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Leading Edge
Review
Atherosclerosis: Recent developments
Johan L.M. Björkegren1,2,* and Aldons J. Lusis3,*
1Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai,
Genetics, A2-237 Center for the Health Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA USA
*Correspondence: johan.bjorkegren@mssm.edu (J.L.M.B.), jlusis@mednet.ucla.edu (A.J.L.)
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2022.04.004
SUMMARY
Atherosclerosis is an inflammatory disease of the large arteries that is the major cause of cardiovascular dis-
ease (CVD) and stroke. Here, we review the current understanding of the molecular, cellular, genetic, and
environmental contributions to atherosclerosis, from both individual pathway and systems perspectives.
We place an emphasis on recent developments, some of which have yielded unexpected biology, including
previously unknown heterogeneity of inflammatory and smooth muscle cells in atherosclerotic lesions, roles
for senescence and clonal hematopoiesis, and links to the gut microbiome.
1630 Cell 185, May 12, 2022 ª 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc.
This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
ll
Review OPEN ACCESS
Calcification
Coronary calcification occurs with the
development of advanced lesions and
can be assessed by various imaging mo-
dalities. It can occur in both the intimal
thereby inhibiting inflammation. Antibodies to a number of anti- and medial layers and may be associated with increased plaque
gens, including LDL, oxidized LDL, apolipoprotein B (the major stability. It begins with very small matrix vesicles that originate
protein of LDL), and pathogens such as cytomegalovirus, are from apoptotic SMCs and macrophages. These coalesce into
associated with atherosclerosis. Recent studies indicate that larger masses over time, generally near the necrotic core, and
elevated levels of the IgE immunoglobulins, which can stimulate eventually form calcified sheets (Figure 3). Bone-related pro-
proinflammatory responses in macrophages, are significantly teins, such as BMP-1, BMP-4, and matrix GLA protein, are often
associated with increased atherosclerosis. B cell autoimmunity expressed in such regions (Basatemur et al., 2019; Mori
can also contribute to atherosclerosis; for example, some mouse et al., 2018).
models of lupus show increased atherosclerosis (Sage
et al., 2019). Fibrous cap
Advanced lesions contain a layer of fibrous connective tissue,
Hematopoiesis termed the fibrous cap, that lies next to the EC layer. It is
Substantial evidence indicates that increased hematopoiesis, composed of collagen, elastin, and bundles of SMC as well as
the process involved in replenishing blood cells, promotes macrophages and lymphocytes. It was previously thought that
atherosclerosis. Hematopoiesis and circulating leukocytes are nearly all the cells that produce extracellular matrix in the cap
increased in response to smoking, stress, and a poor diet and are derived from SMC. Recent experiments, however, suggest
are reduced by exercise and elevated high-density lipoproteins that a significant fraction of these cells are derived from EC or
(HDL) levels. Recent studies in mice and humans support a macrophages that have undergone endothelial-to-mesen-
causal relationship between increased hematopoiesis, clonal chymal transition or macrophage-to-mesenchymal transition
hematopoiesis, and atherosclerosis (Heyde et al., 2021). Hyper- (Newman et al., 2021).
lipidemia appears to promote hematopoiesis in part by its effects
on cholesterol efflux pathways and is inhibited by the functions of Lesion stability
ABCA1, ABCG1, and HDL (Schloss et al., 2020). SREBP2 and A MI usually occurs when a lesion ruptures, triggering the forma-
Notch signaling also appear to be involved in the regulation of tion of a blood clot (Figure 3). ‘‘Vulnerable plaques’’ are more a
hematopoiesis (Gu et al., 2019). function of their composition than size. Fibrous lesions with thick
fibrous caps tend to be more stable than fatty, inflammatory le-
Efferocytosis and resolution sions. A number of factors have been identified that affect lesion
Efferocytosis is the process by which apoptotic cells are cleared, stability, including SMC and EC cell senescence. Macrophages
thereby preventing secondary necrosis and inflammation. It is appear to contribute to plaque destabilization by amplifying
mediated primarily by macrophages that engulf the dying cells inflammation and producing proteases that attack the fibrous
and is important in reducing the growth of necrotic cores cap. MI can also occur as a result of endothelial erosion
(Figure 2) (Doran et al., 2020). Resolution is an active process (Figure 3). Neutrophils, although rare in lesions, appear to pro-
aimed at the restoration of tissue integrity and function during mote endothelial erosion via neutrophil traps and secretion of
matrix metalloproteinases (Libby, 2021). A recent study showed was recently identified as a repressor of SMC transitioning, pro-
that oxidized lipids promote the formation of neutrophil extracel- moting vascular inflammation (Wang et al., 2021).
