Interior of Earth & Formation of Earth Crust, Geomorphic Process -

Continental drift and Plate Tectonics

The interior of Earth can be observed through direct evidence such as rock samples from mining,
deep ocean drilling project, volcanic eruptions and indirect evidence such as seismic waves,
meteorite investigation, gravitation force, magnetic field etc.

Structure of the Earth

Crust

• The crust is the outermost brittle solid part of

Earth ranging from 5 – 70 kms.
• The crust is of two types:

1. Continental Crust: Mean thickness is around

30 km, made of SIAL (Silica and Aluminium)
and is thicker than oceanic crust. Its density is
around at 2.7 g/cm3
2. Oceanic Crust: Mean thickness is about 5 km
made of SIMA (Silica and Magnesium).
Oceanic crust is basaltic in origin and
relatively of a younger age than the continental
crust. The basaltic crust is denser at 3.0 g/cm3

Mantle

• The mantle extends up to 2890 km.

• Asthenosphere: The upper portion of the mantle which extends up to around 400 km. It
is the primary source of magma.
• The density of mantle is 3.4 g/cm3
 • The lower mantle is in the solid state which extends up to the Core-Mantle boundary.
This layer is called as the D″ (pronounced dee-
double-prime) layer.

Note:

• The Crust and Upper part of mantle combined

are called as Lithosphere.

Core

• The core extends to 2870 – 6370 km.

It is divided into
1. Liquid Outer Core
2. Solid Inner Core: Made of NIFE –
Nickel and Ferrous.

Note: Inner core rotates slightly faster than the rest of the planet.

• The density at the outer core is at 5.5 g/cm3, which increases to 13 g/cm3 in the inner
core.

Note:
Dynamo theory: It suggests that convection in the outer core, combined with the Coriolis
effect, gives rise to Earth's magnetic field.

Schematic sections through the Earth:

• Continental crust
• Oceanic crust
• Upper mantle
• Lower mantle
• Outer core
• Inner core

Boundaries in the Earth's interior

Conrad Discontinuity: Between Upper and Lower Continental Crust.

Mohorovičić discontinuity, "Moho": Crust-Mantle boundary

Gutenberg discontinuity: Core-Mantle boundary

Lehmann discontinuity: Boundary between Outer and Inner Core

Important Facts
 • Earth's radius: 6370 km
• Earth's diameter: About 12756 km at equator & about 12715 km at the poles
• Crust: 0.5 % of the volume of the Earth
Mantle: 83 % of the volume of the Earth
Core: 16 % of the volume of the Earth
• Temperature, Pressure and Density increases with the increasing distance from the
surface to the interior in deeper depths
• Gravitation force is higher near the poles and lesser near the equator
• Gravity anomaly is the difference in gravity value according to the mass of the material

Earthquake

• It is shaking of the Earth caused due to the release of energy along a fault line.
• Hypocentre or Focus: The point where the energy of an earthquake is released
• Epicentre: It is the point on the surface, directly above the focus, the first one to
experience the waves.

Earthquake waves are divided into:

• Body waves: created due to the release of energy at the Hypocentre (focus). These waves
travel in all directions through the body of the Earth.
It can be divided into:
1. P-waves: They are called Primary waves. They move faster and are first to arrive
at the surface. They are similar to sound waves and can travel through Solid,
Liquid and Gaseous materials. P waves vibrate parallel to the direction of the
wave which causes stretching and squeezing of the material
2. S-waves: They are called Secondary waves which arrive at a time lag with
Primary waves. They can travel only through solid materials. S-waves vibrate in
perpendicular to the wave direction which creates crests and troughs.

• Surface waves: the body waves interact with the surface rocks and generate surface
waves which move along the surface rocks. They are the last to report on the
Seismograph and are the most destructive. They cause displacement of rocks and
structural collapse. Surface waves vibrate perpendicular to the wave direction.

The velocity of the waves is directly proportional to

the density of the material through which they travel.
Differing density leads to reflection or refraction of the
seismic waves.
Shadow ZoneShadow zones are those specific
areas where seismic waves are not reported.
These zones are distinct for P and S-waves.

