SUSTAINABLE URBAN REGENERATION OF

BROWNFIELDS
By

Mohamed Haroun Ismael Shaaban

A Thesis Submitted to the

Faculty of Engineering at Cairo University

in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
in
Architectural Engineering

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, CAIRO UNIVERSITY

GIZA, EGYPT
2016
SUSTAINABLE URBAN REGENERATION OF
BROWNFIELDS

By
Mohamed Haroun Ismael Shaaban
A Thesis Submitted to the
Faculty of Engineering at Cairo University
in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
in
Architectural Engineering

Under the Supervision of

Prof. Dr. Sahar Attia Assoc.Prof. Dr. Heba Allah

Prof. of Architecture and Urban Design
Department of Architecture
Faculty of Engineering,
Cairo University
Khalil
Associate Prof. of urban planning
Department of Architecture
Faculty of Engineering,
Cairo University

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING,
CAIRO UNIVERSITY
GIZA, EGYPT
2016
Engineer’s Name: Mohammed Haroun Ismael Shaaban
Date of Birth: 9/5/1989
Nationality: Egyptien.
E-mail: Mohammed.haroun@hotmail.com
Phone: 01118235606
Address: 1Ebn Elsokkary St., Roda,Manyal.
Cairo
Registration Date: 1/10/2011
Awarding Date: …./…./5016.
Degree: Master of Science
Department: Architecture

Supervisors:
Prof. Sahar Attia
Ass.Prof. Heba Allah Khalil

Examiners:
Prof. Hassanein Abu Zeid (External examiner)
Professor of urban planning, Azhar University
Prof. Amr El Halafway (Internal examiner)
Porf. Sahar Attia (Thesis main advisor)
Assoc. Porf. Heba Allah Khalil (Member)

Title of Thesis:

SUSTAINABLE URBAN REGENERATION OF BROWNFIELDS

Key Words:

Brownfields, urban regeneration, sustainable development, urban land

management.

Summary:

The thesis is discussing the concepts of brownfields regeneration as an approach to

achieve sustainable urban development. The research deals with different layers of
complexity of sustainable urban regeneration as a process, and brownfields as sites. It
analyzes some case studies, moreover an attempt to build on existing worldwide
experience of brownfields regeneration strategies, and investigate the principles of
sustainable urban planning strategy. The research main goal is to suggest a conceptual
framework for dealing with the process of redeveloping brownfields in the Egyptian
context, especially in Greater Cairo cities.
SUSTAINABLE URBAN REGENERATION OF
BROWNFIELDS

By

Mohamed Haroun Ismael

A Thesis Submitted to the

Faculty of Engineering at Cairo University
in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
in
Architectural Engineering

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, CAIRO UNIVERSITY

GIZA, EGYPT
2016
 Acknowledgment

I would like to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to my supervisors and

my mentors Prof. Dr. Sahar Attia, and Dr. Heba Allah Essam Khalil for their generous,
continuous support, patience, and guidance to develop this thesis.
I would also like to acknowledge Aya Alkhouly for her patience and help since the
early stages of this thesis.
In addition, I would like to thank all the professors and colleagues who provided the
necessary feedback and support to complete the study.

i
 Dedication

To all my dear family members, who

supported me and made me what I am,
To my father's soul, and my mother whom
I cannot thank enough.
To my wife & my friend Aya Alkholy, to my
beloved daughter Ayatollah, to my brother
Moustafa, and my sister Heba.
To all my professors and teachers who
taught me a lot in life.

