10

10
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Life Sciences IEB

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Liesl Sterrenberg, Helena Fouché & Grace Elliott

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Liesl Sterrenberg, et al.

Grade 10 Life Sciences 3-in-1 IEB
CLASS TEXT & STUDY GUIDE

This Grade 10 Life Sciences 3-in-1 study guide covers all strands of the IEB curriculum. It enables you to understand the basic
concepts of the Grade 10 curriculum and creates a strong foundation for success in Grades 11 and 12.

Key Features:

• Comprehensive, learner-friendly notes per module

• Carefully selected, graded questions and answers per module

• ‘Rapid-fire’ questions for key concepts and terms

• Clear, explanatory diagrams

• Up-to-date, relevant material

This study guide will stimulate your understanding of Life Sciences and, as you work through the material,
boost your exam performance.
 10
GRADE

Life Sciences
IEB
Liesl Sterrenberg, Helena Fouché & Grace Elliott
3-in-1

THIS CLASS TEXT & STUDY GUIDE INCLUDES

1 Notes
• Environmental Studies
• Diversity, Change and Continuity
• Life at the Molecular, Cellular and Tissue Level
• Life Processes in Plants and Animals

E-book
2 Questions and Rapid Fire Questions available

3 Detailed Memos

2013 publication | ISBN: 978-1-920558-11-6 23092021 | TAS

 CONTENTS
The Learning Outcomes for Grade 10................................................................... i
Orientation to Life Sciences .................................................................................. i
NOTES with QUESTIONS and MEMOS:
Module 1: Environmental Studies ................................................. 1.1 - 1.24
Biosphere to Ecosystems .............................................................................. 1.2
Questions ....................................................................................................... 1.15
Memo .............................................................................................................. 1.22
Module 2: Diversity, Change and Continuity ................................. 2.1 - 2.28
Unit 1 Biodiversity and Classification ......................................................2.2
Unit 2 History of Life on Earth .................................................................2.8
Questions ....................................................................................................... 2.20
Memo .............................................................................................................. 2.26
Module 3: Life at the Molecular, Cellular and Tissue level .........3.1 - 3.75
Unit 1 The chemistry of Life ................................................................... 3.2
Unit 2 Cells: Basic units of Life ............................................................. 3.13
Unit 3 Cell division: Mitosis ................................................................... 3.26
Unit 4 Plant and Animal tissues ............................................................ 3.30
Unit 5 Organs ....................................................................................... 3.45
Questions ...................................................................................................... 3.48
Memo ............................................................................................................. 3.66
Module 4: Life processes in Plants and Animals ..........................4.1 - 4.61
Unit 1 Energy Transformations that sustain Life ..................................... 4.2
Unit 2 Animal nutrition .......................................................................... 4.14
Unit 3 Gaseous Exchange .................................................................... 4.27
Questions....................................................................................................... 4.40
Memo .............................................................................................................. 4.54
4 REQUIREMENTS FOR AN EFFECTIVE GASEOUS
UNIT 3:
NOTES
GASEOUS EXCHANGE
It is important that you are able to distinguish between
breathing, gaseous exchange and cellular respiration.
• Breathing - The mechanical process whereby air moves in and out of the
lungs.
• Gaseous exchange - The exchange of oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2)
across a gaseous exchange surface.
• Cellular respiration - The gradual release of energy from organic compounds
(glucose) in the presence of oxygen.
NEED FOR GASEOUS EXCHANGE
• The main function of the respiratory system is to absorb oxygen from the
atmosphere and make it available to the cells for respiration.
• Carbon dioxide is released by the cells during respiration and must continually
be removed through gaseous exchange.
• The increased CO2 concentration in the body can dangerously lower the pH
UNIT 3: GASEOUS EXCHANGE
of body fluids.
Copyright © The Answer Series: Photocopying of this material is illegal
EXCHANGE SYSTEM/SURFACE
• The gaseous exchange surface area must be large - to maximise
gaseous exchange
The gaseous exchange surface is the boundary
between the external environment and the internal
gaseous exchange system of the organism.
• The gaseous exchange surface must be thin
- for quick and easy diffusion
• The gaseous exchange surface should be moist
- gases (O2 and CO2) must be in solution in order to diffuse through a
membrane
• The gaseous exchange surface must be properly ventilated
- for good O2 supply and CO2 removal.
• The gaseous exchange surface must have a transport system
- for efficient transport of gases
• The gaseous exchange surface must be well protected
- it is very thin and fragile
Gaseous exchange occurs by diffusion. Diffusion is
the movement of molecules from a high concentration
to a low concentration until equilibrium is reached.
Different organisms, including those in different habitats, meet the above
requirements for an efficient gaseous exchange system in different ways.
Study the following table.
4.27
 ORGANISM HABITAT
GASEOUS EXCHANGE Insect, e.g. locust Terrestrial The locust has a tracheole system. Air 4
STRUCTURE enters the body through small openings