• Within the angular distance, up to 105°

from the epicentre, both waves are
recorded.
• The zone between 105° - 145° from the
epicentre is identified as a shadow zone
for both types of waves (P & S).
• However, P-wave reappears after 145°
from the epicentre.
o These recorded data gives an
insight that there is a
molten/liquid layer at around
2900 kms from the surface,
which absorbs the S wave.
o The P-waves reappearance after
145 degrees shows that as these
waves encounter a change in the
density of the medium, they refract,
and hence a limited shadow zone of
upto 145 degrees.

Continental Plate Theory:

German meteorologist Prof. Alfred Wegener proposed this theory in 1912. The first continental
portion of the Earth was called 'Pangea', and the oceanic part was called 'Panthalassa'. Later, a
sea called Tethys divided Pangea into two parts, namely Laurentia (Laurasia) or Angaraland to
the north and Gondwanaland to the south of Tethys.

Observations:

In the continental region of tropical zones, evidence of glaciation was found in the past and the
continental region of colder zones, evidence of tropical climate found. There were only two
possibilities, either the climates have changed, or the continents have changed their positions.
Wegener ruled out a change in climate that requires changes in Earth's axial alignments,
orientation, rotation and movements and rather suggested movements or drifting of continents.
Theory:

He proposed that around 250 million

years before present there was one single
vast continent called 'Pangea' surrounded
by oceans on all the sides called
Panthalassa. He further suggested that the
Pangea broke into two parts around 200
million years before present, Laurentia or
Angaraland and Gondwanaland. After
that, the continents further broke down
and moved to the current position by
drifting, and he called this drifting as
continental drift.

Evidence:

1. Jig-Saw-Fit: The shorelines of South America and Africa facing each other have a
remarkable and unmistakable match. In 1964, after the death of Wegner, Bullard did a
similar Jig-Saw-Fit but at a depth of 1,000- fathom lines under the Earth. It proved to be
quite perfect.
2. Rocks of different continents on the two sides of the oceans had the same age and as well
as similar composition: Eg. Brazilian coast and western Africa.
3. Tillite deposit: Sedimentary deposits formed or brought by glaciers. Wegner said tillite
deposits in different continents and different positions at the present time, formed when
all the continents were joint and located around the south pole.
4. Placer deposit: Deposits of gold on Ghana coast without a source in proximity but the
source being found coast in Brazilian coast proves that two continents were together.
5. Fossil evidence: fossil remains of Lemur found in India, Madagascar and Africa. This
contiguous landmass was called Lemuria. Fossil remains of Mesosaurus (small reptile)
found in southern Africa, as well as South America, also proves that the continents were
together when animals moved to another continent.
6. Paleomagnetic evidence: In different continents, the solidified magma of past shows that
magnetic field for the same time in a different direction, which is not possible. This
phenomenon also explains if continents are places as Wegner proposed, then the
magnetic field show correct direction as per the past proposed direction.

After the evidence given by him, he talked about movements. Movements were in two
directions. The first movement was in northward, and its cause was a gravitational and polar
fleeing force. Laurentia moved and after that Gondwanaland moved in northward. The second
movement was in westward, and north America, South America, Africa shifted towards west.
The forces given as a cause are also the weakness of the theory. The continents do not move
because of these forces.

Criticism or Weakness:
 1. It only talked about the movement of continents stating that the continent floated over the
ocean floors like ship floats on the ocean and this is not true.
2. It does not talk about the movement of ocean floors.
3. Reasons for the drift are not right.
4. Wegner did not talk about the condition before the Pangea starting the explanation from
only 250 million years before present.

Later, it was found that there were more such continents and their breaking. Wegner tried to
explain every part despite not having suitable reasons.

Contribution:

1. This theory was the first comprehensive theory to talk about the drifting of continents.
2. His contribution helped evolved the understanding the direction of drift and evidence
supporting it.
3. It finally led to the development of the theory of Seafloor Spreading and Plate Tectonics.

