DESIGN

FUNDAMENTALS
• Stress/Strain, Different types of Loading.
• Static/Dynamic Loading Analysis & Corresponding Failure Theories.
• Material Selection & Manufacturing/Fabrication Basics.

BY ABHISHEK PAL (Team XLR8 Chair Person)

 DESIGN PRINCIPLES
• Identify Problem Statement.
RULE BOOK
• Collect Required Data.
• Apply Design Theories.
• Modification as per Standard Rules, Safety, Ergonomics.
• Test Model – 1)Virtual Model, 2)Practical Model.
• Manufacturing/Fabrication.
 PART ONE – THE
BASICS
• STRESS, STRAIN, STRENGTH
• DIFFERENT STATIC LOADING CONDITIONS
 BASICS
Design = For a specific purpose, based on available data, the entire process of deciding
dimensions, material, surface smoothness, even scheming of manufacturing(/fabrication)
processes, usage methods and even maintenance methods by using basic principles of
Engineering and Science.

• Stress/Strain
• Types of Stress
• Stress – Strain Curve
• Structures – Truss/Frames
• Stress Analysis of Beam under Loading
• Material Selection
 STRESS/STRAIN
• Applied Load causes Deformation (Strain ε).
• Internal Resistance acts against the Strain formation (Stress σ).
• Strain precedes Stress. (Strain = Cause, Stress = Effect)
• Hooke’s Law valid up to Proportional Limit only. σ = Eε
σ
NOTE: (STRENGTH S)
U F
Y • Strength of a material is taken from Tensile
E Testing in UTM.
P • Strength is denoted by S.
Y
• Strength is how much load the material can
sustain up to the limit (Elastic Strength, Yield
Stress – Strain Diagram for Mild Steel
Strength, Ultimate Strength etc).
• Strength is NOT applied Stress.
ε
 TYPES OF STRESS
Normal Stress: (σ) Shear Stress: ( )
• Acts Perpendicular to the Area. • Acts Parallel to the Area.
• Can be Tensile/Compressive. • Transverse Shear Stress. (Ignored)
• Axial Normal Stress. • Torsional Shear Stress.
• Bending Stress.
NOTE: Never do Vector Addition of Normal Stress with
Shear Stress. For resultant of σ and , we calculate the
Principal Stress and Maximum Shear Stress.
P3
P2
P1: Axial Normal Stress
P1 P2: Torsional Shear Stress + Bending Stress +
Transverse Shear Stress
P4
P3: Bending Stress + Transverse Shear Stress
Critical Region P4: Axial Normal Stress + Bending Stress
 STRESS – STRAIN CURVE
RESULTS OF UNIAXIAL TENSILE TEST OF A DOG-BONE SPECIMEN OF MS & CI UNDER UTM
σ σ
Stress – Strain Diagram for Mild Steel Stress – Strain Diagram for Cast Iron

U U
F

Y1

E
P Y2

Elastic Region Plastic Region Necking

ε Elastic Region Fracture
ε
 STRESS – STRAIN CURVE
σ • P – Proportional Limit
Stress – Strain Diagram for Mild Steel (Hooke’s Law valid up to this limit)
U • E – Elastic Limit
(Deformation = Reformation)

F • Y1 – Upper Yield Point

(Not Material Property, depends on
testing conditions)
Y1

E • Y2 – Lower Yield Point

P Y2 (Material Property – Syt)

• U – Ultimate Tensile Strength

(Maximum Stress the material can
sustain)
Elastic Region Plastic Region Necking
ε
• F – Fracture Point - Breaking
 STRESS – STRAIN CURVE
Stress – Strain Diagram for Mild Steel
σ • P, E, Y1, Y2 are so close that they are
considered to be of same strength. i.e.
3% 97% Sp = Se = Syt
U
• For Ductile Material, |Syt|=|Syc|
• For Brittle Material, |Sut|<|Suc|
• Compressive Strength > Tensile Strength.
F • For Design purposes, region beyond Elastic
region = Failure.
• For Metal forming processes, region beyond
Y1 Plastic region = Failure (Since Metal Forming
E processes take place in the Plastic region).
P Y2 • Resilience – Area under the curve up to E.
• Toughness – Area under the curve up to F.
• Machinability, Brittle > Ductile
• Formability, Ductile > Brittle