NOTES
known as spiracles, which occur on the
Dicotyledonous Gaseous exchange mainly takes place thorax and abdomen. They open into
Terrestrial
plant in the leaves. The main gaseous the tracheas that form an extensive
exchange surface is the outer surface of network of tubes. Tracheas branch,
the spongy mesophyll cells. Spongy becoming even smaller, to form
tracheoles
xylem cuticle mesophyll is made up of large, round tracheoles.
upper
epidermis parenchyma cells with large intercellular O2 diffuses out of the tracheoles, which
palisade
inter- air spaces. These cells have a large spiraculum have very thin walls, into the cells.
cellular
spongy air space outer surface and have moist cell walls Locusts also have air sacs that function
tissue phloem
through which gases (O2 and CO2) can as a ventilation system. Air sacs are
air chamber
lower diffuse. Gases enter the leaf, or leave it, trachea close to the most important muscles
epidermis
guard cell
through the stomata, which mainly occur and ensure that air moves quickly to
in the lower epidermis. The stomata can and from the tissues. Locusts’ have
open and close to regulate gaseous an outer exoskeleton which is
exchange. impermeable to water to prevent
water loss.
Flatworm, e.g. The entire outer surface of the Planaria’s
Aquatic
Planaria body is a gaseous exchange surface. Bony fish Aquatic Fish have gills for gaseous exchange.
The outer surface area : volume ratio is They have four gills on each side of the
very large. Planaria absorbs oxygen head, situated in the gill chamber. Gills
directly from the water, by diffusion consist of a large number of filaments
thin body wall through its body wall. Because it is so and are richly supplied with blood
flat, gases can easily spread throughout capillaries. The gill chamber opens with
flat body gills a gill slit to the exterior. Water flows
its entire body. CO2 diffuses out of the
cells, through the body wall and into the into the mouth and over the gills.
surrounding water. Dissolved O2 in the water diffuses into
the blood of the capillaries. CO2
Earthworm Terrestrial Gaseous exchange takes place through diffuses from the blood into the water.

UNIT 3: GASEOUS EXCHANGE

the skin from the air (in the soil) CO2-rich water flows out of the gill slits.
surrounding the animal. The skin is kept
moist by mucus from the skin epidermis, Mammal Terrestrial
as well as the coelomic fluid that is
secreted onto the skin.
moist skin
O2 dissolves in the moisture, diffuses trachea Mammals have lungs and a blood
through the skin to the surface blood left lung
system. The human gaseous exchange
vessels and is transported by larger apparatus is covered in more detail in
blood vessels to the rest of the body. the rest of this section.
CO2 is transported to the skin in the
same way, where it can then diffuse
out of the body.

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4 HUMAN GASEOUS EXCHANGE
• Each nasal cavity is divided into three passages by three curved
turbinate bones.
NOTES

• The nasal cavities are lined with a mucous membrane, which consists of
STRUCTURE OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM ciliated columnar epithelial cells.
The human respiratory system consists of the:  The columnar epithelial cells are richly supplied with superficial blood
capillaries that warm the incoming air.
 air passages
 lungs  Goblet cells in the columnar epithelium secrete mucus that:
 respiratory muscles - traps dust and germs.
- is antiseptic and prevents inhaled germs from multiplying.
trachea - moistens the incoming air and prevent gaseous exchange surfaces from
drying out.
ribs
lung
 Cilia on the columnar epithelial cells continuously perform sweeping
movements in the direction away from the lungs; thus dust-carrying mucus is
expelled to the outside.
bronchus

bronchioli
nasal cavity
infundibulum

alveoli mouth cavity pharynx

ribs

diaphragm oesophagus
pleura trachea

intercostal muscles The airways

Pharynx (throat)
Diagram of the human respiratory system • The nasal cavities open into the pharynx.
UNIT 3: GASEOUS EXCHANGE

