modeled using three-dimensional CFD models by solving the to considered, to get a more holistic idea of if and how

Navier-Stokes equations including the effects of air flow with thermal comfort can be achieved. For this, another equation

turbulence, temperature, and humidity. The results of the had developed to relate the PMV to the predicted percentage

simulation showed that the spread of the virus was affected of dissatisfied (PPD). Once the PMV is calculated, the PPD,

by the air flow, temperature, and humidity. The authors or index that establishes a quantitative prediction of the

concluded that the CFD models could be used to predict the percentage of thermally dissatisfied occupants (i.e., too warm

spread of the virus in a closed environment and could be used or too cold), can be determined. PPD essentially gives the

to inform the design of ventilation systems to reduce the percentage of people predicted to experience local

spread of the virus. Consequently, the current research aims discomfort. The main factors causing local discomfort are

to implement a step-by-step process for numerical unwanted cooling or heating of an occupant’s body. Common

investigation of airborne infection transmission and contributing factors are drafts, abnormally high vertical

environmental quality and their interactions in an airplane temperature differences between the ankles and head, and/or

cabin with different ventilation systems, with the objectives floor temperature.

of achieving the optimal design of ventilation system and This study employs the methodologies described in Section

addressing challenges in preventing risks of airborne II to perform Eulerian-Lagrangian CFD simulations in

infection and providing strategies that mitigate undesirable conditioned space to follow virus-laden particles in several

hazards associated with ventilation systems (limiting the alternative ventilation strategies. Once the most effective

spread of respiratory pathogens and residence time (RT)) and system for preventing the spread of infection has been

enhancing passenger comfort and environmental quality. identified, the optimization process is described in Section

III. This process involves using a Design of Experiment

Other output parameters that used in air conditioning systems
(DOE) procedure to find and simulate design points and the
are PMV and PPD. PMV is an index that aims to predict the
response surface method (RSM) to select parameters that
mean value of votes of a group of occupants on a seven-point
have the greatest influence on observables like thermal
thermal sensation scale. Thermal equilibrium is obtained
comfort indices, particle residence time, and air change
when an occupant’s internal heat production is the same as its
effectiveness. In Section IV, the indoor environmental
heat loss. The heat balance of an individual can be influenced
quality factors of the optimal design will be explored. Finally,
by levels of physical activity, clothing insulation, as well as
the main outcomes of this procedure are presented in Section
the parameters of the thermal environment. Through PMV,
V.
we can predict the thermal sensation of a population,
II. CFD SIMULATION OF PARTICLE INJECTION
however. the satisfaction of the occupants in the space needs
4
The Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes (RANS) method was 𝜕𝑈𝑖 𝜕𝑃 𝜕 𝜕𝑈𝑖 𝜕𝑈𝑗
𝜌𝑈𝑖 =− + (𝜇 [ + ] − 𝜌𝑢
̅̅̅̅̅)
𝑖 𝑢𝑗 + 𝑆𝑀𝑖 (2)
𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖
utilized for the current study, and the equations for Eulerian-
Where 𝑃 is the pressure, 𝜇 and 𝑢
̅̅̅̅̅
𝑖 𝑢𝑗 represent viscosity and
Lagrangian CFD model are illustrated. ANSYS Design
Reynolds stresses, respectively, and 𝑆𝑀𝑖 is the sum of all
Modeler, and ANSYS Meshing, were utilized to generate the
applied body forces. The energy equation can also be
geometry and mesh, respectively. In addition, a grid
expressed as follows:
sensitivity study was conducted, and ANSYS FLUENT was
𝜕(ℎ𝑈𝑖 ) 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
used to solve the three-dimensional numerical model whose 𝜌 =− (𝑘 ) + 𝑆ℎ (3)
𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑖

numerical settings and governing equations are detailed in the 𝑇 and ℎ stand for temperature and sensible enthalpy,

subsequent sections. The CFD model was subsequently respectively, 𝑘 for thermal conductivity and 𝑆ℎ for source

evaluated against experimental study measurements, as term [46]. The species conservation equations are formulated

described in section C. Finally, the results of particle injection in a general form:

of different case studies (Section D) are presented in Section ∇(𝜌𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑈𝑌𝑖 ) = ∇(𝐷𝑖,𝑒𝑓𝑓 ∇𝑌𝑖 ) + 𝑆𝑔,𝑖 (4)

E. Where, 𝑌𝑖 is the mole fraction of the gas species; 𝐷𝑖,𝑒𝑓𝑓

A. Eulerian- Lagrangian CFD model represents the effective mass diffusion coefficient of the 𝑖

To solve the governing equation of incompressible flow, species; and 𝑆𝑔,𝑖 the production/consumption rate of the 𝑖

which includes conservation of mass, momentum, energy, species. In the mass diffusion equation, the diffusion

and species, the Eulerian model for an unsteady Reynolds- coefficients of species 𝑖 are based on the binary coefficients,

Averaged Navier Stokes (RANS) approach was utilized, and as given by [47, 48]:

the respiratory droplets (the discrete phases) were modeled 1 − 𝑌𝑖

𝐷𝑖,𝑔𝑚 = (5)
𝑌
∑𝑖≠𝑗 𝑖
𝐷𝑖,𝑗
using the Lagrangian approach [44, 45].

