Personality and Individual Differences 119 (2017) 46–51

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Personality and Individual Differences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/paid

Are perfectionism cognitions and cognitive emotion regulation strategies

mediators between perfectionism and psychological distress?
António Macedo a, Cristiana Marques a,⁎, Vasco Quaresma b, Maria João Soares a, Ana Paula Amaral a,c,
Ana Isabel Araújo a, Ana Telma Pereira a
a
Department of Psychological Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Portugal
b
Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Portugal
c
Institute Polytechnic of Coimbra, ESTESC-Coimbra Health School, Portugal

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Recent studies proposed that maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation (CER) is associated with negative dimen-
Received 31 January 2017 sions of perfectionism and mediates the relationship between this trait and negative affect dimensions. In the
Received in revised form 13 June 2017 present longitudinal study, our aim was to examine whether and which perfectionism cognitions and CER strat-
Accepted 20 June 2017
egies would mediate the relationship between perfectionism traits and psychological distress, controlling for per-
Available online xxxx
ceived stress, social support and outcome measure at one year before.
Keywords:
At T0 and after approximately one year (T1), 258 college students (79.8% female) filled in the Portuguese validat-
Perfectionistic concerns ed versions of self-report questionnaires to evaluate perfectionism trait dimensions (perfectionistic concerns and
Perfectionism cognitions perfectionistic strivings), perfectionism cognitions, CER dimensions, perceived stress, social support and psycho-
Rumination logical distress (depression, hostility-anxiety, and amiability-vigor).
Catastrophizing We found that higher perfectionistic concerns at T0 contribute significantly, after one year, to maladaptive per-
Psychological distress fectionism cognitions, which in turn are associated with higher levels of catastrophizing and rumination, and al-
together will ultimately contribute to greater anxiety/hostility (total indirect effect: 0.03; 95% CI: 0.01 to 0.07)
and depression (total indirect effect: 0.06; 95% CI: 0.02 to 0.13).
In this cognitive setting, perfectionist individuals may benefit from psychological interventions to reduce their
tendency to use maladaptive CER strategies.
© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Perfectionism
Perfectionism is a trait characterized by a dispositional tendency to
strive for flawlessness and the setting of excessively high standards
for performance, accompanied by a morbid fear of failure and a tenden-
cy to harshly evaluate and criticize one's behavior (Frost, Marten, Lahart,
& Rosenblate, 1990). Past research has extensively shown that this mul-
tifaceted nature of perfectionism encompasses both positive and nega-
tive dimensions, emphasizing that perfectionism is not always
maladaptive (Slade & Owens, 1998; Stoeber & Otto, 2006; Terry-Short,
Owens, Slade, & Dewey, 1995). Hewitt and Flett (1991) conceptualized
perfectionism as consisting of both intrapersonal (i.e., self-oriented per-
fectionism – SOP) and interpersonal (i.e., other-oriented perfectionism
– OOP; socially prescribed perfectionism – SPP) dimensions. Frost et
al. (1990) developed a six-factor measure, assessing four intrapersonal
dimensions (personal standards, concern over mistakes, doubts about
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: cristiana.marques@uc.pt (C. Marques).
actions, and organization) and two interpersonal, the latter restricted
to aspects of parental expectations and criticism.
Factor analytic studies of the subscales from the Hewitt and Flett
(1991) Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (H&F-MPS) and the
(Frost et al. (1990) Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (F-MPS)
have consistently yielded two factors (Soares et al., 2014). One of
these higher-order perfectionism factors is composed of F-MPS – con-
cern over mistakes, F-MPS – doubts about actions, and H&F-MPS – SPP
scales and focuses on perfectionistic concerns, and the other higher-
order factor includes H&F-MPS – SOP, and F-MPS – personal standards
scales and focuses on perfectionistic strivings. These factors have been
interpreted by researchers as representing respectively, maladaptive
and adaptive features of perfectionism.