• The pharynx leads to two openings:

 the opening known as the glottis, which leads to the trachea.
Air passages
 the opening leading to the oesophagus (gullet).
• The air passages transport air to and from the lungs and include the nasal • The pharynx is lined with a mucous membrane that performs the same
passages, pharynx (throat), trachea (windpipe), bronchi and bronchioli. function as the one in the nasal cavities.
Trachea (windpipe)
Nasal cavities • The trachea is a long, tubular structure (about 12 cm long), located at the front
• The two external nostrils lead to the two nasal cavities that are separated of the oesophagus.
by a septum.
• The larynx (voice box), which houses the vocal cords, is located at the top of
• Small hairs in the nasal cavities filter larger particles from the inhaled air. the trachea.
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• The larynx is a triangular box made of cartilage. Adaptations of the air passages to their functions 4
• At the top of the larynx is the epiglottis, a thin, leaf-shaped structure
Adaptation Function

NOTES
made of cartilage.
 filters larger dust particles from the
Nasal cavities have hairs
• The epiglottis closes the glottis (the opening to the trachea) during the inhaled air
swallowing process. This prevents food from entering the trachea and choking All air passages are lined with a
the person. mucous membrane of ciliated
columnar epithelial cells:
 richly supplied with superficial  warms the incoming air
epiglottis capillaries
larynx  goblet cells that secrete mucus  traps dust and germs
 antiseptic – preventing germs from
multiplying
trachea C-shaped cartilage  moistens the incoming air - prevent
gaseous exchange surface from
The larynx drying out

• The walls of the trachea are reinforced and kept open by C-shaped  cilia perform sweeping movements  carries dust and germ-carrying
mucus toward the outside
cartilage rings.
Opening to the trachea closed by the  trachea closed during swallowing;
• The openings of the C-shaped cartilage rings, covered by involuntary muscle epiglottis prevents choking
tissue, face toward the back and press against the oesophagus. This allows the Trachea walls supported by C-shaped  supports and keeps trachea open
oesophagus to expand as food moves down through it. cartilage rings
'Open' sides of C-shaped rings in  oesophagus able to stretch during
• Just like the rest of the air passages, the trachea is lined with a mucous contact with oesophagus swallowing
membrane of ciliated columnar epithelial cells that secrete mucus.
 Dust particles and germs that enter the trachea are trapped in the mucus and Lungs
moved to the pharynx by the sweeping action of the cilia, after which it is
coughed up or swallowed. External structure

UNIT 3: GASEOUS EXCHANGE

• The two lungs are located in the chest.
Bronchi and bronchioli
• The lungs are surrounded and protected by 12 pairs of ribs.
• The trachea divides into a right and left bronchus that enter the right and left
lung respectively. • The intercostal muscles are found between the ribs.

• The bronchi are also lined with a mucous membrane and are held open by • The right lung consists of three lobes, while the left lung has two.
O-shaped cartilage rings. • The lungs are spongy and elastic.
• Inside the lungs, the bronchi divide into smaller branches, lose their cartilage • Each lung is surrounded by a double membrane, the pleura.
and form the bronchioles. • There is intrapleural fluid between the two pleural membranes that prevents
friction that occurs when the lungs shrink or expand.
• Each bronchioli ends in an infundibulum which consists of groups of alveoli.
• The lungs are conical and rest at the bottom on a dome-shaped muscle plate,
the diaphragm.
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4 Internal structure Adaptations of the lungs for their functions
• Inside the lungs the bronchi branch out, becoming smaller and forming
NOTES

bronchioli. Adaptation Function

• As the bronchioli branch out into smaller bronchioli, they lose their cartilage  can expand and contract easily
The lungs are spongy and elastic.
support and end in infundibula (lung sacs), which consist of groups of alveoli. during breathing

• The walls of the alveoli are very thin and consist of a single layer Lungs are surrounded by a double
of squamous epithelium. membrane, with intrapleural fluid
between the two membranes
Bronchioli eventually end in millions
The walls of the alveoli form the
of alveoli
gaseous exchange surface of the lung.
Wall of an alveolus consists of a
single layer of squamous epithelium
• The alveoli are surrounded by a network of capillaries.
Alveoli are surrounded by a network
• The walls of the capillaries consist of a single layer of squamous of blood capillaries.
epithelium (endothelium).
Walls of the blood capillaries consist
of a single layer of endothelium.
 prevents friction during breathing
 increase the gaseous exchange
surface
 thin surface for efficient gaseous
exchange
 transport of O2 to the tissues and
CO2 to the lungs
 thin surface for efficient gaseous
exchange

venule
arteriole
bronchiole Respiratory muscles

Different muscles play a role during breathing:

Diaphragm
• In its relaxed state, the diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle plate.
infundibulum
• This muscle plate separates the chest and abdomen to form an airtight
UNIT 3: GASEOUS EXCHANGE

thoracic cavity.
alveoli

Structure of the gaseous exchange surface Intercostal muscles

• The intercostal muscles are located between consecutive ribs and consist of
two sets, i.e.:
• The pulmonary arteries enter the lungs and
branch into smaller arterioles to form a network  external intercostal muscles
of capillaries around the walls of the alveoli.  internal intercostal muscles
• The capillaries unite again and form venules that
flow together to form larger veins and finally the The role played by the abovementioned muscles are
pulmonary veins, which then leave the lungs. discussed under the heading Ventilation of the lungs.

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VENTILATION OF THE LUNGS
This process is also known as the mechanism of breathing.
• The movement of air between the atmosphere and the lungs is caused by a
difference in air pressure between the atmospheric air and the air in the
thoracic cavity and lungs (alveoli).
• The movement of the respiratory muscles (diaphragm and intercostal muscles)
changes the volume of the thoracic cavity, which causes the difference
in pressure.
• Ventilation of the lungs takes place in two phases, i.e.
 Inhalation - air moves from the environment into the lungs.
 Exhalation - air moves from the lungs to the environment.
Inhalation
• The diaphragm contracts and becomes flatter.
• The thoracic cavity enlarges from top to bottom.
• The external intercostal muscles contract,
• causing the ribs to move upwards and outwards.
• The thoracic cavity enlarges from side to side and from
front to back.
• The abdominal muscles relax so that the abdominal cavity
can accommodate the viscera (all the internal organs) being
pushed down by the diaphragm.
• The total volume of the thoracic cavity is increased.
• The pressure in the thoracic cavity and lungs decrease.
• The elastic lungs expand.
• Since the atmospheric pressure is higher than the pressure in the thoracic
cavity and the lungs, O2-rich air flows into the lungs.
Inhalation is an active process, because it is
associated with contraction of the diaphragm
and external intercostal muscles, which
increases the volume of the thoracic cavity.
4.32
Exhalation 4
NOTES
• The diaphragm relaxes and returns to its original
dome shape.
• The thoracic cavity becomes smaller from top to bottom.
• The external intercostal muscles relax,
• causing the ribs to move downward and inward.
• The thoracic cavity reduces in size from side to side and
from front to back.
• The total volume of the thoracic cavity is reduced.
• The pressure in the thoracic cavity and lungs increase.
• Since the pressure in the chest cavity and lungs is higher
than the atmospheric pressure, CO2-rich air flows out of
the lungs.
Exhalation is a passive process, because it is associated
with relaxation of the diaphragm and external intercostal
muscles, which decreases the volume of the thoracic cavity.
What happens when you whistle, sneeze, cough or shout?
 Exhalation is forced and becomes an active process.
 The internal intercostal muscles contract, causing the ribs to move even
further inward.
 The abdominal muscles contract and the intestines are pushed up against
the diaphragm, forcing it further upward.
 The volume of the thoracic cavity is further reduced.
UNIT 3: GASEOUS EXCHANGE
 The pressure within the chest cavity is significantly increased.
 Air is forced from the lungs, making whistling, sneezing, coughing or
shouting possible.
Practical Investigation: Demonstration of breathing
movements
Requirements
• glass bell jar • two balloons
• glass Y-tube • rubber sheet
• rubber stopper with hole • string
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4 y-tube (trachea and bronchi) GASEOUS EXCHANGE
rubber stopper Gaseous exchange takes place in the alveoli as well as in the tissues, from where
NOTES

with hole
the gases are then transported to their destinations in different ways.
bell jar (chest wall)
space in bell jar
(thoracic cavity)
Key: 1 - exchange of O2 at alveoli 2 - transport of O2 to tissues
balloon (lungs)
3 - exchange of O2 at tissues 4 - exchange of CO2 at tissues
5 - transport of CO2 to lungs 6 - exchange of CO2 at alveoli
rubber plate
(diaphragm)

string
squamous epithelium

alveolus
CO2 O2

6 1
Method capillary
blood
• Use the above required items and build a model of the human vessel 2
respiratory system, similar to the above illustration. deoxygenated
5 blood to lungs
oxygenated blood
• Pull the string and observe what happens. from lungs
• Let go of the string and observe what happens.