Plate Tectonics Theory

Arthur Homes in 1930 discovered convection and convectional current in the mantle. The
generation of this current due to radioactive elements causing thermal differences in the mantle
portion. This convectional current was the cause of the movement of the earth crust. It was an
explanation for the issue of drift-force, based on which contemporary scientists discarded the
continental drift theory.

Overview:

McKenzie and Parker and Morgan in the 1960s developed a more comprehensive understanding
about the movement related to the different part of the earth crust (both oceanic and continental)
and the associated formations, this was explained under the theory of plate tectonics.

A plate is made part of lithosphere which comprises of the complete solid crust and the top solid
mantle. The whole lithospheric earth surface is divided into seven major and many minor plates.
Plate means the top solid fractured part of the lithosphere covering the whole surface of the Earth
as a solid rocky layer. Plates move over the asthenosphere horizontally as rigid units. Tectonic
means the movement and associate building of plate.

Plates can be major plate and minor plate based on size. For example, India-Australia-New
Zealand plate is a major plate, whereas the Arabian plate is a minor plate. And based on nature, it
is the continental plate or oceanic plate, decided by whichever occupy a large part of the plate.
For example, the Eurasian plate may be called as a continental plate, whereas Antarctica and the
surrounding oceanic plate is mostly an oceanic plate.

Theory:
The plate tectonics theory proposes that the Earth's lithosphere is divided into seven major and
various minor plates. The plate movement results in the building up of stresses within the plates
and the continental rocks above, which leads to folding, faulting and volcanic activity. The major
plates are surrounded by young fold mountains, trenches, ridges and faults.

Major plates of the world:

1. Antarctica and the surrounding oceanic plate

2. North American (including western Atlantic floor separated from the South American
plate alongside the Caribbean islands) plate
3. South American (including western Atlantic floor separated from the North American
plate alongside the Caribbean islands) plate
4. Pacific plate
5. India-Australia-New Zealand plate
6. Africa with the eastern Atlantic floor plate
7. Eurasia and the adjacent oceanic plate.

Important minor plates of the world:

1. Cocos plate: Between Central America & Pacific plate

2. Nazca plate: Between South America & Pacific plate
3. Arabian plate: Mostly the Saudi Arabian landmass
4. Philippine plate: Between the Asiatic & Pacific plate
5. Caroline plate: Between the Philippine & Indian plate (North of New Guinea)
6. Fuji plate: North-east of Australia.

Plate movement:

Type of convectional movements:

1. Rising convection (Divergent movement)

2. Sinking convection (Convergent movement)
3. Rising & sinking but not align convection (Slide past or Transform movement)

Types of plate margin interaction:

1. Oceanic-Oceanic plates
2. Oceanic-continental plates
3. Continental-continental plates

Plate types, movements and related outcomes:

 1. Divergent movement: Where the new crust
is formed as the plates pull away from each
other. Spreading sites is the place where the
plates move away from each other.
o Continental-Continental: When
divergent convection flows below two
continental plates due to tensional
force, plates crackdown and create
faults and move away, forming block
mountains and rift valleys. E.g. the
East African Great Rift Valley. Block
mountains are also volcanic peaks. Some depression turned into lakes.
o Oceanic-Oceanic: The magma comes out of asthenosphere as it rises and due to
its denser and hot nature, it starts spreading in the horizontal direction, which
takes time to cool down. Magma is basaltic and forms elongated sea between rifts
and later forming the oceanic floor — for example, Red sea.
▪ Due to rising convection, magma comes out of the Earth, and it starts to
form mid-oceanic ridges. E.g. the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (between the South
America and Africa continents separated by Atlantic ocean) and the East
Pacific Rise. Formation of volcanism on Mid Oceanic Ridge with silent
eruption is also present in this divergence. The mid-oceanic ridges formed
along the divergent oceanic-oceanic boundary are longest mountains
stretching nearly 17000 km.
o Continental-Oceanic: Basaltic magma will always form oceanic floor only, and
it is not possible that magma comes out and forms continent on one side and
ocean on the other side and hence continental-oceanic divergence is not possible.