Perfectionistic concerns have been associated with lower levels of
subjective well-being and higher levels of psychological maladjustment
and emotional disorders (Egan, Wade, & Shafran, 2011). More specifi-
cally, most of the literature concurs on the fact that maladjustment
facets of perfectionism are consistently associated with psychological
distress in the form of a broad range of psychopathological conditions
such as depression (e.g. Maia et al., 2012), obsessive-compulsive

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 A. Macedo et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 119 (2017) 46–51
disorder (e.g. Maia et al., 2009), anxiety (e.g. Soares et al., 2014), eating
disordered behavior (e.g. Macedo et al., 2007; Soares et al., 2009), sui-
cidal behavior (e.g. O'Connor, 2007) and other health problems such
as sleep disturbances (Azevedo et al., 2010). Furthermore, several stud-
ies in non-Western cultures showed that maladaptive perfectionism
predicted eating disorder symptoms (Chan, Ku, & Owens, 2010; Chan
& Owens, 2007; Choo & Chan, 2013), and adaptive perfectionism pre-
dicted greater vigor (Kung & Chan, 2014). Contrarily, perfectionistic
strivings have demonstrated associations with psychological adjust-
ment (Bieling, Israeli, & Antony, 2004; Stoeber & Otto, 2006), and to a
lesser extent with psychological maladjustment (Limburg, Watson,
Hagger, & Egan, 2016; Smith, Saklofske, Yan, & Sherry, 2015). Some au-
thors have contended that maladaptive outcomes associated with per-
fectionistic concerns may be due to their self-critical component
(Dunkley, Blankstein, Masheb, & Grilo, 2006).
Perfectionism cognitions capture automatic thoughts related to dis-
positional perfectionism (Stoeber, Kobori, & Tanno, 2010), that are im-
portant to understand how perfectionism is related to psychological
distress, especially after individuals experiencing stressful life events
(Stoeber, Kobori, & Brown, 2014). How perfectionism cognitions oper-
ate to produce distressful outcomes is not entirely clear, however re-
search has shown that high levels of perfectionism cognitions are
associated with a ruminative response, depression, and anxiety (Flett,
Madorsky, Hewitt, & Heisel, 2002).
1.1. Perfectionism, cognition and emotion regulation
Although emotions are biologically based, people are able to regulate
their emotions (Gross & Muñoz, 1995). The regulation of emotions by
cognitions (Cognitive Emotion Regulation, CER) can be defined as the
mental processes responsible for monitoring, evaluating, and modifying
emotional reactions. This process helps people to keep control over their
emotions during or after the experience of threatening or stressful
events (Garnefski, Kraaij, & Spinhoven, 2001). Garnefski and Kraaij
(2007) conceptualization of CER includes nine cognitive coping strate-
gies that are typically used in response to stressful events. Four of
them are considered maladaptive and have been positively associated
with both anxiety and depression: self-blame, blaming others, rumina-
tion and catastrophizing. The other five dimensions are related to adap-
tive coping responses: acceptance, refocus on planning, positive
refocusing, positive reappraisal and putting into perspective.
Research has shown that both maladaptive and adaptive perfection-
ism are associated with negative CER dimensions, the latter to a lesser
extent. Thus, SOP, personal standards, concern over mistakes, and SPP
are related with self-blame (Hewitt & Flett, 1991; Ogai, 2004) and per-
sonal standards and SPP with rumination (Flett et al., 2002; Ogai, 2004).
SPP is associated with self-blame, rumination and catastrophizing and
to lower levels of positive re-evaluation and putting into perspective
(Rudolph, Flett, & Hewitt, 2007).
In line with these associations, we have found, in a previous cross-
sectional study, that maladaptive perfectionism dimensions were asso-
ciated with high levels of maladaptive and low levels of adaptive CER
strategies (Castro, Soares, Pereira, & Macedo, 2016). Concerning the
adaptive perfectionism dimensions, unexpectedly we have found signif-
icant positive correlations with several maladaptive CER strategies
(consistently with self-blaming), as well as significant associations
with adaptive CER. The association with self-blaming is not so surprising
taking in consideration the tendency for self-critical evaluations, even in
“positive” perfectionists, corroborating previous findings showing that
personal standards and SOP are not completely adaptive (DiBartolo, Li,
& Frost, 2008; Frost et al., 1990) and may be involved in both positive
and negative outcomes, processes and mechanisms (Stoeber & Otto,
2006). To explain this differential function it has been proposed that
their role on psychological distress may be a function of specific media-
tors (Macedo et al., 2015; O'Connor, O'Connor, & Marshall, 2007).