lular traps and accelerate carotid artery thrombosis in a mouse
model (Dou et al., 2021). ANIMAL MODELS
although nonadditive interactions are hard to detect in human sands of eQTL have have been identified, some of which regulate
studies. candidates at GWAS loci or traits measured in vitro such as SMC
mobility or the tendency to calcify (Aherrahrou et al., 2020) or EC
Sex differences responses to cytokines (Stolze et al., 2020).
Atherosclerosis is sexually dimorphic in incidence and complica-
tions. Younger women are relatively protected from the disease, TRADITIONAL RISK FACTORS WITH A STRONG
but by the seventh decade, the incidence of MI surpasses that of GENETIC COMPONENT
men (Man et al., 2020). Sex hormones play a major role, but
recent studies indicate that genes on the sex chromosomes In this section, we review recent developments for the most sig-
are also important. Thus, using data from the UK Biobank, it nificant traditional CVD risk factors that have large genetic com-
was found that a certain Y chromosome haplotype, containing ponents. A number of additional risk factors, not discussed here,
the UTY gene, increases cardiovascular risk (Eales et al., include systemic inflammatory disorders (such as lupus and
2019). Also, studies in mice revealed significant sex-based ef- arthritis), renal failure, increased thrombosis, obesity, and type
fects on atherosclerosis of X chromosome genes that escape 1 diabetes.
X-inactivation (AlSiraj et al., 2019).
Lipoprotein metabolism
Systems genetics Plasma lipoprotein levels constitute the major risk factor for
High-throughput approaches capable of assessing global epige- atherosclerosis. Lipids are transported through the circulation
netic marks and global transcript, protein, and metabolite levels as complexes with proteins, termed lipoproteins. Triglyceride-
can be incorporated into genetic studies to provide evidence of rich chylomicrons and very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) are
causality and underlying mechanisms. Such approaches have secreted by the intestine and liver, respectively, and are acted
been particularly informative in mice where relevant tissues upon by lipases to produce remnants and LDL. Their primary
can be accessed, the environment can be controlled, and exper- function is to deliver triglycerides to peripheral tissues as a
imental validation is possible (Seldin et al., 2019). One of the dif- source of energy. High density lipoproteins (HDL) are also
ficulties of applying a ‘‘systems genetics’’ approach in humans is secreted by liver and intestine and undergo a variety of transfor-
the lack of access to relevant tissues, although blood samples mations in the circulation. Among the functions of HDL are to
have proven very informative for investigation of metabolites mediate the transport of cholesterol from peripheral tissues to
and circulating miRNAs in relationship to CAD (Nikpay et al., liver, termed reverse cholesterol transport. Plasma lipoprotein
2019). The GTEx consortium has performed RNA-seq on sam- levels are determined by many genetic factors (nearly 1,500 indi-
ples of many tissues from hundreds of random donors and iden- vidual GWAS signals) as well as important environmental factors
tified loci regulating gene expression, known as expression (Graham et al., 2021).
quantitative trait loci or eQTL (Kim-Hellmuth et al., 2020). The LDL consists of a single major polypeptide, apolipoprotein B
DNA polymorphisms regulating gene expression at the loci can (ApoB) and a cargo of cholesterol esters bounded by a phospho-
then be examined in GWAS or case-control studies of athero- lipid monolayer. The levels of LDL, the major cholesterol carrying
sclerosis. One particularly useful resource for CVD studies is lipoprotein in humans, have long been known to contribute to
STARNET (the Stockholm-Tartu Atherosclerosis Reverse atherosclerosis. Studies of FH, a dominant Mendelian disorder
Network Engineering Task study) , a RNA-seq resource of characterized by very high levels of LDL and increased athero-
atherosclerosis-relevant tissues, including tissue biopsies from sclerosis, have been particularly informative in dissecting
the atherosclerotic aortic wall, mammary artery, liver, skeletal cholesterol metabolism. The most common forms result from
muscle, as well as abdominal and subcutaneous fat obtained mutations of the LDL receptor, responsible of removal of LDL
from living donors undergoing open breast surgery (Franzén from the circulation through recognition of ApoB. Recent studies
et al., 2016). The resource now includes 1,300 individuals with have identified a number of novel genes contributing to LDL re-
established CAD and >400 controls verified to be CAD free. In ceptor function, the most significant being the secreted protein,
addition to providing detailed information about the genetics of PCSK9, that regulates the turnover of the LDL receptor (Gupta
gene expression or protein levels, STARNET has been used to et al., 2020).