1. Eulerian CFD model Where 𝐷𝑖,𝑗 is the binary diffusion coefficients; and 𝑌𝑖

represents the mass fraction of the 𝑖 species.

The governing equations for continuity, momentum, and
2. Lagrangian model
energy conservation equations of steady incompressible

Eulerian model are as the following: The trajectory and distribution of discrete respiratory droplets

𝜕𝑈𝑖
= 𝑆𝑚 (1)
exhaled from the bio-mouth sources were modeled using a
𝜕𝑥𝑖

Lagrangian model:
In which 𝑈 denotes the velocity vector and 𝑆𝑚 is the source
𝑑𝑈𝑃 𝑈 − 𝑈𝑃 𝑔(𝜌𝑔 − 𝜌) ⃗⃗⃗
term, which models the mass added to the surrounding air 𝑚𝑃 = 𝑚𝑃 + 𝑚𝑃 + 𝐹other (6)
𝑑𝑡 𝜏𝑟 𝜌𝑔
by discrete phase of droplets.

5
where 𝑚𝑃 is the particle (or droplet) mass, 𝑈 is the continuum low Biot number (< 0.1) from a thermal point of view. As a

phase velocity vector, 𝑈𝑃 is the particle velocity vector, 𝜌 is result, the energy conservation equation is:

the continuum phase density, 𝜌𝑔 is the droplet density, 𝑔 is 𝑑𝑇𝑃 𝑑𝑚𝑃

𝑚𝑃 𝐶𝑃 = ℎ𝐶 𝐴𝑃 (𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑃 ) − ℎ (10)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑓𝑔
the gravity constant, Fother: other forces acting on a particle,
Where 𝐶𝑃 and 𝑇𝑃 are the droplet heat capacity and
including pressure gradient, Saffman, thermophoretic, virtual
temperature, ℎ𝐶 is the convective heat transfer coefficient, 𝑇∞
mass, Brownian, rotational forces), and 𝜏𝑟 is the particle

relaxation time, which can be calculated as: is the continuous phase temperature and ℎ𝑓𝑔 is the droplet

𝜌𝑃 𝑑𝑃2 24 phase latent heat. Eq. (10) is incorporated as a source (or sink)
𝜏𝑟 = (7)
18𝜇 𝐶𝐷 𝑅𝑒
term in Eq. (3), connects the heat exchange in droplets due to
Where 𝑑𝑃 is the particle diameter and 𝐶𝐷 is the drag
sensible and latent heat transfers between droplets and the
coefficient. 𝑅𝑒 is the relative Reynolds number that is
continuum phase [46] .
determined as follows:

𝜌𝑑𝑃 |𝑈 − 𝑈𝑃 | B. Computational model and grid parameters

𝑅𝑒 = (8)
𝜇

Exhaled droplets contain water, non-evaporating salt, and Figure 1 illustrates the computational model and

protein, according to Vejerano et al. [49]. The water content geometric parameters for the case study. In the rows depicted

of a droplet evaporates after it is released into the in Fig.1, there were 35 seating passengers with a height of

environment. As a result, mass transfer between the phases 1.20m. The figure also depicts the location of the air inlet and

occurs, which is influenced by the temperature differential outlet vents.

between the continuum and discrete phases, resulting in a

change in droplet size. Thus, the mass transfer and heat

transfer equations are described in Eq (9) and Eq (10) [46]:

𝑑𝑚𝑃
= 𝑚̇𝑃 (9)
𝑑𝑡

Where 𝑚𝑃 indicates the particle's mass and 𝑚̇𝑃 denotes the

rate of mass transfer to the particle. When evaporation occurs,

the right-hand side of the preceding equation must be non-

zero. The accuracy of the results is strongly influenced by the

FIG. 1. Schematic of the computational domain used in the current
modeling of 𝑚̇𝑃 . Droplets can be assumed to be internally
study.
homogeneous as a basic assumption. This is equivalent to a
Using Ansys meshing, 4,518,783 tetrahedral cells with a

boundary layer mesh were generated, as shown in Figure 2.

6