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General Biology 2
Quarter 3 – Module 2:
History of Life on Earth &
Mechanisms of Evolution
Introductory Message
This Contextualized Learning Module (CLM) is prepared so that you, our
dear learners, can continue your studies and learn while at home. Activities,
questions, directions, exercises, and discussions are carefully stated for you to
understand each lesson with ease.
This CLM is composed of different parts. Each part shall guide you step-by
step as you discover and understand the lesson prepared for you.
Pre-test is provided to measure your prior knowledge on the lesson. This will
show you if you need to proceed in completing this module or if you need to ask
your facilitator or your teacher’s assistance for better understanding of the lesson.
At the end of this module, you need to answer the post-test to self-check you’re
learning. Answer keys are provided for all activities and tests. We trust that you
will be honest in using them.
In addition to the material in the main text, Notes to the Teacher is also
provided to our facilitators and parents for strategies and reminders on how they
can best help you in your home-based learning.
Please use this module with care. Do not put unnecessary marks on any
part of this CLM. Use a separate sheet of paper in answering the exercises and
tests. Likewise, read the instructions carefully before performing each task.
If you have any question in using this CLM or any difficulty in answering the
tasks in this module, do not hesitate to consult your teacher or facilitator.
Thank you.
 What I Need to Know

This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help
you master the nature of Biology. The scope of this module permits it to be used in
many different learning situations. The language used recognizes the diverse
vocabulary level of students. The lessons are arranged to follow the standard
sequence of the course. But the order in which you read them can be changed to
correspond with the textbook you are now using.

The module will talk about the History of Life on Earth & Mechanisms of Evolution

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. identify the dates and sequence of the periods in the geologic time scale;
2. identify the major events in each major period;
3. describe the characteristics of the major groups of organisms’ presents during a
time period;
4. identify types of fossils; and
5. describe causes of mass extinctions.

Lesson History of Life on Earth

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 1

Earth is the only known planet to have sustained and cater life. But have
you ever wondered how did life begin on its surface? What are the features and
characteristics of the first life on Earth? Where and when did exactly life begin?

Are humans the first life found on Earth? If not, when did humans begin to
populate the Earth? What are the organisms that walked before humans and with
humans on Earth?

There are a lot of scientific questions that we have when it comes to the
History of Life on Earth, but there’s no more waiting for these inquiries to be
answered because you now have this module to enjoy and learn from!

What is New
“Have you seen the movies Ice Age and The Land Before Time? How was the
Earth presented in this movie?”

The Earth is covered with thick blanket of ice, lots of volcanoes and high
mountains, large organisms roamed the land, the atmosphere did not have high
oxygen content, asteroids/ meteors frequently hit the surface, the lands moved a
lot or the continents were a little closer to each other, volcanic eruptions, a little bit
warmer, plants were bigger and humans were not yet around.
In this lesson, you will be learning more about the Earth’s vast history, both
gradual and catastrophic processes that have produced enormous changes.

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 What is It
The Earth is the only known planet with the existence of life, meaning it can
provide the necessary ingredients and conditions for life to exist. But is this how
simple the equation is?
Favorable life condition=Existence of life
The answer is yes and no.

1. Yes, life exists on Earth because of the favorable condition that it has.

2. No, it is not as simple as that equality.

Life is complex. Life has its ingenuity. Life thrives not only on favorable
conditions, but also it adopts and challenges itself to fit in its environment. Having
mentioned the environment let us now try to discover: Where did life begin?
Where did life begin?

Let us consider the condition of primordial or “young” Earth. It is not the same as its
structure today, there are still no plants, trees, and breath-taking sceneries. There are
only an atmosphere and places for water and ground. The condition is still too harsh
because the earth is only starting to develop its landmasses and structures.

But the scientists were sure that at the beginning of life on Earth, there are
atmospheric events taking places such as storms and thunders. This is because of
the chemical reactions occurring between the surface, atmosphere, and inner part
of the very active “young” Earth.

Because of these given conditions, scientists narrow down into 3 (three) probable
places where life FIRST appear on Earth: land, shallow pond, deep-sea vents. Let
us check each one of them and eliminate the two less likely place of origin of life on
Earth.

1. The land is very unlikely because during “young” Earth time, there is
still not enough oxygen on its surface and UV rays are too strong for
molecular bonding to occur and make life possible.