Results
• When the string is pulled, the rubber sheet moves down.
The air is sucked in by the Y-tube and fills the balloons.
• When the string is released, the rubber sheet moves up.
The balloons deflate and air is forced out from the Y-tube. 2

oxygenated blood
UNIT 3: GASEOUS EXCHANGE

Conclusion to tissues
deoxygenated
• When the rubber sheet moves downwards, the volume in the bell jar 5 blood from tissues
increases. The pressure in the bell jar reduces and air flows into the
Y-tube.
• When the rubber sheet moves upwards the volume in the bell jar
decreases. The pressure in the bell jar increases and air is forced out of capillary 3
4 O2 cells of tissues
the Y-tube. blood vessel CO2

This model does, however, have limitations, since

the glass bell jar cannot move like the chest wall to Representation of gaseous exchange at lung and tissue level
increase or decrease the volume in the jar further.

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Gaseous exchange in the alveoli • The O2 diffuses through the endothelial walls of
the capillaries into the tissue fluid that surrounds
O2 is required in 4
the tissues for
the cells and into the cells.

NOTES
cellular respiration
Exchange of O2
• The inhaled air in the alveoli has a higher O2 concentration than the blood in Exchange of CO2
the surrounding blood capillaries. • The cells have a higher CO2 concentration than the blood in the capillaries.
• A diffusion gradient is therefore created between the air in the alveoli and the • A diffusion gradient is therefore created between the cells and the blood
blood in the capillaries. in the capillaries.
• The O2 dissolves in a thin layer of moisture that lines the alveoli and diffuses
through the thin walls of the squamous epithelium of the alveoli and endothelial
walls of the capillaries into the blood. CO2 is released during cellular respiration in the cells.

Exchange of CO2 • The CO2 diffuses from the cells into the tissue fluid and then diffuses into the
• The blood that reaches the alveoli from the tissues has a higher CO2 blood in the capillaries.
concentration than the air in the alveoli.
• A diffusion gradient is therefore created between the blood in the capillaries
and the air in the alveoli.
• CO2 diffuses from the blood in the capillaries through the endothelial walls O2
CO2
of the capillaries and thin squamous epithelial walls of alveoli into the air in the tissue fluid
alveoli.
from the lungs to the lungs
squamous epithelium
red blood cell capillary blood vessel

CO2 O2 to the tissues

from the tissues
Transport of gases in the blood
capillary blood vessel

UNIT 3: GASEOUS EXCHANGE

red blood cell Transport of O2
endothelium
O2 is transported in the blood in two ways:
• Most of the O2 that diffuses from the air in the alveoli to the blood
Gaseous exchange in the tissues in the capillaries combines with haemoglobin in the red blood cells
to form oxyhaemoglobin.
Exchange of O2
Haemoglobin is a red iron-
• Oxygenated blood reaches the tissues. containing protein found in blood.
• The blood in the capillaries has a higher O2 concentration than the cells of the
tissues.
• A very small portion of the O2 dissolves in the blood plasma.
• A diffusion gradient is therefore created between the blood in the capillaries
and the cells. O2 is transported via the heart to all the tissues in these two ways.
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4 Transport of CO2 EFFECTS OF EXERCISE ON THE RATE
CO2 is transported in the blood in three ways: AND DEPTH OF BREATHING
NOTES

• Most of the CO2 that diffuses from the cells into the blood in the capillaries,
• During exercise the body needs more O2 so that respiration can occur faster
combines with water to form carbonic acid, after which it dissociates and is
and more energy can be released.
transported as bicarbonate ions.
• As a result, more CO2 is released and the body has to get rid of the excess CO2.
• A portion combines with haemoglobin to form carbaminohaemoglobin.
• The smallest portion of the CO2 dissolves in the blood plasma. • In order to breathe in more O2-rich air and breathe out more CO2-rich air during
exercise, there is an increase in the rate and depth of breathing.
CO2 is transported in these three ways via the heart to the lungs.
• The heart rate also accelerates in order to increase the O2 supply to the
muscle tissues and the CO2 removal from muscle tissues.
Composition of inhaled air vs exhaled air
Control centres of breathing rate and heart rate
Component of air Inhaled air Exhaled air
Nitrogen 78% 78% • The respiratory centre in the medulla oblongata of the human brain controls
the breathing rate.
Oxygen 21% 15%
CO2 0,04% 4,0% • The respiratory centre sends nerve impulses to the respiratory muscles
varies according to (diaphragm and intercostal muscles) to accelerate or decelerate
Water vapour saturated
environmental conditions contraction or relaxation.

