps or hinders individuals from attaining
values is a significant aspect of their experience of work,
as values are the guideposts that provide meaning to work
experiences (Lewin, 1951).
Attitudes (like job satisfaction or organizational com-
mitment) are knowledge structures that organize and
summarize the array of feelings and thoughts that arise
from actual work experiences with a particular job
(Anderson & Armstrong, 1989; Kruglanski, 1989; Olson
& Zanna, 1993). Attitudes are tied to specific jobs or or-
ganizations and encapsulate people's feelings and beliefs
about the nature of those jobs and organizations. As an
important dimension of the work experience, attitudes
capture the essence of one's experience with a job or
organization.
Moods refer to how people feel or the affective states
they experience when they are engaged in actual work
activities (George, 1989). Moods are pervasive in that
they are not necessarily focused on or tied to specific ob-
jects, events, situations, or behaviors (Brady, 1970;
Nowlis, 1970; Ryle, 1950). Moods do not demand atten-
tion nor do they interrupt cognitive processes or behav-
iors (Clark & Isen, 1982). Moods provide the affective
context for ongoing activities and are not necessarily a
product of reflection or cognitive analysis. Moods cap-
ture how people feel at work or when they are on the job,
not necessarily how they feel about work, which entails
more explicit cognitive evaluation.
319
Value Attainment, Attitudes, Moods, and Turnover
Intentions
In several models of turnover (e.g., Mobley, 1977; Horn
et al., 1992), attitudes, and in particular job satisfaction,
are seen as triggering the turnover process, ultimately
leading to intentions to quit, and final quit or stay deci-
sions. Whereas, as mentioned earlier, the relationship be-
tween turnover intentions and actual turnover has been
established (e.g., Horn et al., 1992), the specific linkages
between job satisfaction and intentions to quit, and more
generally between the experience of work as a gestalt and
intentions to quit, are in need of further study (Lee &
Mitchell, 1994). We propose here that the simultaneous
consideration of value attainment, attitudes, and moods
will yield a richer and more complete understanding of
the relationship between job satisfaction and turnover in-
tentions and more generally how the experience of work
may or may not lead to intentions to quit. For example,
such simultaneous consideration may help us to uncover
reasons why job dissatisfaction results in turnover inten-
tions for some workers but does not for others (Lee &
Mitchell, 1994).
There are multiple ways of conceptualizing and mea-
suring value attainment, multiple work-related attitudes,
and multiple kinds of moods. Therefore, as in practically
all research, we were forced to make some choices with
regards to how we conceptualized and measured value
attainment, attitudes, and moods.
Values have been previously considered by turnover re-
searchers. However, their approach has been different
from ours. For example, Mobley et al. (1979) suggested
that values influence job satisfaction and Steers and
Mowday (1981) suggested that the combination of values
and expectations for a job (resulting in met or unmet
expectations) affect attitudes like job satisfaction, which
in turn eventually lead to turnover intentions (Lee &
Mitchell, 1994). As another example, Lee and Mowday
(1987) proposed that job expectations and values influ-
ence job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and
job involvement, which in turn influence turnover inten-
tions. Although not disputing the fact that values in some
form or another have the potential to affect attitudes like
job satisfaction, our approach to value attainment is to
put it on "equal footing" with the other two aspects of the
work experience, such that it is not assumed to be caus-
ally prior to attitudes or moods. Value attainment, atti-
tudes, and moods each have the potential to affect one
another. Although the nature of the linkages between
these constructs is an interesting question in its own
right, it is not our prime concern in this study. Rather,
our concern is with the simultaneous effects of value at-
tainment, attitudes, and moods on turnover intentions.
 320 RESEARCH REPORTS
We decided to conceptualize and measure value attain-
ment in terms of the extent to which individuals think
that their jobs help them to attain terminal values. Ro-
keach (1973) defined terminal values as desirable end-
states of existence, such as a comfortable life, an exciting
life, and a sense of accomplishment. The extent of termi-
nal value attainment essentially describes the degree to
which people view their jobs as helping them to achieve
important overarching life goals or standards, the extent
to which work enables people to progress toward desir-
able states of existence.
Job satisfaction is the work attitude that has received
the most attention from turnover researchers. Although
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many models and much research have focused on the re-
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
lationship between job satisfaction and turnover inten-
tions, additional work is needed to understand when in