2. A shallow pond is a bit likely because it is full of organic materials

and when evaporated, the organic materials present in it will have a
higher
concentration
that will lead to more favorable conditions for organic materials to
combine and make life possible. But the experiments cannot prove it.

3. We are now left with deep-sea vents. Deep-sea vents are highly likely
the exact place of origin of life on Earth because DNA evidence
suggests that early life forms can survive on high-temperature
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 conditions like those in deep-sea vents. The high temperature also
provides high chemical energy which makes deep-sea vents the most
accepted hypothesis among the three given places above.

Deep-Sea Vents and the Miller-Urey Experiment

It is likely proven in theory and DNA evidence correlation that deep-sea vent
is WHERE life began, but can scientists prove it through experiment?
The answer is YES! Miller and Urey are scientists who conducted a simple
experiment, that yielded very helpful findings in answering questions about how life
began on Earth.

They have set up the experiment, as shown in the diagram above. Flask A
represents the earth’s primitive ocean; Flask B with the presence of methane and
ammonia represents the primitive atmosphere. The connecting tubes between the
flasks represent the water cycle processes (i.e., evaporation, cloud formation,
condensation, and precipitation), which are already occurring during the early days
of “young” Earth. Certain conditions such as heating/boiling of the primitive ocean
and providing electricity from the power supply to create a spark that may be like
thunders in the actual earth’s atmosphere were found to be important in the
success of the experiment.
The heat from the boiling flask and the spark from the power supply in the
atmospheric flask have given the necessary boost or starting point for organic
compounds to materialize in the experiment. The experiment yielded amino acids
and complex organic materials throughout the process. This experiment showed
that high chemical energy from chemical interaction and heat are needed for such
a process to take place.

How did Life begin and What is the earliest life form on Earth?
You have learned from the experiment of Miller and Urey that because of the
chemical reactions occurring between the sea and the atmosphere of the “young”
Earth, organic compounds such as amino acids developed and became present
along with different water areas on Earth through the water cycle.
The early atmospheric events and conditions of Earth favor the creation of complex
organic compounds such as amino acids.

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You can now say that these complex ORGANIC COMPOUNDS or MOLECULES are
the predecessors of life on Earth. The occurrence of these materials on the surface
of the Earth became the earliest sign of a high chance of developing the presence of
life on Earth.
Why? Because these compounds are like the key ingredients to life; with the correct
“cooking” method, these compounds will bring forth the first living organism.
Our Ancestors are very SIMPLE
Problem: After the synthesis of organic molecules, the earth has what is
likened to an “organic soup” which are the organic compounds found in the
seawater and other surfaces of the earth where water was found. But this soup is
too diluted or weak to evolve into another life structure.

The solution: laboratory experiments showed that when hot clay, sand, or
rock were placed in the dilute organic soup, the molecules self-assembled. These
molecules stick to the hot surface which increased their density and likelihood of a
reaction. This had led to the following evolution of the early life presence on Earth.

At this point, let us trace the development of the most likely earliest life form on
Earth:

1. Organic Compounds -these are molecules linked with life and

developed through reactions between atmospheric processes and
the watery area of Earth.
2. RNA -the resulting molecule when organic compounds self-
assembled into a self-replicating molecule.
3. Pre-cells -resulted when self-replicating RNA enclosed itself in a
membrane to protect itself from the outside environment.
4. Primitive Cells -these are pre-cells with improved function
through the process of evolution
5. Modern Cell -as the cells choose to fit itself for survival, it
developed into a structure which
is familiar to us today, a cell with
a DNA genome.

This modern cell had led to the

development of the first classification of life
form on Earth: the bacteria or the
prokaryotes. After some time, as the oxygen
level on Earth increases the next archetype
of cells has developed: The Eukaryotes.

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 It will be important for you to be reminded of your previous biology
class discussions that prokaryotes and
eukaryotes are the two types of cells in which the prokaryotes are simpler,
and the eukaryotes are more complex and have more cell organelles.
Take note of how life chooses to
adapt to the existing conditions that it is
in, and how it changes and evolves
through the process. From the simplest
to the most complex. Life is like learning.
It starts from the basics until it becomes
an expert in dealing with the challenges
that
its environment posits.

When did life begin?