47
We have also highlighted that CER strategies mediate the associa-
tions between perfectionism and negative/positive affect. Specifically,
maladaptive CER strategies (rumination, self-blaming, blaming-others,
catastrophizing) and low levels of adaptive CER strategies (positive re-
appraisal and planning, positive refocusing, putting into perspective)
mediated the association between doubts about actions, concern over
mistakes, PSP, perfectionistic concerns, and perfectionistic strivings
and negative affect. The maladaptive CER dimensions were not signifi-
cantly correlated with positive affect, but high levels of adaptive dimen-
sions (positive reappraisal and planning, positive refocusing, putting
into perspective and acceptance) were associated with low levels of
concern over mistakes and perfectionistic concerns and mediated
their association with positive affect (Castro et al., 2016).
If it could be demonstrated that the effects of perfectionism on psy-
chological distress are a function of specific mediators, this may contrib-
ute to better understand the nature of perfectionism components and to
refine the focus of intervention trials. Thus, it is important to know
which cognitive processes may be at work and linked with perfection-
ism, and consequently with the development of negative affect.
In the present longitudinal study, our aim was to ascertain whether
and which perfectionism cognitions and CER strategies would mediate
the relationship between perfectionism traits and psychological distress
measured with a one-year interval. Social support and perceived stress
need to be controlled in the mediation models to be tested, because
these variables were associated in previous studies with both perfec-
tionism and distress (Castro et al., 2016; Dunkley, Blankstein, Halsall,
Williams, & Winkworth, 2000). This strategy takes into consideration
the diathesis-stress model, which holds that perfectionism relates
more strongly to psychological distress under higher levels of stress
(e.g. Hewitt, Flett, & Ediger, 1996) and lower levels of social support
(Sherry, Law, Hewitt, Flett, & Besser, 2008).
Our hypotheses are that maladaptive perfectionism cognitions and
maladaptive CER strategies will mediate the relationships between per-
fectionistic concerns and psychological distress (depression and anxi-
ety/hostility). Regarding amiability/vigor outcome, we hypothesized
that the mediational model would not be verified.
2. Method
This study was approved by the Ethic Committee of the XXXXXXXX
[removed for the manuscript without author identities].
2.1. Participants and procedure
The data were collected outside examination periods. The study
aims were explained to the students and the confidentiality was en-
sured. Participants were 258 college students, enrolled in the first
three years of various courses (Medicine, Dentistry, Psychology, Social
Service and Health Technologies) (attrition rate = 30.26%). Their
mean age was 19.26 (±1.99), 79.8% were girls and there was no signif-
icant gender difference in age [female = 19.20 ± 2.06 vs. male = 19.52
± 1.66, t(252) = −1.04]. They filled the Portuguese validated versions
of a set of self-reported questionnaires in two time periods: T0 (Septem-
ber 2012) and T1 (September 2013; mean months = 12.72 ± 1.08). The
perfectionism trait questionnaires were only administered at T0.
2.2. Instruments
All the questionnaires used in the present study revealed good reli-
ability and validity (construct and concurrent) in Portuguese samples.
The internal consistency coefficients (Cronbach's alpha) obtained with
the sample of this study are presented in Table 1.
2.2.1. Perfectionism
The Portuguese versions of the Multidimensional Perfectionism
Scale (MPS) developed by Hewitt and Flett (1991) (Macedo et al.,
48 A. Macedo et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 119 (2017) 46–51

2007) and of the MPS developed by Frost et al. (1990) (Amaral, Soares, 3. Results
Pereira, et al., 2013) were both used to evaluate two composite trait per-
fectionism dimensions: perfectionistic concerns and perfectionistic 3.1. Descriptive and correlation analyses
strivings. These dimensions were derived from the factor analysis of
the items from both the Portuguese versions of MPS, which was per- Table 1 presents the descriptive data, internal consistencies obtained
formed using a students' sample which also included the participants for each scale, and the Pearson's correlations between all variables (per-
of the present study. Perfectionistic concerns dimension includes fectionism measured at T0 and other variables measured at T1). Perfec-
items from SPP, concern over mistakes, doubts about actions, parental tionistic strivings at T0 and personal standards (from the MPCI) at T1
expectations, and parental criticism; perfectionistic strivings dimension were not significantly correlated with the other variables (results not
is composed of items belonging to the original dimensions SOP, person- shown). Catastrophizing and rumination were the emotion regulation
al standards, and organization (Pereira et al., 2014). strategies that were correlated with both predictor and outcome
variables.