fact dissatisfaction culminates in intentions to quit (Lee
& Mitchell, 1994). For these reasons, we decided to focus
on job satisfaction as the attitudinal component of the
work experience.
Lastly, the dimension of work moods that appears
most relevant in this context is the extent to which a per-
son experiences positive moods at work (e.g., George,
1989; George & Brief, 1992; Isen & Baron, 1991).
On the basis of our view that the work experience is
best captured by simultaneously considering value at-
tainment, attitudes, and moods, we propose that value
attainment, job satisfaction, and positive mood interact
to influence turnover intentions. Although researchers
have explored relationships between attitudes and values
and turnover intentions, we know of no other study that
has considered how value attainment, attitudes, and
moods interact to result in turnover intentions.
What is the nature of this proposed interaction? One
way to explore and interpret this proposed three-way in-
teraction is to specify the conditions under which the neg-
ative relationship between job satisfaction and turnover
intentions should be strongest and weakest (depending
on levels of value attainment and positive mood). We
propose that the relationship between job satisfaction
and turnover intentions should be strongest when (a)
workers think that their jobs are not helping them to at-
tain terminal values and (b) they do not experience pos-
itive moods at work. Under these circumstances, a job is
not seen as leading to what one is striving to attain in life,
nor does one feel good on the job or while engaged in
work activities. Work is not moving the worker toward
desired end-states or goals nor is it enjoyable in the pres-
ent. Hence, there is little of a redeeming nature in the
work experience that can serve to prevent dissatisfaction
from leading to intentions to quit.
The relationship between job satisfaction and turnover
intentions should be weakest when (a) workers perceive
that their jobs are helping them to attain terminal values
and (b) they experience positive moods at work. Under
these circumstances, work is helping the worker to attain
desired end-states in life as a whole, and the worker feels
good while doing the work; hence, dissatisfaction may be
relatively easier to tolerate.
Another interesting question pertaining to the job sat-
isfaction-turnover intentions relationship (as well as the
interpretation of the hypothesized three-way interaction)
is whether values or moods are relatively more influential
in affecting the relationship between job satisfaction and
turnover intentions. Turnover intentions imply a poten-
tially major and permanent change in one's working life
that is usually viewed as resulting from a carefully
thought-out process (e.g., Mobley et al., 1979). Even ac-
knowledging that some turnover is impulsive, it is likely
that an aspect of the work experience with long-term im-
plications—value attainment—is particularly important
for understanding the relationship between job satisfac-
tion and turnover intentions. Given their more fluctuat-
ing nature, moods are likely to be less important for un-
derstanding the relationship between job satisfaction and
turnover intentions. Hence, we hypothesized that the re-
lationship between job satisfaction and turnover inten-
tions is jointly moderated by value attainment and posi-
tive mood. The nature of this hypothesized three-way in-
teraction is such that:
1. The negative relationship between job satisfaction
and turnover intentions is strongest when people's jobs
do not help them to attain terminal values and positive
moods are not experienced at work.
2. The negative relationship is next strongest when peo-
ple's jobs do not help them to attain terminal values and
positive moods are experienced at work.
3. The negative relationship is next strongest when peo-
ple's jobs help them to attain terminal values and positive
moods are not experienced at work.
4. The negative relationship is weakest when people's
jobs help them to attain terminal values and positive
moods are experienced at work.
Method
Sample and Procedure
Data for this study came from an in-depth investigation of
work-life linkages among a sample of professionals and manag-
ers in the U.S. printing industry. All of the individuals working
in the United States who were listed in the membership direc-
tory of a printing industry trade association were included in
the study. These individuals were employed by 280 U.S. firms
that were members of the association and were their firms' rep-
resentatives to the association. Upper level association manage-
ment endorsed the study and provided access to the directory.
 RESEARCH REPORTS
Questionnaires were mailed to potential respondents with in-
structions to return the completed questionnaires directly to the
researchers in the postage-paid envelopes that had been pro-
vided. Respondents were guaranteed complete anonymity.
Questionnaires were mailed to the 1,210 representatives in the
directory, and 336 completed questionnaires were returned for
a response rate of 28%. Because of missing data, the sample size
for analyses ranged from 306 to 336.
The respondents' average age was 47.44 years (SD = 9.82),
average years work experience was 26.66 (SD = 10.03), and