Elastic Region Plastic Region Necking

ε

TRUSS
• Analysis when Loading is at joints.
• Only Axial Loading.
• Compressive/Tensile.
• Members act as Rigid Links.
• Generally, Hinge and Roller Support ONLY.
STRUCTURES
FRAMES
• Analysis when Loading is anywhere on the
member other than the joints.
• All types of Loading – Axial, Bending,
Torsional.
• Roller, Hinge, Fixed Supports.
 ANALYSIS IN TRUSS
⮚ Statically Determinate Structure: Truss Analysis can be done with
the 3 Static Equilibrium Equations ONLY (ΣFx = 0; ΣFy = 0; ΣM = 0)
without considering any stress equations.

⮚ Statically Indeterminate Structure: The 3 Static Equilibrium

Equations are not sufficient. Stress Analysis is required to be done.
m + r = 2j => Statically Determinate.
TRUSS ANALYSIS
m = no. of members; r = no. of support reactions; j = no. of joints.

m + r = 2j => Statically Determinate Condition.

NOTE:
• Role of Roller Support: In most cases, roller support is provided in
the truss arrangement to allow deformation due to external uncertain
factors like temperature, in the horizontal direction so that such
m + r > 2j => Statically Indeterminate. factors don’t cause any variation in the truss analysis results.
NO TRUSS ANALYSIS
 BEAMS AND COLUMNS
BEAMS COLUMNS
• Axial Tensile/Compressive Load ; • Axial Compressive Load ONLY.
Bending due to moment/shear load; • Failure due to Buckling ONLY.
Twisting due to torque/shear load.
• Buckling happens in long columns
• Failure due to all the above loading. ONLY.
• Euler’s Theory is applicable for long
columns ONLY.

⮚ NOTE: It does not matter if the member is long/short or horizontal/vertical/inclined, whether it is a

beam or a column, it is defined with respect to its loading condition ONLY.
 STRESS ANALYSIS OF A BEAM
UNDER DIFFERENT LOADING
CRITICAL REGION:

• In Design, we always analyse the Critical Region

P3 (Point, Line, Area, Volume). If the Critical point is
P2
safe, then every other point in the component is
safe.
P1
• The region that experiences the maximum effect of
P4 load is called Critical Region.

Critical Region • Critical Region is generally located farthest from

y
the point of application of Load.

x • Stress Element is formed for the Critical Point.

z Stress Analysis is done for this element.
 STRESS ANALYSIS OF A BEAM
UNDER DIFFERENT LOADING
⮚ Beams are designed for Bending Stress and Checked for Shear Stress.

2D Stress Element

P3
P2

P1
P4

Critical Region
y STEPS:
• Locate the Critical Region.
x • Locate the Centroid.
• Shift all the Load to this Centroid.
z
 STRESS ANALYSIS OF A BEAM
UNDER DIFFERENT LOADING

P(Axial Load): Pure Axial Normal Stress

σx = (P/A)

Critical Region
y • Load passes through Centroid.
(Volume)
• Load perpendicular to Area.
• All Points are Critical Points for any Cross
x
Section.
z
 STRESS ANALYSIS OF A BEAM
UNDER DIFFERENT LOADING

T(Torque): Pure Torsional Shear Stress

xy=
(T*R/J)

Critical Region
y
(Surface Area) • All the surface points are critical points.

x
z
 STRESS ANALYSIS OF A BEAM
UNDER DIFFERENT LOADING

M(Moment): Pure Bending Stress

σx = (M*y/I)

Critical Region • Stress generated is Normal Stress.

y
(Points) • Both Compressive and Tensile separated by
the Neutral Axis.
x
z
 STRESS ANALYSIS OF A BEAM
UNDER DIFFERENT LOADING