Pieces of evidence suggested that if Earth is 4.5 billion years old from
radiometric dating of the oldest rock found on it, life on Earth began most probably
3.5 billion years ago.
The first line of evidence that gives us the answer to the question when did
life begin on Earth is the stromatolites. Stromatolites are “living” rock samples
that scientists have discovered and dated to age up to 3.5 billion years old. These
are rock formations identical to a living mat of microbes. They have layers of
microbes and sediments. Scientists found out that the topmost layer used
photosynthesis to obtain food and the lower layer uses the top layers by product to
survive.
Another line of shreds of evidence is the microfossils found in western
Australia. These are fossils that were first thought to be minerals, but later studies
using advanced techniques of dating and investigation proved that these are fossils
of microbes who have lived 3.5 billion years ago.

Panspermia: the other side of the coin

We have learned that life had first appeared as simple microbes and
bacteria, which have their point of origin from the chemical reactions and building
of organic compounds on deep-sea vents of ancient Earth, which as evidence
suggests occurred from 3.5 billion years ago.
But there is another school of thought as to how living organisms started on
Earth. Panspermia is a theory that postulates that life had come from outside the
Earth and upon reaching a suitable environment such as the deep-sea vents could
have evolved into a more complex living organism such as the bacteria. Supporting
evidence to this theory are the facts that organic molecules are found on rocks from
other celestial bodies such as the Mars and some bacteria can withstand a huge

6
amount of radiation and also be able to stay dormant under low atmospheric
conditions, which suggests that they may exist anywhere in the universe but were
not able to evolve because of the unfavorable condition.
The Book of the Origin of Life and How to read it
You have answered some of the reveling questions about the origin of life.
And you might have noticed that scientists answered those questions logically
through educated guesses and with the use of pieces of evidence.
If the History of the Earth is a book, then the ROCKS are its pages. Pieces of
evidence that tells the story of the distant past of the Earth and the life that had
once walked through it are found and are preserved on its rocks. Fossils, which
may be actual remains of organisms such as bones, teeth, shells, and leaves, or
even traces of their past activities such as footprints and nests, are usually as old
as the rocks where they were embedded or imprinted. These fossils and evidence
were analyzed using the following dating techniques:
1. Absolute Dating- obtaining the actual age of the fossils and rock
through radiometric dating or the use of the concept of half-life and the
radioactive decay of elements.
2. Relative Dating- obtaining the relative age of the rocks or samples,
it does not tell the actual age but only uses some principles of comparison which
are as follows:
a. Law of Superposition- which states that the youngest rocks are found on
top of the layers and the oldest rocks are found on the bottom
b. Law of Original Horizontality- sedimentation or layering of the rocks
occur horizontally; if tilting, breaking, or folding of rocks or its layer occur,
it happened recently after the horizontal layering.
c. Law of Cross-Cutting Relationship- if the rocks under investigation have
a cut from igneous rock intrusions,
then the intrusions or fault breaks
are younger than the rock being
investigated.
Continental drift has played a major
role in macroevolution. Continental drift is
the slow, incessant movement of Earth’s
crustal plates on the hot mantle. This
movement has influenced the distribution
of organisms and greatly affected the
history of life. Continental mergers
triggered extinctions and the
separation of continents caused the
isolation and diversification of organisms.
Plate tectonics, the movements of
Earth’s crustal plates, are also associated
with volcanoes and earthquakes. By

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 forming new islands, volcanoes can create opportunities for organisms, but
volcanic activity can also destroy life.
Mass extinctions were followed by diversification of life-forms. At the end
of the
Cretaceous period, many life-forms disappeared, including the dinosaurs. These
mass extinctions may have been a result of an asteroid impact or volcanic
activity. Every mass extinction reduced the diversity of life. But each was
followed by a rebound in diversity and mammals filled the void left by the
dinosaurs.

The GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

Now that you gained the insight on how scientists read the history of the
Earth, it is the time to list down all of the life forms that they have unearthed
through time; from the very distant past of the origin of life into the present. To do
that we will use the geologic time scale.
Geologic Time Scale is a representation of the life forms that have lived and
dominated the Earth on a specific time scale. Geologic is the combination of the
word geologic and chronologic, which means rock and time, respectively.
The geologic timescale is divided into the following partitions:
Eon- largest division of the geologic time scale; spans hundreds to
thousands of millions of years ago (mya)
Era- division in an Era that span time periods of tens to hundreds of
millions of years
Period- a division of geologic history that spans no more than one hundred
million years
Epoch- the smallest division of the geologic time scale characterized by
distinctive organisms.