• The cardiovascular centre is also located in the medulla oblongata and

controls the heart rate.
Practical Investigation: Demonstrate that exhaled air
contains carbon dioxide • The cardiovascular centre sends nerve impulses to the heart muscle to
Requirements accelerate or decelerate contraction or relaxation.
• glass beaker • clear lime water
• straw • water
UNIT 3: GASEOUS EXCHANGE

Lung capacity
Method
• Lung capacity refers to the total volume of air that the lungs can accommodate.
• Pour about 100 m´ clear lime water into a glass beaker.
3
• Put the straw into the lime water. Breathe in normally and • The human lung capacity is about 5 ´ (5 000 cm ).
exhale through the straw.
• The amount of air that is breathed in and out during normal breathing is called
the tidal volume.
Results
The clear lime water becomes milky. Remember that clear
• After normal inhalation it is possible to breathe in additional air - this is known
lime water becomes
milky in the presence as the inspiratory reserve volume.
Conclusion
of carbon dioxide.
Exhaled air contains carbon dioxide. • Similarly, it is possible to breathe out additional air after a normal exhalation -
this is known as the expiratory reserve volume.
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• These two reserve volumes as well as the tidal volume are collectively known
Practical Investigation: Measurement of depth of
4
as the vital capacity of the lungs.

NOTES
breathing before and after exercise
• Even after the full expiratory reserve volume has been exhaled, there is still air
in the lungs; this is known as the residual volume and is never exhaled. During this investigation, we make use
of the method of water replacement.
• With each inhalation, fresh air mixes with the residual volume.

• The graph below shows the different volumes of air in the lungs. Requirements
• an empty 2 ´ Coke bottle • transparent plastic tube
• water • large glass container
5.05
• measuring beaker • permanent marker
inhalation inhalation
capacity vital reserve volume
4.04 capacity
Method
1. To mark volumes on the empty bottle, measure 250 m´
tidal
Lung volume/´

volume water with a measuring beaker and pour it into the empty 0,25
3.03
bottle. Mark the water level with a permanent marker. 0,5

exhalation capacity
exhalation total lung Add another 250 m´ water and mark the new water level. 1,0
reserve capacity
2.02 volume
Continue until the bottle is filled with water.
Pour out the water, turn the bottle upside down
and write volumes on the bottle.
1.01 residual
volume 2. Fill the glass container three-quarters with water.

0.00
Time
There must be enough space in the glass container to
accommodate the water that is displaced from the Coke bottle.

• During times of increased demand for O2 (e.g. during exercise) the tidal volume 3. Fill the bottle with water and closing the opening tightly with your hand.
increases by using the reserve air volume to get more fresh air into the lungs. Place it upside down in the water-filled glass container. Remove your

UNIT 3: GASEOUS EXCHANGE

hand when the opening of the bottle is below the water level.
• The result is that the depth and rate of breathing increases.
bottle with water
0,25
• The depth of breathing can be determined before and after exercise,
by measuring the tidal volume before and after exercise.
plastic tube

glass container
filled with water

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4 4. Place one end of the plastic tube into the opening of the bottle
normal CO2 concentration
in the blood
(underwater). Keep the tube closed by pinching it, otherwise air could leak
NOTES

into the bottle or water could leak out.

5. To measure the tidal volume, pinch your nose closed and breathe out exercise
normally through your mouth into the plastic tube - do not force your
breathing. Record the volume of water displaced by the exhaled air - this
is the tidal volume. increase in
breathing rate
6. Refill the bottle from the glass container and repeat step 3, to prepare for
the next reading.
7. Measure the tidal volume of a person who is in a resting state. CO2 concentration in the
8. Let the person do some exercise for 2 minutes (e.g. skipping or running up blood rises above normal
the stairs).
9. Repeat the measurement directly after exercise.
respiratory centre cardiovascular
Results is stimulated centre is stimulated

The tidal volume is higher after exercise than before exercise.