All three proposed mediators were correlated with predictor and
2.2.2. Perfectionism cognitions
outcome variables.
To assess the frequency of perfectionism cognitions during the last
week we used the Portuguese version of the Multidimensional Perfec-
3.2. Serial multiple mediation analyses
tionism Cognitions Inventory (MPCI; Macedo et al., 2014). MPCI com-
prises 15 items (to be answered on a 4-point scale from 1 = never to
Three serial multiple mediation models were tested to examine the
4 = always) of which five items each measure personal standards, pur-
mediation roles of maladaptive perfectionism cognitions (M1),
suit of perfection, and concern over mistakes. The last two dimensions
catastrophizing (M2), and rumination (M3) at T1 in the relationship be-
are considered maladaptive perfectionism cognitions (Stoeber et al.,
tween perfectionistic concerns at T0 on mood states at T1 (anxiety/hos-
2014).
tility, depression, and amiability/vigor). Maladaptive perfectionism
cognitions were hypothesized to have an enhancing effect on
2.2.3. Psychological distress catastrophizing and rumination, so maladaptive perfectionism cogni-
The Profile of Mood States (POMS) is commonly used to measure tions were entered first. Perceived stress and social support were en-
psychological distress (McNair, Lorr, & Droppleman, 1971). Following tered as covariates as well as the outcome variables in T0.
each adjective the subject is required to respond how he/she has been
feeling on a 5-point scale which varies from «not at all» to «extremely», 3.2.1. Anxiety/hostility
considering the previous month. We used a short version composed of The first model tested whether maladaptive perfectionism cogni-
36 items selected via factorial analysis from a sample of students tions, catastrophizing, and rumination at T1 would mediate the rela-
(POMS; Amaral, Soares, Bos, et al., 2013) that evaluates depression, anx- tionship between perfectionistic concerns at T0 and anxiety/hostility
iety/hostility and amiability/vigor. at T1 (Fig. 1).
Results indicated that the total effect of perfectionistic concerns on
anxiety/hostility was significant (Effect = 0.07, SE = 0.02, t = 3.00, p
2.2.4. Perceived stress and social support = 0.003). As can be seen in Table 2, the total indirect effect was 0.03
To measure perceived stress, the Portuguese version of the Perceived and statistically different from zero (95% CI: 0.01 to 0.07). The specific
Stress Scale-10 (PSS-10; Amaral et al., 2014) was used. To evaluate so- indirect effect of perfectionistic concerns on anxiety/hostility through
cial support we included an item – “Do you feel that, in general, you maladaptive perfectionism cognitions and catastrophizing was the
have had the support and help you need?” using the same response only different from zero, so this specific indirect effect is significantly
scale of PSS-10, from “Never” (0) to “Very often” (4) (Macedo et al., positive. This model explained 49% of anxiety/hostility variance.
2015).
3.2.2. Depression
The second model examined whether maladaptive perfectionism
2.2.5. Cognitive emotion regulation
cognitions, catastrophizing, and rumination at T1 would mediate the
The Portuguese version of the Cognitive Emotion Regulation Ques-
tionnaire (Castro et al., 2013) is composed of 36 items that evaluate:
positive reappraisal and planning, positive refocusing, rumination, Table 1
blaming others, putting into perspective, self-blame, acceptance and Descriptive statistics, internal consistencies, and correlations.
catastrophizing. The items were answered on a 5-point scale from 1 2 3 4 M SD α
“Never” to “Always”.