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 Source: 2003 Pearson Education, Inc publishing as Benjamin Cummings

There are two eons on the Earth’s geologic time scale: the PRECAMBRIAN (4.6
billion years ago), and the PHANEROZOIC (540 million years ago). Precambrian is
when the origin of life existed, it is when the living creatures are as simple as
microorganisms such as bacteria from Hadean, Archean, and Proterozoic eras.
Phanerozoic is the eon of “everything” after the Cambrian Explosion.

The Cambrian period which took place approximately 540 million years ago is
the first period under the Phanerozoic eon, Paleozoic era and is well known for the
“Cambrian Explosion” because, during this era, life explodes and teamed with all
of the body plans for the evolution of animal diversity that will occur in the time
span of 40 million years.

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 Under the Phanerozoic eon are the three major eras: the Paleozoic, also known
as the “age of invertebrates”, the Mesozoic also known as the “age of reptiles” and
the Cenozoic which is also known as the “age of mammals.”

Some of the notable periods on the geologic timescale are: the Devonian period
which is the age of fishes, the Triassic period when the first dinosaur and the first
mammal in the form of rodent appear, the Jurassic period which is the “golden age
of dinosaur” when the dinosaurs flourish and also when the first birds appear, the
Cretaceous period when the mass extinction and demise of dinosaurs and 25% of
marine life marked the end of the Mesozoic era and when the appearance of the
first primates and snakes marked the start of Cenozoic era.

Epochs under the Tertiary period are the Paleocene epoch when the first horse
appears, Eocene when grasses spread and large mammals such as elephants and
rhinos developed, Oligocene when dogs, cats, and apes appear, Miocene when
horses and tigers dominate the land, and Pliocene when hominids or the bipedal
apes develop.

The Quaternary period has Pleistocene and Holocene epochs. Pleistocene is

when modern humans develop, this is also the ice age because ice sheets
predominate during this epoch. Holocene is the epoch where humans flourish and
dominate the earth.

As you can deduct from the discussed geologic time scale: we are currently living in
the Phanerozoic eon, Cenozoic era, Quaternary period, and Holocene epoch.

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References

Campbell, N. et al. 2003. Powerpoint Lectures for Biology: Concepts & Connections 4th Edition.
Pearson Education, Inc publishing as Benjamin Cummings

CHED (2016). Teaching Guide for Senior High School in General Biology 2. First
Edition. Pp. 49-69.

Department of Education. (2020). Most Essential Learning Competencies with

Corresponding CG codes. General Biology 2. Pp 631-633.

Department of Resources South Carolina Geological Survey. (2005). Geologic Time and
Earth’s Biological History. South Carolina: Department of Resources.

"K To 12 Curriculum Guide In General Biology 1". 2016. Deped.Gov.Ph.

https://www.deped.gov.ph/wpcontent/uploads/2019/01/General Biology 1-CG.pdf.

Tiamzon, Maria Elena, et al. (2016). General Biology 2 Textbook for Senior Highschool.
Quezon City: Vibal Group, Inc. Pp. 80-89.

Weisberger, Mindy. Tiny Fossils May Be Oldest Evidence of Life on Earth. Live Science.
2017. June 22, 2020. https://www.livescience.com/61232-oldestknown-fossils.html

RECOMMENDED READINGS
1.https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-lifescience2.0/
section/4.13/primary/lesson/timeline-of-evolution-ms-ls/
2.https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-earth-
scienceflexbook2.0/section/15.7/primary/lesson/geologic-time-scale-ms-
es/
3.https://www.ck12.org/book/ck-12-earth-science-concepts-for-
highschool/section/10.7/

11
 What I Need to Know

This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help
you master the nature of Biology. The scope of this module permits it to be used in
many different learning situations. The language used recognizes the diverse
vocabulary level of students. The lessons are arranged to follow the standard
sequence of the course. But the order in which you read them can be changed to
correspond with the textbook you are now using.

The module will talk about the Mechanisms of Evolution.

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. explain that genetic variation is the prerequisite and should therefore

be present for any genetic process to cause change in populations
from generation to generation;
2. state the Hardy-Weinberg Principle; and
3. enumerate the conditions that should be present for a gene or in a
larger scale, a population, to attain Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.

Lesson
Mechanisms of Evolution
2
Everyone is puzzled until now about the true origin of human beings. A lot of
questions remain unanswered like, “Is it true that humans evolved from
chimpanzees?”, “Are we still evolving?” and “Why haven’t we seen actual evolution
in modern days?” As we move along through this module, we will find answers to
our questions about evolution. In this module, we will try to analyze evolution from
the standpoint of a person who studies science.
As you learn about the true meaning of evolution, we will also study the
different mechanisms that cause such changes in the population of some
organisms.