P3
P2

P1
P4

Critical Region P1: Axial Normal Stress

y P2: Torsional Shear Stress + Bending Stress + Transverse Shear
Stress
P3: Bending Stress + Transverse Shear Stress
x
z P4: Axial Normal Stress + Bending Stress
 MATERIAL SELECTION
Brittle Material
• Machinability higher.
• No Formability.
• Best for Compressive Load.
• Fine Grain Structure.
• High Internal Stresses.
• Crack Propagation Faster.
• Low Toughness.
• Factor of Safety taken 5-7 or
more.
• Higher strength at room
temperature.
Ductile Material
• Machinability lower.
• High Formability.
• Best for Tensile Load.
• Coarse Grain Structure.
• Low Internal Stresses.
• Crack Propagation Slower.
• High Toughness.
• Factor of Safety taken 2-3.
• Lower strength at room
temperature.
PART TWO – THEORIES OF
FAILURE - 1
• PRINCIPAL STRESS & MAXIMUM SHEAR
STRESS
• UNIAXIAL TENSILE TEST
• STATIC LOADING - TOF
 THEORIES OF FAILURE
Theories of Failure is needed to establish a relationship between the Multiaxial
loading system with the Results of Uniaxial Tensile Loading Test in UTM (Static
Loading) and Reversed Loading in Moore’s Test (Dynamic Loading).

• Factor of Safety
• Principal Stress & Maximum Stress
• Uniaxial Tensile Test
• TOF – Static Load
• TOF – Dynamic Load
 FACTOR OF SAFETY

DUCTILE MATERIAL BRITTLE MATERIAL

• Yield Strength is considered. • Ultimate Strength is considered.

Yield Strength Ultimate Strength

FOS FOS
Allowable Stress = Allowable Stress
=

This is for Static Loading Condition.

NOTE: For Dynamic Loading, due to inclusion of Amplitude Stress, it is defined in terms of Endurance
Strength and Yield Strength (or Ultimate Strength, depending on the Failure Theory).
 PRINCIPAL STRESS
2D Stress Element
• Both σ and depend on θ, i.e. different planes have
different values of normal and shear stresses.

• The Plane with Zero Shear Stress is called Maximum

Normal Stress Plane or Principal Plane.
σθ
θ • When θ = 0, then σθ = σ1,2 = Principal Stress.
θ

• Maximum Principal Stress is the Maximum Stress that the

stress element experiences. Therefore it is mandatory to
calculate the Maximum Principal Stress (σmax).
 MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS
2D Stress Element
• For a particular value of θ, shear stress becomes maximum,
called Maximum Shear Stress and such a plane is called
Maximum Shear Stress Plane.

σθ
NOTE:
θ
θ
• When Normal Stress is Maximum, Shear Stress is ZERO.

• When Shear Stress is Maximum, Normal Stress need not be

zero.
 DESIGN STRESS
⮚ In Design, σmax (Brittle) & max (Ductile) of the critical point are considered as the Design Stresses.

σy

√(
σ1 = ( σx + σy ) + σ x – σy 2 +( )2
2 2
) xy

x
y

√(
σ1 = ( σx + σy ) _ σ x – σy 2 +( )2
2 2
) xy

σx σx

√(
σx – σy 2 +( )2
max =
2
) xy

x
y

σy
Here, σ1 = σmax
 DESIGN STRESS

max

√(
σ1 = ( σx + σy ) + σ x – σy 2 +( )2
2 2
) xy
y
x

√(
σ1 = ( σx + σy ) _ σ x – σy 2 +( )2
2 2
) xy

σy σ
-σ σ2 σx σ1

√(
σx – σy 2 +( )2
max =
2
) xy

Here, σ1 = σmax
-
⮚ Any point on the Mohr’s circle represents a Mohr’s Circle
plane on the Stress Element.
 MOHR’S CIRCLE FOR UNIAXIAL
TENSILE LOADING & PURE SHEAR
LOADING
σx = (P/A)
max = σ1/2 max

σ2 = σ y = 0 σ σ
-σ -σ σ2 σ1
σ1 = σx

• σ1 = xy
• σ2 = -
xy
- • max= -
Mohr’s Circle for Uniaxial Loading Mohr’s
xy Circle for PURE SHEAR
 UNIAXIAL TENSILE TEST

Fracture for CI & MS Specimen

Dog – Bone Specimen
Universal Testing Machine
(Uniaxial Tensile Test) Experiment ⮚ Under Uniaxial Tensile Load, Brittle material fails at θ = 0˚.
Results ⮚ Under Uniaxial Tensile Load, Ductile material fails at θ = 45˚.
 UNIAXIAL TENSILE TEST
RESULTS OF UNIAXIAL TENSILE TEST OF A DOG-BONE SPECIMEN OF MS & CI UNDER UTM
σ σ
Stress – Strain Diagram for Mild Steel Stress – Strain Diagram for Cast Iron

