SCIENCE/ BIOLOGY

Sunday, February 19, 2023 12:04 PM

LESSON 1: THE SECRETORS OF THE HUMAN BODY

,
- The human body is made up of different system that coordinates with one another in order to perform their functions
well.

1. PITUITARY GLAND - The pituitary gland (Master Gland) is located at the base of the brain.

2. THYROID GLAND - The thyroid gland is located below the voice box.

3. ADRENAL GLAND - The Adrenal Gland is found on top of the kidneys.

4. PANCREAS - Near to it is the Pancreas located between the kidneys.

5. TESTES - The testes are found in the lower abdomen of males.

6. OVARIES - The ovaries are found in the lower abdomen of females.

LESSON 2: THE WONDERS OF HORMONES

1. HORMONES - Are chemical substances which coordinate the activities of living organism and their growths.
2. DRARFISM - Where there is an imbalance in the secretion of hormones in our body those disorders might occur.
3. GIGANTISM - While gigantism occurs when the pituitary gland produces more than the needed growth hormones of our
body.
- DIABETES and its associated complications.
- GOITER is an abnormal enlargement
4. DIABETES and its associated complications.
5. GOITER is an abnormal enlargement of the thyroid gland due to excessive or insufficient amounts of the secreted
hormone.

▪ HORMONES AND THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

▪ GLANDS OF THE BODY

▪ EXOCRINE: DUET PRESENT
▪ ENDOCRINE: NO DUET
- SECRETE HORMONES DIRECTLY INTO THE BLOOD

▪ ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
- Includes all of the glands of the body and the hormones produced.
- The endocrine and the nervous system coordinate.
- The body's organs work together.
- The endocrine system is based on production.

▪ WHAT ARE HORMONES?

- Why are hormones needed?
➢ HORMONES - A chemical substance produces in the body that controls and regulates the activity of certain cells or
organs.

CHEMICAL MESSAGES FROM ONE BODY PART TO ANOTHER

- Communication is needed to coordinate the whole body.
- Daily homeostasis & regulator large-scale changes.
Solute levels in the blood.

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- Solute levels in the blood.
- GLUCOSE
- METABOLISM
- GROWTH
- DEVELOPMENT
- MATURATION
- REPRODUCTION

▪ WHAT DO HORMONES DO?

HORMONES - Travel slower than nervous impulses but cause long-lasting effects.
They are delivered to all parts of the body but can have local effects.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM - PITUITARY GLANDS.

LESSON 3: THE REPRODUCERS

For most living creatures, reproduction is basically a normal process controlled by hormones. Even though human
reproduction is also controlled by hormones, the process is rather more complicated.

The system involved in sexual reproduction is called the reproductive system.

• MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

PARTS FUNCTION
TESTIS REPRODUCE SPERM CELLS.
SCROTUM SAC OF SKIN THAT HOLDS THE TESTIS.
PENIS DEPOSITS SPERMS INTO THE VAGINA DURING
MATING.
VAS DEFERENS (TUBE) CARRIES SPERM FROM TESTIS TO URETHRA.
URETHRA CARRIES SPERM AND URINE OUT OF THE BODY.
PROVIDES LIQUID IN WHICH SPERM CAN SWIM.

GLANDS
a. SEMINAL VISECLE SECRETES A FLUID THAT MAKES UP
MOST OF THE SEMEN
b. PROSTATE GLAND SECRETES A SLIGHTLY ALKALINE MILKY
FLUID THAT IS DISCHARED AS PART OF
THE SEMEN
c. BULBOURETHRAL GLAND SECRETES A THICK AND CLEAR MUCUS
LUBRICATES AND NEUTRALIZES ANY
TRACE OF ACIDIC URINE

• FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The female reproductive system has the following functions Nurtures
1. Produces female sex cells
2. Receives female sex cells
3. Nurtures the development of and provides nourishment for the new individua

PART FUNCTION
OVARY PRODUCE EGG CELLS
OVIDUCT SERVES AS PASSAGEWAY OF EGGS FROM
THE OVARY TO THE UTERUS; SITE OF
EGG FETILIZATION
UTERUS SERVES SITE OF EGG IMPLANTATION;

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 UTERUS SERVES SITE OF EGG IMPLANTATION;
WHERE THE FERTILIZED EGGS DEVELOP
VAGINA RECEIVES THE PENIS OF MALE DURING
MATING

Puberty involves the onset of sexual maturity and the ability to reproduce.