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 What is New
Paint a Thousand Words
Examine closely the picture below. What have you noticed? Aha, this would
tell us that appearance alone does not always define a species. Similarities between
some species and variation within a species can make defining species difficult.
Just like in this picture, humans alone exhibit extreme physical diversity. How
much more with other species?

Source: 2003 Pearson Education, Inc publishing as Benjamin Cummings

What is It
GENETIC VARIATION: CELEBRATE YOUR UNIQUENESS!
Have you ever wondered why do people look the same, but also look different
from each other? Like how you look like some of your relatives, but still, you are
unique and recognizable. To some extent, even twins may look exactly alike but
still, there will be some traits that will make them different from each other, such
as the way they talk or the way they walk.
No two persons are genetically alike. Hence, no two persons have the same
codes of DNA. This is because as an individual, you carry a unique set of genes.
The differences between the genes of each individual and the differences between
genes of the different populations are termed as GENETIC VARIATION.

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GENE FREQUENCY and EVOLUTION
As an individual, you carry a unique gene of traits, so as the other people in the
world. But there are parts of that gene in which you may find similarities with
others. For example, you may be unique because you are the only person with tan
skin and three moles beneath an eye within your community, but you may also be
the same with other people in your community because the majority of you have
tan skin.
The number of times at which the common gene appears in everyone within a
population is called GENE FREQUENCY. In a simpler context, gene frequency
refers to how common a specific gene is in a group of specie within a specific area.
You can even solve gene frequency by dividing the actual occurrence of a specific
gene with the total number of populations. It is like solving for the percentage of
the population with a specific common gene.
Any change in the gene frequency of a species or population is EVOLUTION.
Evolution is the change in the genetic materials of organisms, it is a change
manifested in their traits. It is also a change that started deep within the cells of
individuals, in their genes, in their DNA, in their chromosomes.

MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION: What causes a change in gene frequency?

Gene and the DNA don’t change overnight and don’t change with no cause. There
are various mechanisms that bring forth changes to the gene frequency, let us
investigate and explain them one by one:
1. Natural Selection. Charles Darwin observed that organisms produce more
offspring than the environment can support, organisms vary in many
characteristics, and these variations can be inherited. So, he concluded that
individuals best suited for a particular environment are more likely to survive and
reproduce than those less well adapted. Then he introduced this basic mechanism
of evolution which is the natural selection. It is the process which is also known as
“Survival of the Fittest.” Fittest means NOT the person or organism with the “body-
goal” or “fitspiration” body type.
Fittest in the ground of survival
means the organism with traits
that are most adaptive to its
environment. Nature or the
environment dictates which
among the organism will survive,
this organism has a certain
variety of traits or characteristics
that will be passed on to the next
generation.
The picture above shows an
evolution of insecticide resistance
is an example of natural
selection in action.
Source:
2003 Pearson Education, Inc publishing as
Benjamin Cummings

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2. Artificial Selection
Darwin saw that when humans choose organisms with specific characteristics as
breeding stock, they are performing the role of the environment. This is where
artificial selection or selective breeding started. One of the causes of change in the
gene frequency of
some species
specifically
domesticated plants
and animals
is artificial
selection or
selective breeding.
It is when humans
selectively choose to
breed animals and
plants with specific
traits that they
deemed
beneficial for
different purposes.
Source: 2003 Pearson Education, Inc publishing as Benjamin Cummings

3. Gene Flow or Migration

Gene flow involves

the movement of
genes into or out of a
population, due to either
the movement of individual
organisms or their gametes
(eggs and sperm, e.g.,
through pollen
dispersal by a
plant). Organisms
and gametes that enter a
population may have new alleles, or may bring in existing alleles but in
different proportions than those already in the population. Gene flow can be a
strong agent of evolution.
4. Genetic Drift
Genetic drift is a mechanism
that may bring change to the
gene frequency in a population
because of “chance” events. It is
a result of an incident or

15
accident which may have brought significant and palpable change to the gene
frequency or common traits in a given population.
Catastrophic events such as floods, volcanic eruptions, and a pandemic or
epidemic may greatly affect the gene pool of a given population, especially if the
population is small enough to be impacted by some “chance” events.
5. Non-Random Mating
It occurs when some species choose a partner with preferred characteristics. Some
female species only allow certain male characteristics to be their partner, making
the genes of the chosen male species to reproduce in the next generation. Some
male species with less preferred
traits may not be able to reproduce
and pass their genes on the next
generation. This event may also
happen in male to female
circumstances, wherein some male
species choose or look for specific
traits in a female.