U U
F

Y1

E
P Y2

Elastic Region Plastic Region Necking

ε Elastic Region Fracture
ε
 UNIAXIAL TENSILE TEST
UNIAXIAL TENSILE TEST OF A DOG-BONE SPECIMEN OF MS UNDER UTM

• σx = σ1 = σmax
• σx (at Yield Point) = Syt
• σx (at Ultimate Point) = Sut
σx = (P/A)

P(Axial Load): Pure Axial Normal Stress

P
σx σx

Critical Region
y
(Volume) • Load passes through Centroid.
• Load perpendicular to Area.
x • All Points are Critical Points for any Cross
z Section.
 UNIAXIAL TENSILE TEST
UNIAXIAL TENSILE TEST OF A DOG-BONE SPECIMEN OF MS UNDER UTM

• σx = σ1 = σmax
σx = (P/A) • σx (at Yield Point) = Syt
max = σ1/2
• σx (at Ultimate Point) = Sut

P(Axial Load): Pure Axial Normal Stress

σ2 = σy = 0 σ
-σ σ1 = σx
σx σx

• xy = 0 ; σ2 = σy = 0
• max = σ1/2
- • Ssy (Shear Yield Strength) = Syt/2
Mohr’s Circle for Uniaxial Loading • Ssu (Shear Ultimate Strength) = Sut/2
 UNIAXIAL TENSILE TEST
⮚ Under Uniaxial Tensile Load, Brittle material fails at θ = 0˚.
⮚ Under Uniaxial Tensile Load, Ductile material fails at θ = 45˚. AC σx = (P/A)
Experiment
max = σ1/2
A
Results θ = 45˚

θ AB

• AB and AC planes of the Stress

B σ2 = σy = 0 σ
Element are plotted on the C -σ
Mohr’s Circle as shown. σ1 = σx
• For θ = 45˚ on the Element is
⮚ In Design, σmax (Brittle) &
actually 2θ = 90˚ on the Mohr’s
max (Ductile) of the
Circle.
critical point are
• σmax is at AB(θ = 0˚) while max
considered as the Design
is at AC(θ = 45˚).
Stresses. -
Mohr’s Circle for Uniaxial Loading
 PURE SHEAR (TORSION) TEST

Application of Pure Shear Loading (Pure Torsion Test Fracture for

Torsion Test Machine Twisting Moment) MS and CI specimen.

Experiment ⮚ Under Pure Shear Load, Brittle material fails at θ = 45˚.

Results ⮚ Under Pure Shear Load, Ductile material fails at θ = 0˚.
 UNIAXIAL TENSILE TEST
⮚ Under Pure Shear Load, Brittle material fails at θ = 45˚. AB
⮚ Under Pure Shear Load, Ductile material fails at θ = 0˚.
max
Experiment
A
Results θ = 45˚

θ AC
• AB and AC planes of the Stress
Element are plotted on the C B -σ σ2 σ
σ1
Mohr’s Circle as shown.
• For θ = 45˚ on the Element is
⮚ In Design, σmax (Brittle) &
actually 2θ = 90˚ on the Mohr’s
max (Ductile) of the • σ1 = xy
Circle.
critical point are • σ2 = -
• σmax is at AC(θ = 45˚) while max
considered as the Design
is at AB(θ = 0˚). xy
Stresses. • max= -
Mohr’s
xy Circle for PURE SHEAR
 TOF – STATIC LOAD
• Almost all practical loading situations are Multiaxial.
• The only way of knowing the strength (yield point, ultimate point etc) of a specimen
under any loading system is by doing experiments.
• It is not feasible to do experiments for every single combination of loading system.
• We use the results obtained from the Uniaxial Tensile Test and relate those with the
parameters of any loading system by using the Theories of Failure.