model atherosclerosis in the form of biologic networks acting Lp(a) is an LDL-like particle differing from LDL by the addition
both within and across metabolic tissues driving atherosclerosis of a protein termed apolipoprotein (a) that is disulfide bridged to
in the arterial wall (Koplev et al., 2022). Very large epidemiologic ApoB. Its levels are controlled largely by alleles of the apolipo-
studies that incorporate sequencing and multiomics analyses protein(a) gene locus and are resistant to statin therapy. High
are being mined for novel insights in CAD as well as other dis- Lp(a) levels are associated with increased CAD and valve calci-
eases. For example, it was recently found in the UK Biobank fication. Lp(a) appears to be more atherogenic than LDL,
data that serum HDL-cholesterol and apolipoprotein AI levels possibly because the particles transport oxidized phospholipids
are significantly associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection (Hilser (Que et al., 2018).
et al., 2021). Omics-level analyses have been performed on the HDL levels are negatively associated with atherosclerosis, and
cultured EC and SMC derived from the ‘‘trimmings’’ of aortas it had been assumed that HDL directly protect against the dis-
of donor hearts obtained from heart transplantation operations. ease. A causal relationship, however, has been challenged
Cultures obtained from about 100–150 donors have been sub- based on the failure of drugs that raise HDL-cholesterol to pro-
jected to global transcriptomic and epigenetic analyses. Thou- tect and Mendelian randomization (MR) studies showing that
genetic variations that affect HDL-cholesterol levels, such as transplantation into normoglycemic mice, resulting in increased
variants of endothelial lipase, do not have a significant impact atherosclerosis (Edgar et al., 2021).
on atherosclerosis. On the other hand, since HDL particles are
heterogeneous, it may be that only certain HDL species are pro- ENVIRONMENTAL RISK FACTORS
tective and that HDL-cholesterol levels are a poor measure of the
protective species. For example, a recent study showed that Environment appears to play a major role in atherosclerosis as
HDL produced by the intestine are functionally distinct from evidenced by the fact that modifications to lifestyle choices
liver-derived HDL in that they protect the liver, and perhaps the and shifts in cultural practices can greatly alter CAD risk despite
vessel wall, from gut-derived lipopolysaccharide (LPS) (Han the same genetic background. For example, CAD mortality rates
et al., 2021). Also, MR can be confounded by pleiotropy, the in Beijing, China, increased by 50% for men and 27% for women
ability of genetic variants to affect multiple traits. For example, because of environmental changes between 1984 and 1999. In
variants that affect plasma lipids can also impact other traits addition to the ‘‘traditional’’ risk factors, factors such as circa-
associated with atherosclerosis, such as diabetes. Two recent dian rhythm, altitude, and seasons can influence disease sus-
MR studies, in contrast to the original reports, concluded that ceptibility (Bhatnagar, 2017). Genetic factors undoubtedly
HDL levels are independently associated with CAD (Thomas interact with environmental factors, but such interactions remain
et al., 2021). One of these studies examined subtypes of HDL poorly understood in humans.
and concluded that although small and medium-sized HDL are
protective, large HDL may be proatherogenic (Zhao et al., 2021). Nutrition and obesity
Triglyceride-rich lipoprotein levels are positively associated Unhealthy diets contribute to many of the traditional risk factors
with atherosclerosis, but the relationship was previously thought such as LDL levels, triglyceride levels, diabetes mellitus, and hy-
to be indirect, resulting from interactions with HDL metabolism. pertension. In surveys, about 50% of young adults and 31% of
This was supported by the fact that certain disorders with greatly older adults have reported poor diets (Benjamin et al., 2018).
