Hydrology assignment

Name: tedy yideg

ID: UGR/6180/13
SECTION: 2
Ultrasonic Flow measurement method
 An ultrasonic flow meter measures the flow of a liquid or gas by sending ultrasonic waves
across a pipe, containing the flow in the direction of the flow and in the opposite direction of the
flow. The ultrasonic waves and the velocity of the flow of the liquid or gas can be combined to
determine the flow rate. An ultrasonic flow meter has two transmitters, and two receivers, with
one of each mounted on either side of the pipe at a calculated distance to provide accurate
readings. There are two types of ultrasonic flow measuring methods, which are transit time
travel and Doppler shift. The difference between the methods is how directional measurement is
acquired. With the time travel method, sound waves are sent along a diagonal to the flow, and
measurements are taken in both directions. With the Doppler method, sound waves are projected
along the flow path, and the frequency of the return signal is measured.
Doppler Principle

The Doppler type of ultrasonic flow meter measures the Doppler frequency shift of the sound
waves scattered by particulate matter in the fluid. The frequency shift provides information on
the velocity of the fluid. The Doppler form of ultrasonic flow meter can be used in open channels
to measure the flow of waste matter, water, and other open channel liquids.

The mathematical relationship between fluid velocity (v) and the Doppler frequency shift (Δf) is
as follows, for fluid velocities much less than the speed of sound through that fluid (v << c):

Δf = 2vfcos(θ)/c
Where,
Δf = Doppler frequency shift
v = Velocity of fluid (actually, of the particle reflecting the sound wave)
f = Frequency of incident sound wave
θ = Angle between transducer and pipe centerlines
c = Speed of sound in the process fluid

What Transit Time Measures

Transit time ultrasonic flow meters measure flow speed by calculating the time it takes for
ultrasonic pulses to travel through the fluid. The received rate of the ultrasonic pulses is then
converted into flow rate. The unique nature of transit time ultrasonic flow meters is their ability
to measure the flow rate regardless of the direction of the flow. The ultrasonic transit time
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principle consists of two opposing probes, the first placed upstream and the second
downstream. Each probe of a chord alternately transmits and receives an ultrasonic wave
directed towards the other probe. The upstream-downstream and downstream-upstream travel
times of the wave are different (when the fluid is moving, the downstream-upstream time is
greater than the upstream-downstream time). The two travel times and the difference between the
two times make it possible to determine the average flow velocity along the chord and from this
to deduce the volume flow rate. The difference in the transit time is directly proportional to
the velocity of flow.

v≈Δt

v=kΔt

w here k is a constant
Flow rate is thus, 
Q = v •. A
where,
v = flow velocity
Δt = transit time difference between the signal in the direction of flow and against the direction
of flow
Q = volumetric flow
A = pipe cross-sectional area
Electromagnetic Flow measurement method

 The measuring principle of electromagnetic flow meters is based on Faraday's law: the voltage
induced by a conductive liquid moving through a magnetic field is directly proportional to the
speed of the conductive liquid. The induced voltage is measured across two diametrically
opposed electrodes. 

e = Blv …(eq1)

where
B =Magnetic flux density(Wb/m2)
l = length of conductor (m)
v =Velocity of the conductor(m/s)

The volume flow rate Q is given by

Q = (πd2/4) v …(eq2)
where
d = diameter of the pipe
v = average velocity of flow (conductor velocity in this case)
From equation (eq1)

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v = e/Bl
Q = πd2e/4Bl
Q = Ke
where K is a meter constant.

Dilution gauging method

Dilution gauging Dilution gauging method of measuring the discharge in a stream is made by
adding a chemical solution or tracer of known concentration to the flow and then measuring the
dilution of the solution downstream where the chemical is completely mixed with the stream
water. A tracer is a substance that is not normally present in the stream and that is not likely to be
lost by chemical reaction with other substances. Salt, fluorescein dye, and radioactive materials
are commonly used as tracers. In general there are two methods of dilution gauging, sudden-
injection methods and constant rate injection method. The two methods are described as follows.
(b) Tracer-Dilution Discharge Equation

The dilution method equation for discharge is:

QC0+qC1=(Q+q)C2        (12-2a)
Solving for discharge in equation 12-2a results in:
Q=q(C1-C2)/(C2-C0)     (12-2b)
where:
C0 = the natural or background concentration of the tracer of the flow
C1 = the concentration of the strong injected tracer solution
C2 = the concentration of tracer after full mixing at the sampling station, including the
background concentration of the stream
Q = the discharge being measured
q = the discharge of the strong solution injected into the flow
Slope Area Method 
the Slope Area Method uses the slope of the water and the area of a cross-section to calculate
the discharge, or amount of water that moves though a particular point of the waterway. This
information is key for hydrologist and hydraulic engineers, who help design and build canals and
other bodies of water.
The most important use of the slope-area method is for the indirect determination of flood
discharge, normally after the flood has passed. It may also be used, however, where the flow is
affected by backwater. The method consists of the estimation of three basic factors. First, the
area of the average cross-section in a longitudinal reach of channel of known length second,
the slope of the water surface or the slope of the energy gradient in the same reach of channel
and third, the character of the streambed so that a suitable roughness factor may be chosen.

          Q=VA=(AR 2/3S1/2)/n

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Where:
          Q = Flow Rate, (m3/s)
          v = Velocity, (m/s)               
          A = Flow Area, (m2)
          n = Manning’s Roughness Coefficient
          R = Hydraulic Radius, (m)
          S = Channel Sl

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