Source:https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/her/heredity-and-genetics/a/hardy-weinbergmechanisms-of-
evolution

The given scenario above may result in less variation in the gene frequency of a
population; non-sexual reproduction, which is done by some species of plants is
also a type of non-random mating because it uses its variety of genes to reproduce
hence no mixing of traits will occur. Another example may observe when humans
choose whom to date, some men and women have certain preferences in whom
they will choose as a partner, it may also be dictated by cultural preferences. These
preferred characteristics may be manifested in the genetic pool of a certain
population as time will show how these characteristics are more commonly
observed than others.
6. Recombination
Recombination or gene shuffling is life’s way of
bringing variety in similarity. It occurs during
meiosis, the cell replication process used for
reproduction. Recombination is also the reason
behind gene variation between siblings and
twins and makes genetic diversity possible.
During meiosis, crossing over happens
where homologous chromosomes line up
to prepare for cell division. In this instance,
chromosomes exchange information and shuffle
parts of the DNA which resulted in a very
random variation yet the same copy of the
original gene.

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7. Mutation
A Mutation occurs when an insertion, deletion, or any change in the codes of the
DNA takes place. Changes in the DNA codes may result from internal or external
factors. Internal factors happen when the DNA fails to copy or duplicate the DNA
correctly; while the cell has many mechanisms to prevent this from happening.
There are still times when this occurs and became undetected by the cells. External
factors are usually caused by radiation; this is because excessive radiation causes
ionization in the cellular level of the body which may result in the breaking of the
DNA. The break in the DNA will cause faulty replication and mutation. Not all
mutations are seen and manifested in the physical characteristics of organisms,
some mutations are not even passed on from the parents to the offspring. Somatic
mutation is when mutation takes place in the somatic cells or regular cells of the
organisms; hence will not be replicated during meiosis. If the mutated DNA is not
replicated during meiosis, it will not pass on to the next generation.
The Mutation on the sex cells or
gametes is the only type of
mutation that may affect the gene
frequency of a population in the
long run, this is called a germline
mutation. An example of this is
the antibiotic resistance of some
bacteria.

Source:https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/her/heredity-and-genetics/a/hardy-weinbergmechanisms-of-
evolution

References
Campbell, N. et al. 2003. Powerpoint Lectures for Biology: Concepts &
Connections 4th Edition. Pearson Education, Inc publishing as Benjamin
Cummings

CHED (2016). Teaching Guide for Senior High School in General Biology 2. First
Edition. Pp. 49-69.

Collins, Francis. “Genetic Variation.” National Human Genome Research

Institute:The Forefront of Genomics. 2017. June 23, 2020.
https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Genetic-Variatio

17
Department of Education. (2020). Most Essential Learning Competencies with
Corresponding CG codes. General Biology 2. Pp 631-633.

Department of Resources South Carolina Geological Survey. (2005). Geologic Time

and Earth’s Biological History. South Carolina: Department of Resources.

"K To 12 Curriculum Guide In General Biology 1". 2016. Deped.Gov.Ph.

https://www.deped.gov.ph/wpcontent/uploads/2019/01/General Biology
1-CG.pdf.

Retoka. “Evolution.” Behance. 2016. June 23, 2020.

https://www.behance.net/gallery/21702871/POEMS-ABOUTEVOLUTION

Tiamzon, Maria Elena, et al. (2016). General Biology 2 Textbook for Senior
Highschool. Quezon City: Vibal Group, Inc. Pp. 80-89.

Weisberger, Mindy. Tiny Fossils May Be Oldest Evidence of Life on Earth. Live
Science. 2017. June 22, 2020.
https://www.livescience.com/61232oldestknown-fossils.html

RECOMMENDED READINGS
1.https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-lifescience2.0/section/
4.13/primary/lesson/timeline-of-evolution-ms-ls/
2.https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-earth-
scienceflexbook2.0/section/15.7/primary/lesson/geologic-time-scale-ms-es/
3.https://www.ck12.org/book/ck-12-earth-science-concepts-for-highschool/
section/10.

18