Multiaxial Loading System Uniaxial Tensile Test

Theories of Failure
 TOF – STATIC LOAD
• Maximum Principal Stress Theory (Rankine Theory) Brittle Material
• Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Tresca Theory)
Ductile Material
• Distortion Energy Theory (Von Mises Theory)

MPST: (Brittle) MSST: (Ductile) Von Mises Theory: (Ductile)

Failure Stress = Sut Failure Stress = Syt Failure Stress = Syt

σmax = Sut = Safe max = Syt = Safe σvm= Syt = Safe

FO 2*FOS FOS
S

σvm = √σ12 – σ1*σ2 + σ22

 TOF – STATIC LOAD
σ2
MPST - Rectangle
σx = (P/A)
max = σ1/2
MSST -
Hexagon
VMT - Ellipse

- σ1 σ1 σ2 = σy = 0 σ
-σ
Loading Line σ1 = σx

-
- σ2 Mohr’s Circle for Uniaxial Loading
 TOF – STATIC LOAD
σ2
MPST - Rectangle

max
MSST -
Hexagon
VMT - Ellipse

- σ1 σ1 - σ σ2 σ
σ1

1
2
• σ1 = xy
3
• σ2 = -
xy
• max= -
- σ2 Mohr’s
xy Circle for PURE SHEAR
Loading Line
 TOF – STATIC LOAD
σ2
MPST - Rectangle • Any point inside the Rectangle = Safe (MPST)
• Any point inside the Hexagon = Safe (MSST)
• Any point inside the Ellipse = Safe (VMT)
MSST -
Hexagon
VMT - Ellipse For Pure Shear:

- σ1 σ1 • xy = Syt
FO
S
1 • xy = Syt = 0.5*Syt
2
2*FO FO
S S
3
• xy = Syt = 0.577*Syt
√3*FOS FO
- σ2 S
Loading Line
 TOF – STATIC LOAD
σ2
MPST - Rectangle • xy (Experimental Value) = 0.57*Syt
(for ductile materials) FO
S
MSST - For Pure Shear:
Hexagon
• xy = Syt
VMT - Ellipse
FO
- σ1 σ1 S
• xy = Syt = 0.5*Syt
2*FO FO
1 S S
2
• xy = Syt = 0.577*Syt
√3*FOS FO
3
S
• VMT – Most Accurate Theory
⮚ Always prefer MSST - σ2 • MSST – Most Conservative Theory
for ductile materials. Loading Line
 DESIGNING A BEAM
⮚ Calculation of Cantilever Beam Diameter D when P is applied on X-Y plane when FOS is given. Length
of Beam is L.
σx = (M*y/I) σx = P*L*D/2 σx = 32*P*L
P πD4/64 πD3
L
Now, in order to find FOS, σx = (Syt/FOS)

D Syt = 32*P*L
or,
FO πD3
S
1/3
or, D = 32*P*L*FOS
Critical Region
y π*Syt

x
z
 BONUS TOPIC – 3D
STRESS
• 3D Stress Tensor
• Principal Stress & Maximum Shear Stress in 3D
• Mohr’s Circle in 3D
 y σyy
STRESS TENSOR IN 3D
3D Stress Element

y
σz Body
x
y z n̂
z
x
y
xz zx σxx δF
σxx y
z
z
n

x zx xz x
y δA
y
z δF
y ⮚ σnn = lim δFn
σz x δA 0 A
z δA

⮚ nt = lim δFt δFt

σyy δA 0
z δA
 y σyy
STRESS TENSOR IN 3D
3D Stress Element

σij STRESS
y TENSOR
x σz i = Direction of Area Vector
y z
z
x
j = Direction of Force Vector
y
xz zx σxx
σxx z
σxx

( )
z xy xz
y
y σij = yx σyy yz

x zx xz x zx zy σzz
y
y
z
y ⮚ σnn = lim δFn
σz x δA 0
z δA
STRESS
⮚ nt = lim δFt TENSOR
σyy δA 0
z δA
 y σyy
STRESS TENSOR IN 3D
Normal
Stresses
σij STRESS
TENSOR
σz i = Direction of Area Vector
z
j = Direction of Force Vector

σxx
σxx σxx

( )
xy xz
σij = yx σyy yz

x zx zy σzz

⮚ σnn = lim δFn

σz δA 0
z δA
STRESS
⮚ nt = lim δFt TENSOR
σyy δA 0
z δA
 y STRESS TENSOR IN 3D
Shear Stresses

σij STRESS
y TENSOR
y
x i = Direction of Area Vector
z
x
j = Direction of Force Vector
y
xz zx
z
σxx