send nerve impulses to send nerve impulses to
Deduction the respiratory muscles the heart muscle tissue
The depth of breathing increases after exercise.
contraction and relaxation of contraction and relaxation of
breathing muscles increase heart muscle tissues increase
HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL OF BREATHING
• Chemoreceptors in the wall of the aorta and at the base of the jugular arteries
rate of breathing increases heart rate increases
are very sensitive to changes in the CO2 concentration in the blood.
• As soon as the CO2 concentration in the blood increases, e.g. after/during
exercise, the chemoreceptors send nerve impulses to the respiratory and more CO2 is exhaled CO2 is transported
cardiovascular centres in the medulla oblongata of the brain. to the lungs faster,
where it is exhaled

During exercise, the rate of cellular respiration,

UNIT 3: GASEOUS EXCHANGE

and consequently the release of CO2, increases.

CO2 concentration in the
blood decreases to normal
• The respiratory centre in turn sends nerve impulses to the diaphragm and
intercostal muscles to accelerate contraction and relaxation.
• The rate and depth of breathing thus increases and more CO2-laden air is
exhaled.
• The cardiovascular centre sends nerve impulses to the heart muscle and
THE EFFECT OF ALTITUDE ON GASEOUS EXCHANGE
arterioles. • With an increase in altitude, atmospheric pressure drops and so does the
amount of oxygen in the atmosphere.
• The heart rate increases, the arterioles constrict and the blood flows faster.
• CO2 is transported to the lungs faster, where it can be exhaled. • People living at a high altitude usually have more red blood cells to transport a
maximum amount of O2 efficiently.
• The CO2 concentration in the blood thus returns to normal.
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• If a person living at sea level goes to an area high above sea level for a while, Treatment 4
his/her body will adapt after a few days or even weeks and produce more red • TB can be treated and successfully cured with early and correct diagnosis.
blood cells.

NOTES
• TB is treated with an aggressive course of antibiotics; the full course must
• In this way, the O2-carrying capacity of the blood is increased. be completed.
• Treatment lasts about 6 months.
• It is especially important for athletes living at the coast (at sea level) who plan
to participate in a competition at a higher altitude, to arrive at the higher altitude An infected person who is treated
in advance. This gives his/her body enough time to adjust. correctly cannot infect other people.

• If the athlete's body does not have enough time to adjust, he/she will tire Other respiratory diseases/allergies
very quickly.

• His /her body has too few red blood cells to carry enough O2 to the muscle Description Causes Symptoms
tissues for respiration and consequent energy release. A chronic allergic  shortness of
 allergic reaction to dust, breath
inflammation of the air grass, pollen, cigarette
passages that causes smoke or food  coughing at night
Asthma
DISEASES AND ABNORMALITIES narrowing of the air  wheezing or
passages and difficulty  infection of the upper
air passages coughing after
Tuberculosis (TB) in breathing. exercise
An allergic inflammation  allergens such as pollen,
 itchy nose,
TB is a highly contagious, chronic bacterial infection of human tissues and of the nasal passages dust or mould are inhaled
mouth, eyes,
organs, especially the lungs. and the body secretes
throat and skin
An allergen is a chemicals known
Hay fever  runny nose
trigger that sets off as histamines
Causes an allergic reaction.  sneezing
Histamines cause the
• TB is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis. allergic symptoms.  watery eyes

 coughing
Symptoms
Inflammation of the  mainly caused by viruses  may cough up
• persistent cough Bronchitis bronchi and mucous  often occurs after infection mucus after a few
membranes of the upper air passages days
• tiredness and fatigue
 mild fever

UNIT 3: GASEOUS EXCHANGE

• weight loss  shortness of
Lung disease in which breath
• night sweats the walls of the alveoli  coughing with
tear and form holes.  mainly smoking
• chest pain production of
Emphysema Blood capillaries  inhalation of toxins in the mucus
disintegrate and gaseous air
• blood in mucus coughed up  wheezing
exchange becomes
increasingly difficult.  feeling of
Transmission suffocation
• Bacteria are released into the air when an infected person coughs, sneezes, Uncontrolled growth of  coughing up
abnormal cells in the  smoking
shouts or spits. blood
Lung cancer lung tissue. It can form  inhalation of toxins in the
tumours and impede the  shortness of
• The bacteria in the infected droplets spread through the air and can be inhaled air
breath
functioning of the lung.
by a healthy person.
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