approximately 96% of the respondents were men. The gender
composition of the respondents was similar to the gender com-
position of the association as a whole. That is, approximately
96% of the representatives in the directory were men.
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Measures
Job satisfaction. The measure of job satisfaction used was
the 20-item short form of the Minnesota Satisfaction Question-
naire (MSQ; Weiss, Dawis, England, & Lofquist, 1967). For
each item in the scale, respondents indicated how satisfied they
were with their present job on a 5-point response format rang-
ing from very dissatisfied to very satisfied. Evidence pertaining
to the reliability and validity of this scale has been provided
by Weiss et al. (1967). In this sample, the internal consistency
reliability of the measure of job satisfaction was .91.
Value attainment. The extent to which the respondents'
present jobs helped them to attain terminal values was mea-
sured by an 18-item scale. The items in the scale were the 18
terminal values and their brief descriptions provided in the Ro-
keach Value Survey (Rokeach, 1973). Sample items (i.e., ter-
minal values and their brief descriptions from the Rokeach
Value Survey) included "A Comfortable Life (a prosperous
life)"; "An Exciting Life (a stimulating, active life)"; "A Sense
of Accomplishment (lasting contribution)"; and "Social Rec-
ognition (respect, admiration)." For each of the items, respon-
dents were asked to indicate the extent to which their present
job helped them to attain the value described in the item on a
5-point response scale ranging from to no extent to to a very
large extent. Responses to the 18 items were summed for an
overall measure of the extent to which the respondents' jobs
helped them to attain terminal values. The internal consistency
reliability of the measure of value attainment was .85.
Positive mood. Positive mood was measured by the 10-item
positive mood scale of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule
(PANAS; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). Each item in the
scale is a marker of a positive mood state. Sample items are
enthusiastic, active, and inspired. Respondents indicated the ex-
tent to which each of the items described how they felt over the
past few weeks on a 5-point response scale ranging from very
slightly or not at all to extremely. Evidence on the reliability and
validity of this measure of positive mood is provided by Watson
and his colleagues (e.g., Watson et al., 1988). In the current
study, the internal consistency reliability of the measure of pos-
itive mood was .89.
Turnover intentions. Turnover intentions were measured by
a three-item scale which has a 7-point response format
(Cammann, Fichman, Jenkins, & Klesh, 1979; Seashore,
321
Table 1
Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations
Variable M SD 1
1. Job satisfaction 76.07 12.33 (.91) .40** .31** -.36**
2. Value attainment 49.56 8.75 (.85) .38** -.33**
3. Positive mood 35.86 6.02 (.89) -.23**
4. Turnover intentions 7.73 4.85 (.86)
Note. Internal consistency reliabilities are in parentheses. Because of
missing data, the same size for correlations ranged from 319 to 330.
**/?<.01.
Lawler, Mirvis, & Cammann, 1982). In the current study, the
internal consistency reliability of the measure of turnover in-
tentions was .86.
Results
Table 1 contains means, standard deviations, corre-
lations, and internal consistency reliabilities for the study
variables. The hypothesis stated that the relationship be-
tween job satisfaction and turnover intentions would be
jointly moderated by value attainment and positive
mood, such that the relationship would be strongest for
respondents whose jobs do not help them to attain termi-
nal values and who do not experience positive moods at
work and weakest for respondents whose jobs help them
to attain terminal values and who experienced positive
moods at work. This hypothesis was tested by moderated
regression analysis. At the first hierarchical step, job sat-
isfaction, positive mood, and value attainment were en-
tered into the equation; the three two-way cross-product
terms were entered at the second step; and the three-way
cross-product term was entered at the last step. A statis-
tically significant increment in R2 at step 3 indicates a
significant three-way interaction effect. As indicated in
Table 2, the Job Satisfaction X Positive Mood X Value
Attainment triple interaction was statistically significant
(A.R2 = .01; p < .05) in support of the hypothesis.
The nature of this interaction effect is depicted in Fig-
ure 1 in which four separate turnover intentions on job
satisfaction unstandardized regression lines are plotted
for four subgroups. The subgroups were formed by split-
ting the sample into four groups on the basis of mean
levels of positive mood and value attainment in the whole
sample (i.e., on the basis of mean splits on these two
variables).
As indicated in Figure 1 and in support of the hypoth-
esis, a negative relationship was observed between job
satisfaction and turnover intentions in the values not at-
tained and low positive mood subgroup (B = —.20),
whereas a negligible relationship was observed in the val-
ues attained and high positive mood subgroup (B =
 322 RESEARCH REPORTS