elevated plasma triglyceride levels, such as lipoprotein lipase CAD risk is affected by diet composition independent of energy
deficiency, exhibit modest increases in atherosclerosis. More content; for example, in one study, replacement of 5% of energy
recent genetic studies, however, suggest that certain triglycer- from saturated fat with unsaturated fat was associated with a
ide-rich lipoproteins do indeed directly promote atherosclerosis 42% reduction in CAD risk (Bhatnagar, 2017). Apart from effects
(Liu et al., 2017). on obesity and plasma lipids, certain dietary constituents can be
metabolized by intestinal bacteria into metabolites that affect
atherosclerosis or diabetes (see below). A number of recent
Hypertension
studies indicate that diet can importantly affect immunity and
Elevated blood pressure is a major risk factor of CAD and stroke,
inflammation (Schloss et al., 2020). A recent study showed that
with many environmental and genetic contributions. Very large
a subset of T cells in the intestine function to modulate systemic
meta-analyses have identified over 500 independent loci associ-
metabolism. Knockout mice for b7 integrin lack these cells and
ated with one or more blood pressure traits (Giri et al., 2019).
are resistant to obesity, hypertension, diabetes, and atheroscle-
Despite being a well-established independent risk factor for
rosis when fed a high-fat, high-sugar diet (He et al., 2019).
atherosclerosis, the mechanism by which hypertension acceler-
ates CAD has remained elusive. A recent study shed light on this
Exercise and physical activity
important issue by demonstrating that increased pressure per se
Physical activity has been associated with a reduced risk of CAD.
facilitates coronary atherosclerosis, independent of humoral
Potential mediators include improved glucose tolerance,
changes associated with hypertension, by increasing smooth
reduced plasma lipids, increased anti-inflammatory pathways,
muscle cell activity and intimal accumulation of LDLs (Al-Mash-
and reduced obesity. In contrast to stress, exercise appears to
hadi et al., 2021).
dampen hematopoiesis and reduce circulating monocytes and
neutrophils in both humans and mice (Figure 4) (Schloss et al.,
Diabetes 2020). One mechanism by which exercise mediates hematopoi-
Type 2 diabetes results from environmental and genetic interac- esis and immune function involves leptin signaling. In mice,
tions (Mahajan et al., 2018). It has become very common with the running decreased leptin production and reduced signaling to
epidemic of obesity and is strongly associated with CAD, stromal cells in the bone marrow niche, elevating CXCL12, a
although the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. Di- stem cell quiescence-promoting factor. ATAC sequencing (a
abetics often exhibit metabolic syndrome, a cluster of traits measure of accessible chromatin) of hematopoietic cells
including insulin resistance, obesity, hypertension, and elevated revealed that running induced lasting epigenetic changes that
LDL levels, all of which contribute independently to atheroscle- persisted after exercise was stopped. Despite the reduced leu-
rosis. The dysregulation of blood sugar in diabetes may exacer- kocytes, running mice were better able to respond to sepsis,
bate atherosclerosis through a range of mechanisms including supporting other studies that found improved anti-inflammatory
LDL modification, formation of advanced glycation end-prod- effects with increased physical activity (Frodermann et al., 2019).
ucts (AGE), oxidative stress, vascular regulation of microRNA
levels, and epigenetics (Poznyak et al., 2020). A recent study Sleep and stress
showed that hyperglycemia promotes proinflammatory gene Long-term lack of sleep associates with a number of diseases,
expression in macrophages and that this persists following including CAD (Domı́nguez et al., 2019). A recent study on sleep
fragmentation in mice indicates that one mechanism involves and aging. The composition of the microbiota is relatively con-
increased hematopoiesis and circulating myeloid cells (Figure 3). stant in most individuals, but there are striking differences be-
Sleep-deprived mice on a hyperlipidemic background had larger tween individuals. Epidemiological studies have revealed strong
atherosclerotic plaques with more macrophages than controls. associations between the composition of the gut microbiota and
They also exhibited reduced levels of hypocretin, a hormone pro- numerous diseases, including CAD, but the causal relationships
duced by the hypothalamus that regulates arousal and appetite. are largely unknown (Jie et al., 2017).