The divergent boundary will form oceanic plates only, and it does not form a continental plate.
Magma forms an oceanic crust on both sides. Even if it starts with the oceanic-continental
divergence, it turns into oceanic-oceanic divergence as it cannot remain continuously as
continental-oceanic.

Outcomes of these movements lead to the various forms such as HORST (peak) and the
GRABEN (valley) leading to block mountains and rifts, respectively. For example, Black Forest,
Vosges are Horst and Rhine river is Graben (Germany and France) & Vindhyachal range,
Satpura rang are Horst and Narmada river is Graben (India).
 2. Convergent movement: Where one plate
dived under another, and the crust is
destroyed. A subduction zone is a location
where the sinking of a plate occurs.
o Oceanic-Oceanic: When two oceanic
plates converge due to sinking
convection, and compressional force;
hence oceanic crust starts to subduct
Whichever crust is denser and heavier
or relatively older goes down and start
to subduct first. After partial
subduction, melting starts. Magma created by melting of the lithospheric plate,
which is lighter, less dense and less hot compared to magma below the
asthenosphere, try to move upward and fracture the plate and erupt through the
plate which is not subducted and cool down faster to form more vertical formation
like seamounts and Island Arc. Examples of such arcs are Japan, the Philippines,
the Tonga Islands, the Aleutian Islands, and the West Indies Islands etc.
o Oceanic-Continental: When oceanic-continental plate converges the lighter
continental plate folds at its margin, forming what is called as Anticline (upper
part) and Syncline (lower part). The anticline is called a marginal fold mountain
formed on the margin of the continent. The folds can be more than one creating
parallel fold mountains, also called as cordilleras. Such fold mountains are
volcanic peaks also. Compression gives fold mountains, and subduction gives
volcanic peaks- for example, Andes Mountains off the west coast of the U.S. and
Rockies (Mt. St. Helens) and Chimborazo.
o Continental-Continental: When both the continental plates convergence, there is
no subduction as the continents never subduct, and there is the only compression
between continents which leads to its folding, and it forms Fold Mountains (not
marginal) which are on the interior of continents along with compressed marine
deposits of the un-subducted oceanic plate. E.g. Himalaya mountains, the sea that
was compressed to form marine deposits was Tethys sea.

The Indian plate Movement:

• The Indian plate consists of Peninsular
India and the Australian continental
parts.
• The continent-continent convergence
boundary is in the northern plate with the
subduction zone alongside the
Himalayas.
• It extends in the east through Rakinyoma
Mountains of Myanmar in the direction
of the island arc along the Java Trench.
• To the east of Australia,
the eastern margin is a spreading site
lying inside the shape of an oceanic ridge
in South-West Pacific.
• The Western margin follows Pakistan's
Kirthar Mountain. It, in addition,
extends alongside the Makrana coast and
joins the spreading site from the Red Sea
rift south-eastward alongside the Chagos
Archipelago.
• The boundary between the Antarctic
plate and India is also marked by way
of an oceanic ridge (divergent boundary) running in West-East route and merging into the
spreading site, a little south of New Zealand.
• India was a large island located off the Australian coast, in a boundless ocean. The
Tethys Sea separated India from the Asian continent until approximately 225
million years ago.
• It is supposed that India had started her northward journey approximately two
hundred million years ago at the time when Pangaea broke.
• India collided with Asia approximately 40-50 million years in the past resulted
in fast uplift of the Himalayas. Nearly 140 million years before the present, the
subcontinent was positioned at the south as 50 degrees South Latitude.
• The Tethys Sea has separated the two primary plates, and the Tibetan block was near
to the Asiatic landmass.
• During the Indian plate movement toward the Eurasian plate, a
major event that happened was the eruption of lava and formation of the Deccan Traps.
• This began somewhere around 60 million years in the past and continued for a
long period of time. Note that the subcontinent was still near the equator.
• From 40 million years in the past and thereafter, the occasion of the formation of the
Himalayas took place.
• Scientists agree that the process is still continuing, and the height of the Himalayas
is growing even to this date.