Table 2 mood, r = —.15, ns, n = 53; values attained and high

Results of Hierarchical Regression Analysis Regressing
Turnover Intentions on Job Satisfaction, Positive Mood,
Value Attainment, and Their Interactions
Hierarchical
step Independent variable
Job satisfaction
1
Positive mood
Value attainment
2 Job Satisfaction X Positive Mood
Positive Mood X Value Attainment
Job Satisfaction X Value Attainment
3 Job Satisfaction X Positive Mood
X Value Attainment
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positive mood, r = —.11, ns, n = 105. The differences
between the two correlations in each of the six possible
pairs of subgroup correlations were statistically signifi-
cant at the .05 level with two exceptions. The difference
R2 /VR2 in the correlations for the values not attained and low
positive mood subgroup and the values attained and low
positive mood subgroup was statistically significant at the
.18* .18** .10 level. As would be expected, the difference between
.18* .00 the two nonsignificant subgroup correlations (values at-
.18* .00
.23* .05** tained and low positive mood and values attained and
.24* .01* high positive mood) was not significant. In brief, these
results provided partial support for the hypothesis.

Note. N = 306.
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*p<.05. **p<.0l.
—.03). Unexpectedly, however, the values not attained
and high positive mood subgroup had the strongest nega-
tive relationship observed between job satisfaction and
turnover intentions (B = — .38). This pattern of results is
also illustrated by examining the subgroup correlations.
The correlations between job satisfaction and turnover
intentions in the four subgroups were as follows: values
not attained and low positive mood, r = —.40, p < .01, n
- 82; values not attained and high positive mood, r -
—.66, p < .01, n = 66; values attained and low positive
Discussion
Results of this study suggest that simultaneously con-
sidering how value attainment, attitudes like job satisfac-
tion, and work moods interact to influence individual
and organizational outcomes may yield a better under-
standing of the consequences of the work experience for
organizations and their members. The statistically sig-
nificant three-way interaction we observed indicates that
considering the combined effects of job satisfaction,
value attainment, and positive mood on turnover inten-
tions may provide additional insight into the reasons why
low levels of job satisfaction lead to turnover intentions

21 -r
Values not attained
19 High positive mood

17 +

15
c
o
13
01

11
Values attained
o Low positive mood
9

7
C __ _

3 --

50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90

Job Satisfaction (JS)