It was shown that one function of hypocretin is to suppress he- Microbial metabolites have emerged as particularly significant
matopoiesis by binding to a receptor on preneutrophils in bone mediators of atherosclerosis. The most significant identified thus
marrow that results in suppression of M-CSF, an activator of far is trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), produced by hepatic oxida-
macrophage growth. Sleep-fragmented mice that were given tion of trimethylamine, a metabolite derived from bacterial meta-
hypocretin did not show an increase in hematopoiesis or bolism of choline and carnitine. Individuals who consume diets
atherosclerosis, confirming the brain-bone marrow-lesion axis rich in choline or carnitine, or who have kidney disease, have
(McAlpine et al., 2019). elevated levels of TMAO. TMAO appears to promote atheroscle-
In common with poor sleep, chronic stress causes monocyto- rosis by increasing platelet reactivity and vascular inflammation
sis and neutrophilia in mice and humans. Stressors are pro- (Tang et al., 2019). Short-chain fatty acids, produced by anerobic
cessed by the amygdala and hypothalamus, triggering the fermentation of undigested fibers, are absorbed through the portal
sympathetic nervous system to increase catecholamine produc- circulation and modulate blood pressure and inflammatory func-
tion, which then signals through b-adrenergic receptors on stro- tions. A study in mice demonstrated that Roseburia intestinalis
mal and other bone marrow cells to increase hematopoiesis. could reduce atherosclerosis through production of the short-
Stress also stimulates glucocorticoid secretion from adrenal chain fatty acid butyrate (Kasahara et al., 2018).
glands via the limbic-hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. This
may accelerate atherosclerosis, since prolonged corticosteroid Alcohol consumption
therapy is associated with CAD (Schloss et al., 2020). Text: Based on observational studies, it has been assumed that
modest alcohol consumption has cardiovascular benefits. A
Smoking recent study applied Mendelian randomization (MR), a technique
Although smoking increases the risk of cancer and respiratory dis- that uses natural genetic variation as a proxy for exposure, to the
eases, nearly half of the premature mortality associated with UK Biobank cohort to evaluate cardiovascular risks at different
smoking is because of CAD. Smokers have a 2-fold higher risk levels of consumption (Biddinger et al. 2022). The authors
of CAD and even light smokers have about a 2-fold higher risk concluded that the apparent protection with modest consump-
of MI. Meta-analyses of many studies showed that smoking in- tion was the result of confounding lifestyle factors and that
creases LDL and blood pressure but that these do not account CAD and elevated blood pressure increased exponentially at
for most of the risk (Bhatnagar, 2017). The use of e-cigarettes is higher levels of consumption.
spreading, and a recent study found that e-cigarettes exert inter-
mediate effects on lipid peroxidation and antioxidant defenses as Infections
compared with tobacco smoke, indicating that they promote Bacterial and viral infections have long been associated with
inflammation and carry potential risk for CAD (Gupta et al., 2021). atherosclerosis. Recent large epidemiological studies of patients
infected with SARS-CoV-2 have revealed striking postinfection
Pollution increases in the incidence of a variety of CVD (Xie et al., 2022).
Most air pollution is a mixture of aerosols containing both parti-
cles and gases. It has been estimated that it contributes to about Conclusions
7 million premature deaths per year. There is evidence for effects Understanding how environmental factors contribute is perhaps
of air pollution on dyslipidemia, endothelial dysfunction, platelet the most significant knowledge gap in CAD. Human studies are
activation, atherosclerosis, and lesion stability. Under controlled greatly complicated by the difficulty of controlling or measuring
conditions in animal models, increased exposure to concen- the environment over many years. For this reason, studies in ani-
trated ambient particles increases atherogenesis, insulin resis- mal models are likely to be crucial in closing the gap. Some large
tance, and thrombosis (Bhatnagar, 2017). A recent study in efforts are underway to understand the underlying mechanisms.
animal models showed that diesel exhaust induces mitochon- For example, MOTRPAC is a U.S. national consortium that aims
drial dysfunction and hyperlipidemia (Yin et al., 2019). to understand the molecular transducers of exercise. There are
also large population studies of relationships of gut microbes
Intestinal microbiota and their metabolites to obesity, diabetes, and CAD (Sanna
The human intestine harbors trillions of bacteria, fungi, and vi- et al., 2022).
ruses (collectively termed ‘‘microbiota’’) that play an important
role in a healthy ecosystem. The bacteria, in particular, help TOWARD PRECISION MEDICINE AND NOVEL
digest food, stimulate the immune system, and produce unique THERAPIES
metabolites that can enter the host’s circulation. At birth, individ-
uals acquire their microbes from their mothers and other family Atherosclerotic lesions develop over a lifetime and are largely
members, and these are modulated by many factors, including irreversible, although some studies suggest that lipid-rich lesions
diet, drugs, pollution, exercise, disease, host genetic factors, can exhibit some regression. Therefore, the clinically most
important goals are prevention and early diagnosis. The ad- cell depletion using the drug rituximab, used to treat arthritis,
vances in understanding the disease as well as technical devel- and omalizumab, used to treat asthma. Another approach is to
opments have created many opportunities for the development boost protective B cell or T cell responses using vaccination. For
of novel medical applications. example, vaccination trials with apolipoprotein B peptides showed
positive results in preclinical tests (Roy et al., 2022; Sage
Precision medicine et al., 2019).