1. Perfectionistic – 82.78 18.35 0.90
concerns
2. Maladaptive 0.46⁎⁎⁎ – 19.47 6.29 0.91
2.3. Statistical analyses
PCog (MPCI −
PP + MPCI −
Data were analyzed using SPSS 23. To examine serial multiple medi- CM)
ation models we used the Process macro developed by Hayes (2013). 3. CERQ − 0.30⁎⁎⁎ 0.44⁎⁎⁎ – 7.24 2.98 0.80
The PROCESS macro utilizes the bootstrapping method, which is a catastrophizing
4. CERQ − 0.27⁎⁎⁎ 0.43⁎⁎⁎ 0.48⁎⁎⁎ – 12.87 3.97 0.84
method of assessing direct and indirect effects of variables in a way
rumination
that maximizes power and is robust against non-normality. The indirect 5. POMS − AH 0.37⁎⁎⁎ 0.41⁎⁎⁎ 0.46⁎⁎⁎ 0.42⁎⁎⁎ 10.51 7.96 0.93
effect represents the impact of the mediator variable on the original re- 6. POMS – D 0.40⁎⁎⁎ 0.51⁎⁎⁎ 0.62⁎⁎⁎ 0.51⁎⁎⁎ 14.34 13.08 0.96
lation (i.e., the relation of the independent variable on the outcome var- 7. POMS − AV −0.25⁎⁎⁎ −0.23⁎⁎⁎ −0.23⁎⁎⁎ −0.15⁎ 21.20 5.77 0.87
iable). If 0 is not contained within the Confidence Interval (CI), this Note. PCog = perfectionism cognitions; MPCI = Multidimensional Perfectionism Cogni-
suggests that the difference between the total and direct effects was dif- tions Inventory; PP = pursuit of perfection; CM = concern over mistakes; CERQ = Cogni-
ferent from 0 and so, that the indirect effect is significant. tive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire; POMS = Profile of Mood States Questionnaire; AH
= anxiety/hostility; D = depression; AV = amiability/vigor; M = mean; SD = standard
Typically, 95% bias-corrected (BC) bootstrap confidence intervals are deviation; α = Cronbach's alpha.
used to judge the significance of the indirect effect, with confidence in- ⁎ p b 0.05.
tervals resampled 5000 times for each analysis (Hayes, 2013). ⁎⁎⁎ p b 0.001.
 A. Macedo et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 119 (2017) 46–51 49

Fig. 1. Serial multiple mediation model with anxiety/hostility as an outcome. Perceived stress (b = 0.51, SE = 0.09, t = 5.64, p b 0.001), and social support (b = −0.99, SE = 0.41, t =
− 2.39, p = 0.018) at T1 and anxiety/hostility (b = 0.29, SE = 0.05, t = 5.64, p b 0.001) at T0 were controlled. Numbers represent unstandardized coefficients. Numbers in
parentheses represent standard errors. PCog = perfectionism cognitions. **p b 0.01. ***p b 0.001.

relationship between perfectionistic concerns at T0 and depression at the following pathways (illustrated in Fig. 2): a1b1, a1d21b2, a1d31b3,
T1 (Fig. 2). a1d21d32b3 (Table 2). This model explained 58% of depression variance.
Results indicated that the total effect of perfectionistic concerns on
depression was significant (Effect = 0.08, SE = 0.04, t = 1.99, p = 3.2.3. Amiability/vigor
0.048). The total indirect effect was 0.06 and statistically different The third model evaluated whether maladaptive perfectionism cog-
from zero (95% CI: 0.02 to 0.13), which supports the predicted model nitions, catastrophizing, and rumination at T1 would mediate the rela-
of the serial indirect effect of perfectionistic concerns on depression tionship between perfectionistic concerns at T0 and amiability/vigor at
via maladaptive perfectionism cognitions, catastrophizing, and rumina- T1. Perceived stress (Coefficient = −0.12, SE = 0.07, t = −1.63, p =
tion. The specific indirect effects statistically different from zero were 0.104), and social support (Coefficient = 0.58, SE = 0.34, t = 1.74, p
= 0.083) at T1 and amiability/vigor (Coefficient = 0.57, SE = 0.06, t
= 9.82, p b 0.001) at T0 were controlled.
Table 2
Indirect effects of the serial multiple mediations.
