Preface

Concrete is a composite material formed by mixing and curing

ingredients such as cement, fine and coarse aggregates, and water. Most
concretes, however, contain additional ingredients such as chemical admix-
tures including air-entraining admixtures, fly ash, fibers, slag, and other
products.
The physical, chemical and durability characteristics of concrete
depend on many factors such as the type and amount of the components,
temperature, pore and pore size distribution, surface area, interfacial
features, exposure conditions, etc. Consequently, a good understanding of
various processes occurring in cementitious systems necessitates the
application of diverse techniques.
Several physical, chemical, and mechanical techniques are applied in
concrete research and practice. They provide important information, includ-
ing characterization of raw materials and cured concrete, quality control,
quantitative estimation of products, prediction of performance, development
of accelerated test methods, study of interrelationships amongst physical,
chemical, mechanical, and durability characteristics, development of new
materials, etc. In most instances, no single technique provides all the needed
information and hence application of several techniques becomes neces-
sary. Information on the application of various techniques in concrete is
dispersed in literature, and few books are available that serve as a source or
reference. Hence a handbook incorporating the latest knowledge on the
application of various investigative techniques in concrete science and

ix
x Preface

technology has been prepared. Standard test methods are not covered in this
book as they are well described in publications of national and international
standards organizations.
The book is divided into twenty chapters. Each chapter describes the
technique and its application and limitations for the study of concrete,. Each
chapter also contains a list of important references that should serve as a
useful guide for further information.
The first chapter on concrete science describes the essential concepts
so that information presented in subsequent chapters can be easily followed.
The chapter deals with the formation of cement, its hydration behavior,
physicochemical processes related to the cement paste, and several impor-
tant properties of concrete and durability aspects.
Chapter 2 deals with the description of a number of specialized
techniques used in conjunction with petrography for the evaluation and
analysis of aggregates of concrete.
Chemical analysis methods have been applied extensively to analyze
the components of concrete, chemical and mineral admixtures, raw mate-
rials for making cement and also to estimate cement contents. Modern
analytical tools enable much faster analysis than the wet chemical methods.
In Chapter 3, chemical analysis techniques reviewed include atomic absorp-
tion, x-ray emission and plasma spectroscopy. The chapter also contains
information on chemical (wet) methods of analysis.
Thermal analysis techniques based on the determination of physical,
chemical, and mechanical changes in a material as a function of temperature,
have been routinely used in concrete science and technology. Identification,
estimation of compounds, kinetics of reactions , mechanisms of the action of
admixtures, synthesis of compounds, quality control and causes leading to
the deterioration of cementitious materials are investigated by these tech-
niques. Various types of thermal techniques and their applications and
limitations are included in Chapter 4.
Although comparatively recent, IR spectroscopy is gaining importance,
especially with the development of user-friendly equipment as described in
the fifth chapter. This technique has been applied for identification of new
products and characterization of raw materials, hydrated materials, and
deteriorated products., Discussion on Raman spectroscopy, a complemen-
tary technique to IR, also forms a part of this chapter.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy (NMR) is a effective tool
to probe atomic scale structure and dynamic behavior of cementing
materials. The application of NMR for determining the pore structure and
 Preface xi