( )
z xy xz
y
y σij = yx σyy yz

x zx xz x zx zy σzz
y
y
z
y ⮚ σnn = lim δFn
x δA 0
δA
STRESS
⮚ nt = lim δFt TENSOR
δA 0
z δA
 y STRESS TENSOR IN 3D
Shear Stresses
• ΣMx = 0 : yz = zy

y Because of Static
x • ΣMy = 0 : xz = zx
Equilibrium condition
y
z
x • ΣMz = 0 : yx = xy
y
xz zx
z
y z
y

x zx xz x
σxx σxx

( ) ( )
y xy xz xy xz
y
⮚ σij =
z
yx σyy yz = xy σyy yz
y
x zx zy σzz xz yz σzz

z
 PRINCIPAL STRESS IN 3D
• Eigen Values of a Stress Tensor are called Principal Stresses of the Stress
Tensor.
• Stress Invariants: I1, I2, I3
• I1 = Σσi
( i, j = 1,2,3; i ≠ j )
• I2 = Σσiσj
• I3 = σ1σ2σ3
σmax = max { σ1, σ2, σ3}
• λ3 – I1λ2 + I2λ – I3 = 0 Solve for λ.
⮚ This σmax is used as the
• λ = σ1, σ2, σ3
design stress for
σ1 brittle materials.

( )
0 0
Principal Stress Tensor 0 σ2 0
= 0 0 σ3
 MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS &
MOHR’S CIRCLE FOR 3D STRESS
Mohr’s Circle for 3D Stress
1 • Mohr’s Circles are constructed for σxx, σyy, σzz.
3
• Principal Stresses are plotted on the Mohr’s Circle.
• Radius of the largest circle is the Maximum Shear Stress.
1
2

2
max = |σmax – σmin|
3
12 = |σ1 – σ2|
2
2
-σ σ
σ3 σ2 σ1
23 = |σ2 – σ3|
max = max { 12, ,
23
2 13}

13 = |σ1 – σ3| ⮚ This max is used as the

design stress for ductile
2
- materials.
PART THREE – THEORIES OF
FAILURE - 2
• STRESS CONCENTRATION
• DYNAMIC LOADING - TOF
• MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS
 DYNAMIC LOADING
• When Load varies with time, it is called Dynamic Loading condition.
• The Corresponding Stress generated due to Dynamic Loading is Fatigue Stress and the
corresponding failure is known as Fatigue Failure.
• Components fail at much lower stresses when subjected to dynamic loading.

⮚ Static Loading: Load remains Constant ⮚ Dynamic Loading: Load varies with respect
throughout. to time randomly.

P P

t t
Static Loading Dynamic Loading
 DYNAMIC LOADING
• Periodic Loading and Unloading (wrt time) with Sinusoidal Variation is Fluctuating Loading
Condition.
• Fatigue Failure occurs in 3 stages –
• Crack Initiation
• Crack Propagation
• Separation of components (Breaking/Fracture)
⮚ Dynamic Loading: Load varies with respect ⮚ Fluctuating Loading: Variation of load with
to time randomly. respect to time is sinusoidal.

P P

t t
Dynamic Loading Fluctuating Loading
 STRESS CONCENTRATION

P P

Stress Flow Lines Stress Concentration

• Whenever there is Discontinuity (crack/ hole/ impurity/ sharp

corner etc) in the stress flow lines of the Material, there is
Stress Concentration (maximum stress region).
• {σmax}theoretical = P ⮚ Crack Propagation is decelerated by the
(w – d)*t application of Compressive Load in the
direction of propagation of crack.
• {σmax}theoretical < {σmax}actual (due to Stress Concentration)
 STRESS CONCENTRATION
Stress Concentration Examples:
• Presence of Holes
• Abrupt Change in Material (Impurity/Weld etc)
• Sharp Corners/Edges
• High Stress Region (for miscellaneous reasons)

• For Dynamic Loading Condition, Stress Concentration Regions become Critical Points and
stress analysis is done with respect to that point.

• Crack Propagation is accelerated by Tensile Dynamic Loading. However, it is decelerated by

Compressive Loading.

• Stress Concentration Factor is considered for the Stress Analysis in the Stress Concentration
Region.
 STRESS CONCENTRATION
UNDER STATIC LOADING
CONDITIONS
⮚ Stress Concentration Factor is not considered for Static Loading conditions.