Figure 1. Plot of turnover intentions on job satisfaction unstandardized regression lines for
four subgroups. Equations: values not attained/low positive mood subgroup y = -.20 JS +
23.59; values not attained/high positive mood subgroup y = —.38 JS + 37.17; values attained/
low positive mood subgroup y = -.07 JS + 12.30; and values attained/high positive mood
subgroup y = -.03 JS + 8.21.
 RESEARCH REPORTS
for some workers but not for others (Lee & Mitchell,
1994).
Consistent with some of our expectations, value attain-
ment appeared to play somewhat of a stronger role in this
triple interaction than positive mood. That is, the rela-
tionships between job satisfaction and turnover inten-
tions were strongest when values were not attained and
weakest when values were attained.
Somewhat puzzling is the fact that although we origi-
nally expected the relationship between job satisfaction
and turnover intentions to be strongest when values were
not attained and positive mood was low, and this relation-
ship was strong and negative (consistent with our
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expectations), the relationship was actually stronger
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when positive mood was high, as opposed to low. In ret-
rospect, this result was not surprising when we took into
consideration some of the other important effects of pos-
itive mood. For example, research suggests that people in
positive moods tend to have higher levels of self-efficacy,
have higher expectations that they will be successful in
the future, are more optimistic about the future, and are
more action-oriented than people who are not in positive
moods (e.g., Baron, 1990; Bower & Cohen, 1982;
Feather, 1966; Forgas, Bower, & Moylan, 1990; Kavanagh
& Bower, 1985; Masters & Furman, 1975). Thus, work-
ers who are dissatisfied with their jobs and whose jobs
do not help them to attain terminal values, but who also
experience positive moods at work, may have higher self-
efficacy for obtaining a more satisfying and fulfilling job,
may be more optimistic about their future prospects, and
may be more action-oriented in terms of changing their
work situation as a result of the aforementioned effects
of positive moods. Hence, the relationship between job
satisfaction and turnover intentions may be especially
strong for these individuals. Consistent with this reason-
ing, Judge (1993) found that affective disposition moder-
ated the relationship between job satisfaction and turn-
over in a similar fashion to what was found in this study
for positive mood as an affective state and turnover inten-
tions. Although affective states and affective dispositions
are distinct from one another, dispositions influence
states so that people who are predisposed to experience
positive moods actually do tend to experience more pos-
itive moods than those who are not so predisposed
(George, 1991).
This study is not without limitations. First, all of the
data was obtained through self-report. When self-reports
are used, concerns often arise that common method vari-
ance and consistency effects may be responsible for some
of the results obtained. However, it should be pointed out
that in this study an interaction effect was hypothesized
and found. This interaction effect was found after con-
trolling for all main effects (and potential sources of com-
323
mon method variance). A second potential limitation
was that we measured the extent to which people felt their
jobs helped them to attain all of the terminal values iden-
tified by Rokeach (1973) rather than the values that were
most important or personally relevant to them. Related
to this point, our measure assessed the attainment of very
broad values and not values that are more job specific.
Third, in order to measure positive mood as a state rather
than a trait, we asked respondents to report how they felt
over the past few weeks. This time frame, although ap-
propriate to measure positive mood states, may be con-
siderably shorter than the implicit time frame respon-
dents used to form their turnover intentions. Fourth, the
change in R2 supporting the hypothesized three-way in-
teraction was not large. Finally, our post hoc explanation
for finding that the relationship between job satisfaction
and turnover intentions was strongest when values were
not attained and positive mood was high (rather than
low) is a speculation in need of further research. For ex-
ample, had we included a measure of self-efficacy for
finding a job in our study, we could have addressed this
issue in more depth.
Nonetheless, the results of this study provide support
for the view that the experience of work is multifaceted
and that important insights concerning the consequences
of the experience of work for individuals and organiza-
tions may result from considering the simultaneous
effects of value attainment, attitudes, and moods. It is
likely such simultaneous consideration can improve our
understanding of organizationally relevant phenomenon
tied to the work experience.
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of research on the relationship between behavioral intentions Received July 10, 1995
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

and employee turnover. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69, Revision received December 4, 1995
673-686. Accepted December 4, 1995 •

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