transport properties of cement and concrete via relaxation and imaging

methods and its application to anhydrous cement and hydrated cement
phases form some of the contents of Chapter 6.
Scanning Electron Microscopy and its adjunct, microanalytical unit,
known as Energy Dispersive X-ray Analyzer, have been accepted as
important investigative techniques in concrete technology. Chapter 7 com-
prises discussion on the microstructure of hydrated cement paste, C-S-H
phase, calcium hydroxide, aluminate hydrate phases, paste-aggregate inter-
face, admixtures, slags, and fly ashes. Also included are studies on the
correlation of microstructure with durability.
The eighth chapter on the application of x-ray diffraction focuses on
some of the fundamental aspects of the technique, the hardware and
software developments, and its applications to cement and concrete.
An understanding of the rheology of fresh cement paste and concrete
is essential for following the behavior of concrete in the fresh state.
Additions and admixtures in concrete alter its rheological behavior. Chapter
9 deals with rheological techniques and their application to fresh cement
paste and concrete.
Dimensional changes occur in cement paste and concrete due to
physical, chemical, and electrochemical processes. A discussion of energet-
ics of surface adsorption and volume changes forms the scope of Chapter
10. Relevance of length changes to concrete deterioration is also highlighted
in this chapter.
The use of miniature specimens in cement science investigations has
proven to be very valuable because it assures a greater homogeneity of the
sample and increased sensitivity to the dimensional changes resulting from
physical and chemical processes. Chapter 11 provides results on compacted
powder used as a model system and includes discussion on creep and
shrinkage, volume stability, workability, and surface chemical changes.
Corrosion of reinforced concrete is a major destructive process. Many
electrochemical techniques have been developed to study corrosion. Chap-
ter 12 presents a comprehensive treatment of the principles of corrosion,
factors responsible for corrosion, and corrosion assessment techniques
relevant to concrete.
Surface area has an important influence on the rate of reaction of
cement to water and other chemicals. Many physical and mechanical
characteristics of cement and concrete are modified by changes in the
surface area. In Chapter 13, the techniques that are used for measuring
surface area are given with respect to their application to systems such as
xii Preface

raw materials for cement, hydrated cement, concrete mix, and also to
durability studies.
The pore structure of hydrated cement systems influences significantly
the physicomechanical and chemical behavior of concrete. Several experi-
mental techniques have been employed to evaluate the microstructure of the
cement paste. Chapter 14 presents a description of six techniques that have
been developed for the determination of pore structure. The relationship
between pore structure and strength/permeability is also included.
The application of silica polymerization analysis for an understanding
of the hydration process and structure of calcium silicate hydrates is detailed
in Chapter 15. Three major techniques used for polymerization studies are
described.
In concrete, the physical structure and the state of water in the matrix
influences the permeation process. In Chapter 16, test methods that are
employed to measure various transport characteristics of concrete are
evaluated. The applicability and limitations of these techniques is also
reviewed.
Inspection and testing of placed concrete may be carried out by
nondestructive testing methods. Sonic and pulse velocity techniques are
commonly used. Nondestructive methods are also applied to estimate
strength, surface hardness, pullout strength, etc. Details of various nonde-
structive techniques and their applications are included in Chapter 17.
There is evidence of a significant impact of computer and information
technologies on concrete science and technology. General development of
these technologies in recent years is reviewed in Chapter 18. The treatment
includes computer models, databases, artificial knowledge-based and com-
puter-integrated systems.
In Chapter 19, entitled “Image Analysis,” steps needed to identify
reactions of interest and extract quantitative information from digital images
are reviewed. In image analysis, multiple images are acquired and analyzed.
The principle steps required for image analysis of cementitious materials are
described in this chapter.
Some of the more commonly used techniques in concrete studies are
presented in Chapters 2 to 19. There has been continued interest in
developing new techniques for the investigation of cement and concrete.
Chapter 20 comprises the description and application of fourteen of these
specialized techniques. They include such techniques as Auger Electron
Microscopy, Chromatography, Mass Spectrometry, X-Ray Absorption Fine
 Preface xiii

Structure Analysis, Synchrotron Orbital Radiation Analysis, Mössbauer

Spectrometry, Radio Tracer Technique, and Photoacoustic Spectroscopy.
Although every attempt has been made to cover the important
investigative techniques used in concrete technology, it is quite possible that
some information has been excluded or is missing. In addition, some
duplication of information occurs in some chapters. This was intentional
because some specific chapters may only be of interest to specialized
groups, and they provide enough self-contained information so that gleaning
through other chapters will not be needed.
This comprehensive handbook should serve as a reference material to
concrete technologists, materials scientists, analytical chemists, engineers,
architects, researchers, manufacturers of cement and concrete, standards
writing bodies, and users of concrete.

Ottawa, Canada V. S. Ramachandran

May 12, 2000 James J. Beaudoin