• Local Yielding at those critical points

take place due to Stress Concentration
in case of Static Loading.
• Due to Strain Hardening in the Plastic P
Zone, those Critical Points under Static P
Loading becomes rather stronger.
⮚ The Component does not fail due to
Stress Concentration during Static
Loading. Therefore, Stress
Concentration factor is not considered
in case of Static Loading.
Critical Points
 STRESS CONCENTRATION
FACTOR
⮚ Theoretical Stress Concentration Factor (Kt)

Kt = (σmax/σ0) = ( max/ )
0
{Kt}max = 3

σ0, 0 are Nominal Stresses, calculated For Plate with circular hole
under Tensile Stress.
wrt minimum area.

Material used in Photo Elastic Experiment is

Epoxy Resin (Not Metal).

Actual Stress Concentration Factor (Kf)

Kf = 1 + q (Kt – 1)

q Notch Sensitivity, 0 < q < 1

 FLUCTUATING LOADING
σ
σ

t
Reversed Loading

σ
t

-σ
 FLUCTUATING LOADING
σ
⮚ Mean Stress: σm = σmax + σmin σmax
(Static) 2 σa

⮚ Amplitude Stress: σa = σmax – σmin σm

(Fluctuating) 2 σmin
t
Fluctuating Loading
• In Fluctuating Loading, all the stresses
(normal/shear) vary from its maximum to
minimum values. σ
• Corresponding Maximum Principal Stress σmax
and Maximum Shear Stress are calculated. σa
σm = 0 t
⮚ {σ1}m & { max}m and {σ1}a & { max}a are σmin
calculated and are used as Design
Stresses for Fluctuating Loading cases. -σ Reversed Loading
 ROTATING BEAM TEST
(MOORE'S REVERSED BENDING
TEST)
σ = 32*M/π*D 3
σ a
σm = 0
σmax
σa
σm = 0 t

σmin

-σ Reversed Bending Stress

• For Fluctuating Loading, Endurance

Strength is found out from Moore’s
experiment.
• It is denoted by Se’.
• In Reversed Bending Test Bending Moment • Specimen used for the test is highly
changes sign from positive to negative in 1 cycle. Polished, with standardised size and no
defect/irregularity.
 MODIFIED ENDURANCE
STRENGTH
• Endurance Strength depends on the following factors:
• Surface Finish (Ka)
• Size (Kb) ⮚ NOTE: All the factors other than Kf are less than 1.
• Reliability (Kc)
• Load (Kd)
• Miscellaneous (Temperature, Pressure etc) (Ke)
• Stress Concentration (Kf)

Modified Endurance Strength Se = ⮚ Se’ = 0.5*Sut (Sut < 1400MPa)

Kef *(Se’)
Ka*Kb*Kc*Kd*K ⮚ Se’ = 700MPa (Sut >= 1400MPa)
(Considered in Design)
 S-N CURVE
Log10(σa)
• S-N Curve: Strength vs No. of Cycles Curve where
the Amplitude Stress is considered for the Strength
Log10(Sut) measurements.

⮚ Case 1: (Amplitude Stress = σa1)

Log10(0.9*Sut)
No. of Cycles = N
where 103 < N < 106
Log10(σa1)
For No. of Cycles > N =>
Failure
Log10(Se) ⮚ Case 2: (Amplitude Stress = σa2)
Log10(σa2) No. of Cycles = N
where N > 106 (Infinite Life)
Component Never Fails.

Log10(N)
3 Log10(N) 6
 TOF – DYNAMIC LOADING
• In case of Dynamic Loading, Mean Stress and the Amplitude Stress are calculated.
FOS is calculated taking both the stresses into consideration.
• Endurance Strength (for the Amplitude Stress) and Yield Strength/Ultimate Strength
(for Mean Stress) are considered.
• We use the results obtained from the Reversed Bending Test and Uniaxial Tensile
Test and relate those with the parameters of any loading system by using the
Theories of Failure.

Uniaxial Tensile Test

Dynamic Loading System +
Reversed Bending Test

Theories of Failure
 TOF – DYNAMIC LOADING
σa
• Vertical Axis = Amplitude Stress
• Horizontal Axis = Mean Stress

Soderberg Line σa + σ m = 1
Soderberg Line
Se Se Sy FOS
t (Ductile)
Goodman Line
σa + σ m = 1
Goodman Line
Se Su FOS
Gerber Parabola t (Brittle)

σa + σ m 2 = 1
Gerber Parabola
Loading Line Se Sy
σm t
FOS FOS (Not Preferred)
Sy Su
t t
THANK YOU