THE ROLE OF HORMONES IN FEMALE AND MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS

Hormones play an important part role in both male and female reproductive systems. The pituitary gland controls the
functions of both the testes and the ovaries. These hormones keep the reproductive system properly functioning.

HORMONES MALE OR FEMALE PRODUCED BY MAIN FUNCTIONS

TESLUSTERONE MALE TESTES Stimulates the male
secondary sexual
characteristics
ESTROGEN FEMALE OVARIES Stimulates the female
secondary sexual
characteristics; repair of
the wall of the uterus;
controls ovulation
PROGESTERONE FEMALE OVARIES AND Prevents the wall of the
PLACENTA uterus from breaking
down

• MENSTRUATION

- The process in which blood and other tissues are shed from the uterus and leave the body through the vagina.
- It occurs every month from the first onset when a female between 10 to 13 years old.
- This continues for about 4o years.

>

MENSTRUAL CRAMPS
•
>Are the results of the strong contractions of the uterine wall that occur before and during menstruation.
>The cramps can be caused by exessive secretions of prostaglandins.
>Prostaglandins are group of lipids made at the site of tissue damage.
>Shedding pf the endometrium of the uterus results inflammations so prostaglandins is being produced.
MENSTRUAL CYCLE (28 DAYS)
•
1.
FLOW/MENSTRUATION PHASE (DAYS 1 - 5)
Endometrium is shed; follicle growth in ovary.
•
Estrogen and progesterone levels are low.
•
2.
FOLLICLE PHASE ( DAYS 6 - 13) The monthly changes that takes place in the
Follicle grow and mature female reproductive system are called
→ SECRETE ESTROGEN
menstruation. This cycle occurs every month.
(Endometrium thickens)

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2. FOLLICLE PHASE ( DAYS 6 - 13) The monthly changes that takes place in the
Follicle grow and mature female reproductive system are called
→ SECRETE ESTROGEN
menstruation. This cycle occurs every month.
(Endometrium thickens)
(Stimulates LH)
3. OVULATION (day 14): LH A girl's first menstrual is called "MENARCHE"
Peaks causing secondary oocyte to burst from the follicle in the ovary into viaduct.
• When an egg is released from the biggest follicle and travels through the fallopian tube where it can be fertilized.
• If it is not fertilized it dissolves in about 24-48 hours.
4. LUTEAL PHASE (DAY 15-28)
LH causes corpus luteum to develop from follicle.
→ Corpus Luteum Secretes E&P
Endometrium thickens and is maintained (progesterone prevents contractions)
Inhibits LH&FSH
This is when the endometrium (the lining of the uterus) is thick and prepared to support a pregnancy or be released in a
period.

MENSTRUAL CYCLE - PEAK FERTILE OR OVULATION DAY 14

ECTOPIC PREGNANCY DEVELOPED IN FALLOPIAN TUBE OR OVIDUCT

Nervous System: The control system of the body

MAJOR DIVISIONS AND PARTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

• The CNS receives and processes all the information from all parts of the body.

1. The brain - is the control center of the nervous system.

It has three main parts: the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.
Moreover, it is divided into three main regions: the cerebrum
Cerebellum, and the brain stem.

• Cerebrum - center of intelligence and thinking, associated with higher

brain functions such as thought and action.
• Thalamus - relays motor and sensory signal to the cerebrum.
• Hypothalamus - regulates the sleep-wake cycle.
• Amygdala - controls emotions such as fear and aggression.
• Cerebellum - for coordination, movement, posture and balance.
• Meduila Oblongata - controls autonomic functions.

THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The PNS contains all the nerves outside the brain and the spinal cord.

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A. THE SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (SNS)
The SNS regulates the activities that are under conscious control.

• Receptors refer to the external sense organs the eyes, ears, nose, skin, and tongue.

B. THE AUTOMONIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (ANS)

1. Sympathetic it is known as the "fight or flight response" which controls the internal functions of the body in times of
stress.
2. Parasympathetic it is known as the "rest and digest" which is the opposite of the sympathetic nervous system.

THE PATHWAY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system is connected to the different organs of the body and the senses. These organs are composed of
different receptors: for the eyes, photoreceptors; for the ears, mechanoreceptors; for tongue, chemoreceptors, for the
nose, olfactory receptors; for pain, nociceptors; and thermoreceptor for temperature.

THE NEURONS

The basic unit for the nervous system is the neuron or nerve cell which carries impulses to the nervous system.
A neuron is composed of the following; dendrites, nucleus, cell body, axon, nodes of Ranvier, myelin sheath cells
And axon terminal.

HOMEOSTASIS
- Is the condition wherein the human body system is maintained in balance despite the changing factors outside.

1. Stimulus - the variable that is being regulated.

2. Sensor - it monitors the value of the variable and sends the message to the control center.
3. Control center - it matches the data to the normal values.

When homeostatic mechanism is not in balance, organ failure or diseases could happen.

NERVOUS SYSTEM DISEASES

Alzheimer's Disease - this is a type of brain damage that causes loss of memory and problems in speaking or thinking.
Aphasia - It entails loss of speech which usually happens to a person who suffers from store or traumatic brain injury.
Cerebrovascular accident (CVA) - this is also known as stroke.
Brain tumor - a growth in the brain that leads to increased pressure inside the skull.
Epilepsy - some may experience seizure and high fever in a short time.
Multiple Sclerosis - it shows multiple hard plaques of degeneration of the insulating layer of the nerve fiber.
Meningitis - it is a swelling of the lining around the brain and spinal cord.
Parkinson's Disease - this refers to a problem within the nerve cells of the brain that controls movement.
Peripheral Neuropathy - in this disorder, the peripheral nerves are affected.
Transient ischemic Attack (TIA) - "ischemia" which means no enough blood is related to the circulatory system.

MENTAL HEALTH DISORDERS

1. Anxiety: uncomfortable feeling or fear; uneasiness; or overthinking that something bad may happen.
2. Panic Disorder: repeated episodes of sudden fear; or feeling of great danger and impending doom.
3. Depression or Psychosis: -a state of being sad; loss of happiness; lack of interest on things; wanting to be away from
others; and loos of energy.

*CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY: PROTIEN SYNTHESIS

DNA (deoxyribonucleic Acid) is the genetic material of all organisms on Earth form microbes to plants and human
beings.

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 beings.
A genome contains a complete set of information which determines inherited physical characteristics such as height, skin,
Eye, and hair color and many others.

The four type of nucleotides of DNA are adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine which are represented by their first
Letter A, T, G, C. these four nucleotides are paired as (Adenine-Thymine) and (Guanine-Cytosine).

DNA molecules fold into paired packages called chromosomes that are stored in the nucleus of the cell.
Human have 23 pairs of chromosomes.

DNA Replication is the process of DNA duplication from an existing DNA.

The major key players in DNA replications are the enzymes helicase, primase, DNA polymerase and ligase.
Helicase is the unzipping enzyme and unzips the two stands of DNA in the double helix through the hydrogen
Bond that holds the two base pairs together,
Primase will initialize the process and directs the DNA polymerase for it to figure out where it gets to start.
DNA polymerase Ligase is the gluer.

DNA REPLICATION PROCESS

The Replication process is considered complete once all the Primers are removed and Ligase has filled in all the
remaining gaps between the Okazaki Fragments.

RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) unlike the double stranded DNA, is a nucleic acid polymer with a single strand. It is composed of
four nucleotides adenine, uracil (replaced thymine in DNA), guanine, and cytosine.

4. Initiation is the start of transcription. It transpires when the enzyme RNA polymerase binds to a specific region of a gene
which is called the promoter with the help of proteins called "transcription factors".
5. Elongation is adding of nucleotides to the mRNA strand. During this process of elongation, an adenine (A) in the DNA
Binds to an uracil (U) in the RNA.
6. Termination is the last stop of the transcription process. This happens when RNA polymerase enzyme reaches a stop or
termination sequence in the gene.

When the stop sequences or stop codon is reached, the enzyme detaches from the gene.

Transcription Pattern: Thymine to Adenine, Adenine to Uracil, Cytosine to Guanine, Guanine to Cytosine.

Translation is the final process of protein synthesis that takes place in the cytoplasm.
Protein Structure, proteins may generally have globular or fibrous structure depending on its role in the bodily functions.
Globular proteins are spherical, compact, and soluble. Fibrous proteins are elongated and insoluble.

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 Protein Structure, proteins may generally have globular or fibrous structure depending on its role in the bodily functions.
Globular proteins are spherical, compact, and soluble. Fibrous proteins are elongated and insoluble.

Proteins are synthesized in the human body through a process called translation.

The key components required for translation are mRNA, tRNA, ribosomes, and aminoacyl tRNA synthetases.
• Ribosomes is a complex organelle, present in the cytoplasm, which serves as the site of action for protein synthesis.

MUTATION

Is a permanent change of nucleotide sequence of the genome of an organism, virus, or extrachromosomal DNA or other
Genetic elements.

Genes - are segments of DNA located on chromosomes.

Small-scale Mutations are types of gene mutations, such as those affecting a small gene in one or a few nucleotides.
There are 2 types of gene mutations; Point mutation and Frame-Shift Mutation.

A. Point mutation - the change of a single nitrogen base in a DNA sequence-is usually the least harmful type of DNA
mutation.

B. Frame-Shift Mutation - are generally much more serious and often more deadly than point mutations.
• Insertions add one or more extra nucleotides into the DNA.
• Deletions mean removing one or more nucleotides from the DNA>

DNA MUTATION ANOLOGY

A chromosome mutation is an unpredictable change that occurs in a chromosome.

a. Translocation - the joining of a fragmented chromosome to a non-homologous chromosome is a translocation.

b. Deletion - this mutation results from the breakage of a chromosome in which the genetic material becomes lost during
cell division.
c. Duplication - duplications are produced when extra copies of genes are generated on a chromosome .
d. Inversion - in an inversion, the broken chromosome segment is reversed and inserted back into the chromosome.

TYPES OF CHROMOSOMAL MUTATIONS

A chromosomes mutation that causes individuals to have an abnormal number of chromosomes is termed aneuploidy.
Aneuploid cells occur because of chromosomes breakage or nondisjunction errors that happen during meiosis or mitosis.
Nondisjunction is the failure of homologous chromosomes to separate properly during cell division.

Gene mutations are most commonly caused as a result of two types of occurrences.

GENETIC DISORDERS

a. Sickle Cell Anemia is a genetic disease common among those who are from Africa.
d. Hemophilia is an inherited bleeding disorder that causes abnormal or exaggerated bleeding and poor blood clotting.

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d. Hemophilia is an inherited bleeding disorder that causes abnormal or exaggerated bleeding and poor blood clotting.
e. Down Syndrome or trisomy 21 is the most common chromosomal disorder.
f. Klinefelter Syndrome also known as XXY condition is a chromosomal condition that affects male physical and cognitive
development. Klinefelter syndrome is a chromosomal condition in boys and men that can affect physical and intellectual
development.

KAYOTYPING

Is a laboratory procedure that allows your doctor to examine your set of chromosomes. "Karyotype" also refers to the
actual collection of chromosomes being examined.

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