There is increasing recognition that preventive measures are
required to deal with the problem of atherosclerosis. Although Targeting the genome
the 30-day mortality of MI has been greatly reduced, this has re- The development of CRISPR-based technologies has enabled
sulted in increased numbers of heart failure patients. Current specific and permanent edits to the genome. The main issues
clinical evaluation of atherosclerosis risk is based largely on are delivery to the cells of interest and potential off-target effects.
‘‘traditional’’ risk factors (see above) and on imaging techniques. CRISPR technology has now been used to treat sickle cell ane-
Nontraditional risk factors such as TMAO levels, IgE levels, or the mia and certain eye disorders, and there are potential applica-
plasma proteome (Williams et al., 2019) are not yet widely tions in atherosclerosis such as reduction of cholesterol levels.
analyzed but could be incorporated into diagnosis. With the The most straightforward application is to eliminate expression
identification of hundreds of genetic loci contributing to disease, of a deleterious gene, and an obvious target in cholesterol meta-
polygenic genetic risk scores based on high-density genotyping bolism is the PCSK9 protein that promotes turnover of the LDL
have the potential to predict risk of CAD or risk of development of receptor. In one study, lipid nanoparticles were used to deliver
very high LDL-cholesterol early in life (Aragam and Natarajan, CRISPR base editors to liver in cynomolgus monkeys, resulting
2020; Hindy et al., 2020). In elderly where CAD is already mani- in near-complete knockdown of PCSK9 expression in the liver
fested, the plasma proteome (3–5,000 proteins), reflecting both after a single injection with concomitant reduction of LDL-
genetic and environmental factors, is emerging as a highly rele- cholesterol by 60%. The change remained stable, providing a
vant source to detect obstructive CAD (Williams et al., 2019). ‘‘one and done’’ advantage as compared with antibody-based
reduction of PCSK9 that require repeated injections (Musunuru
Targeting lipid metabolism et al., 2021). Related to this, it may be possible to increase
Since plasma LDL, Lp(a), and triglyceride-rich lipoproteins are expression of desirable genes using editing or delivery of
important drivers of atherosclerosis, many efforts have been mRNA with approaches similar to those employed in certain
directed at reducing their levels. Statins inhibit HMG-CoA reduc- SARS-COV-2 vaccines. Although the editing of the germ line is
tase, the rate limiting enzyme in cholesterol synthesis, and thereby now feasible, several biological as well as ethical issues remain,
increase levels of LDL receptor in the liver. They are widely used and it certainly will not be employed in the near future.
and effective at lowering LDL levels. Statins can, however, have
significant side effects, such as muscle weakness, and can also Targeting aging
contribute to type 2 diabetes. Ezetimibe, an inhibitor of the There is evidence that certain mutations common in clonal he-
NPC1L1 transporter responsible for cholesterol absorption in the matopoiesis have proinflammatory properties, raising the possi-
small intestine, is an alternative. Another alternative is to admin- bility that they can be targeted (Fidler et al., 2021). Accumulating
ister neutralizing antibodies for the secreted protease PCSK9 evidence suggests that macrophages are important in the sys-
that downregulates the LDL receptor by blocking its recycling. temic inflammation that often occurs in aging, and hence, target-
PCSK9 inhibition decreased major cardiovascular events in large ing macrophage immunometabolism to modulate functions and
randomized trials (Pasta et al., 2020). High Lp(a) is among the polarization is a therapeutic strategy that could be explored (Co-
strongest common genetic factors for CAD (see above), and it is varrubias et al., 2021). As discussed above, there is evidence of
relatively resistant to statin treatment. A highly specific antisense the involvement of senescence in atherosclerosis, at least in
oligonucleotide directed to hepatocytes was recently examined mice. Senolytics, drugs that kill senescent cells, have shown
in a randomized trial of 286 patients with established CAD. The great promise in animal models of diabetes and other disorders.
treatment resulted in dose-dependent decreases in Lp(a) of up A recent study showed that chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)
to 80% with no significant adverse events, and larger clinical trials T cells that target senescent cells can also be effective senolytic
to study functional impacts are underway (Tsimikas et al., 2020). agents (Amor et al., 2020).
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