Results indicated that the total effect of perfectionistic concerns on
amiability/vigor was not significant (Effect = − 0.01, SE = 0.02, t =
Coefficient SE Bootstrapping −0.73, p = 0.469). The total indirect effect was 0.00 and not statistically
BC 95% CI
different from zero (95% CI: −0.02 to 0.01), which does not support the
Lower Upper model of the serial indirect effect of perfectionistic concerns on amiabil-
OUTCOME: anxiety/hostility ity/vigor via maladaptive perfectionism cognitions, catastrophizing, and
Total effect (c) 0.07 0.02 0.02 0.11 rumination. No specific indirect effects were statistically different from
Direct effect (c′) 0.03 0.02 −0.01 0.08 zero (Table 2). This model explained 36% of amiability/vigor variance.
Indirect effects
Total indirect effect 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.07
a1b1 0.02 0.01 −0.00 0.04 4. Discussion
a1d21b2 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.02
a1d31b3 0.00 0.00 −0.00 0.01 The primary aim of this study was to test the potential mediator role
a1d21d32b3 0.00 0.00 −0.00 0.01
of perfectionism cognitions and CER strategies in the link between per-
a2b2 0.00 0.01 −0.01 0.02
a2d32b3 0.00 0.00 −0.00 0.00 fectionism traits and psychological distress (anxiety/hostility, depres-
a3b3 0.00 0.00 −0.00 0.01 sion and amiability/vigor). To our knowledge, the mediation effect of
OUTCOME: depression both perfectionism cognitions (contents) and emotion regulation strat-
Total effect (c) 0.08 0.04 0.00 0.15 egies (processes) have not been studied before.
Direct effect (c′) 0.02 0.04 −0.05 0.09
Indirect effects
In order to perform this, we started by selecting the most relevant
Total indirect effect 0.06 0.03 0.02 0.13 variables to be entered in the mediation models as predictors and medi-
a1b1 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.08 ators. Correlation analyses led us to use perfectionistic concerns as the
a1d21b2 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.04 unique predictor, as perfectionistic strivings were not significantly cor-
a1d31b3 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.02
related with the outcomes. Likewise, personal standards, which is the
a1d21d32b3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01
a2b2 0.00 0.01 −0.03 0.02 perfectionism cognitive dimension viewed as more adaptive (Stoeber
a2d32b3 0.00 0.00 −0.01 0.00 & Gaudreau, 2017), as expected was not significantly correlated with
a3b3 0.00 0.01 −0.01 0.02 the affect dimensions. Regarding the CER dimensions, only rumination
OUTCOME: amiability/vigor and catastrophizing were significantly correlated with perfectionistic
Total effect (c) −0.01 0.02 −0.05 −0.02
concerns, perfectionism cognitions and affect dimensions.
Direct effect (c′) −0.01 0.02 −0.05 −0.03
Indirect effects These results emphasize the clear maladaptive nature of perfection-
Total indirect effect 0.00 0.01 −0.02 0.01 istic concerns, which unambiguously revealed to be a risk factor for psy-
a1b1 0.00 0.01 −0.01 0.01 chological distress. Although in previous cross-sectional studies,
a1d21b2 0.00 0.00 −0.01 0.00
perfectionistic strivings were also significantly associated with negative
a1d31b3 0.00 0.00 −0.01 0.00
a1d21d32b3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 affect dimensions (Castro et al., 2016; Macedo et al., 2015), it seems that
a2b2 0.00 0.00 −0.01 0.00 this association is fleeting and not sustained over time. Furthermore, in
a2d32b3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 line with the evidence showing that perfectionistic strivings are an in-
a3b3 0.00 0.00 −0.01 0.00 consistent predictor of psychological distress, other studies did not
Note: The pathways described are illustrated in Figs. 1 and 2. found significant associations (Soares et al., 2014).
50 A. Macedo et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 119 (2017) 46–51
Fig. 2. Serial multiple mediation model with depression as an outcome. Perceived stress (b = 0.60, SE = 0.13, t = 4.44, p b 0.001), and social support (b = −2.39, SE = 0.62, t = −3.88, p b
0.001) at T1 and depression (b = 0.20, SE = 0.06, t = 3.46, p b 0.001) at T0 were controlled. Numbers represent unstandardized coefficients. Numbers in parentheses represent standard
errors. PCog = perfectionism cognitions. **p b 0.01. ***p b 0.001.
Given this, we used the serial mediation models to examine the me-
diation role of maladaptive perfectionism cognitions, catastrophizing
and rumination in the relationship between perfectionistic concerns
and psychological distress. Perfectionism cognitions were the first me-
diator because we understand, as Stoeber et al. (2010) that the assess-
ment of perfectionism cognitions is a complement of the assessment
of dispositional perfectionism, thus it will provide a better comprehen-
sion of how the perfectionistic contents relates to psychological out-
comes, such as cognitive processes and psychological distress. We
introduced catastrophizing before rumination in the serial model, as it
is known that one way in which rumination (and excessive worry) oc-
curs is through the process of catastrophizing, in which individuals per-
sistently reiterate the problematic features of their maladaptive
cognitions (McMillan & Fisher, 2004).
In the first serial mediation model, the results showed the indirect
effect of perfectionistic concerns on anxiety/hostility via maladaptive
perfectionism cognitions and catastrophizing. Individuals with higher
perfectionistic concerns presented higher maladaptive perfectionism
cognitions, which in turn was associated with a greater tendency to
catastrophize. In this cognitive framework, the individual is persuaded
that the worst possible outcome will possibly occur, contributing to in-
creased levels of anxiety/hostility.
Regarding the second serial mediation model with depression as the
outcome, we found that the higher perfectionistic concerns were, the
more it would contribute to maladaptive perfectionism cognitions,
which in turn relate to greater levels of catastrophizing and rumination,
and altogether will ultimately contribute to greater depression. The in-
direct effects of perfectionistic concerns were via maladaptive perfec-
tionism cognitions; via maladaptive perfectionism cognitions and
catastrophizing; via maladaptive perfectionism cognitions and rumina-
tion and via maladaptive perfectionism cognitions, catastrophizing and
rumination.
The mediation model with anxiety/hostility as outcome suggests
that rumination did not play a significant role in the mediation between
perfectionistic concerns and anxiety/hostility. Taking this into account,
we hypothesized that people who tend to engage more promptly in
thinking dreadfully about the consequences of an event that they have
experienced will be more prone to be concerned about future threats,
which is a typical feature of anxiety.
Overall, it seems that when college students with perfectionistic
concerns and maladaptive perfectionism cognitions after one year
only catastrophize over a past event they present anxiety/hostility or
depression, but when they catastrophized and then ruminate about
their feelings and thoughts associated with the negative event they ex-
hibit a depressive mood state. This is in line with several studies, in
which there is a link between ruminative cognitive style and depression
(Joormann & Arditte, 2014; McMillan & Fisher, 2004).
As we have hypothesized, the mediational model with amiability-
vigor as outcome was not significant. This finding is consistent with pre-
vious research that suggested that perfectionistic concerns are more
strongly related to maladaptive outcomes, rather than positive ones
(Egan et al., 2011).
Although the prospective design constitutes a strength, the present
study is not without limitations. It is based on a sample exclusively com-
posed of students. It is our intention to test this and other mediation
models of the relationship between perfectionism and psychological
distress in a clinical sample of patients with anxiety and/or depressive
disorders. Besides, the sample was predominantly composed of femi-
nine subjects, which may limit the generalization of these findings. Con-
sequently, future studies will be necessary to demonstrate if these
findings are moderated by the effect of gender. Data were obtained
through self-report measures, so relationships between variables may
be inflated.
This study has implications for both clinical practice and research. In
terms of implications for research, this study adds to the literature
concerning the link between perfectionism, cognitive processes and
psychological distress. In which respects clinical implications, it high-
lights that perfectionist individuals may benefit from psychological in-
terventions aimed at reducing their tendency to engage in
dysfunctional cognitions and to use negative emotional regulation
mechanisms.
The role of negative perfectionism as a casual risk factor for psycho-
logical distress and of dysfunctional cognitions and negative CER as in-
tervening processes will be better established within a clinical trial
aimed at the reduction of perfectionism levels through the improve-
ment of CER strategies in patients with anxiety and/or depressive
disorders.
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