ii
 Table of Contents

Acknowledgment .................................................................................................... I
Dedication ................................................................................................... II
Table of contents ................................................................................................ III
List of figures ................................................................................................ VII
List of tables ..................................................................................................IX
Abstract ................................................................................................... X
Chapter 1 : Introduction ....................................................................................... 1
1.1.Research background .............................................................................................. 1
1.2.Problem statement .................................................................................................. 2
1.3.Research questions: ................................................................................................ 2
1.4.Goal and objectives: ............................................................................................... 2
1.5.Methodology: .......................................................................................................... 3
1.6.Research structure ................................................................................................... 4
1.7.Detailed structure: ................................................................................................... 6
Chapter 2 : Sustainable Brownfields Regeneration Concept .............................. 7
2.1.Introduction............................................................................................................. 8
2.2.Identifying brownfields .......................................................................................... 8
2.2.1. Brownfield definition....................................................................................... 8
2.2.2. Types and classification of brownfields .......................................................... 9
2.2.3 The existence of brownfields. ........................................................................ 11
2.3.Impact of brownfields in inner cities. ................................................................... 12
2.3.1. Negatives of brownfields ............................................................................... 13
2.3.2. Benefits of brownfields.................................................................................. 13
2.4.Interventions within continuously growing cities................................................. 16
2.4.1. Urbanization and urban expansion. ............................................................... 16
2.4.2. Urban planning challenges ............................................................................ 16
2.4.3. Urban interventions: ...................................................................................... 17
2.4.4. Urban acupuncture and regeneration ............................................................. 19
2.5.Sustainable urban development ............................................................................ 19
2.5.1. Sustainable development dimensions (objectives balance) ........................... 20
2.5.2. The ‘sustainable community’ ........................................................................ 21
2.6.Urban regeneration concept .................................................................................. 22

iii
 2.6.1. Urban regeneration definition ........................................................................22
2.6.2. Historical evolution of urban regeneration ....................................................23
2.6.3. Urban regeneration process. ...........................................................................25
2.6.4. The context of urban regeneration .................................................................25
2.6.5. Different approaches to urban regeneration ...................................................26
2.6.6. Sustainable urban regeneration ......................................................................27
2.7.Sustainable brownfield regeneration concept ...................................................... 28
2.8.Conclusion............................................................................................................ 30
Chapter 3 : Complexity of brownfields regeneration.........................................31
3.1.Introduction .......................................................................................................... 32
3.2.Brownfields regeneration in complex urban systems .......................................... 32
3.2.1. Dynamics of brownfield regeneration/creation ..............................................33
3.2.2. Brownfields in the context of urban land management .................................34
3.3.Brownfields in stakeholders’ perspectives ........................................................... 35
3.3.1. Roles and interests of participants..................................................................38
3.4.Drivers and challenges of brownfields regeneration ............................................ 39
3.4.1. Governance factor ..........................................................................................39
3.4.2. Brownfields regeneration drivers: ..................................................................40
3.4.3. Economic viability of brownfields sites .........................................................41
3.4.4. Brownfields regeneration challenges .............................................................42
3.4.5. The impact of brownfield regeneration: .........................................................43
3.5.Brownfield analysis from perspective of sustainability ....................................... 43
3.5.1. Importance of sustainability objectives ..........................................................44
3.6.Conclusion............................................................................................................ 48
Chapter 4 : worldwide experience in urban regeneration of brownfields,
international case studies ......................................................................................49
4.1.Introduction .......................................................................................................... 50
4.2.International reactions dealing with brownfields ................................................. 50
4.2.1. United states of america .................................................................................52
4.2.2. The united kingdom .......................................................................................53
4.2.1. Europe experience ..........................................................................................53
4.3.The project chain in brownfield regeneration ...................................................... 55
4.3.1. The idea or start of the project (initiative) .....................................................56

iv
 4.3.2. Planning and design of the project................................................................. 56
.4.3.3 Business model and cooperation issues ......................................................... 58
4.4.Brownfield regeneration projects case studies: .................................................... 59
4.4.1. Brownfields to green space projects , ............................................................ 59
4.4.2. Brooklyn navy yard high line, new york, usa ................................................ 60
4.4.3. Brownfield to bright field .............................................................................. 63
4.4.4. Bilbao culture regeneration............................................................................ 67
4.4.5. Hammarby sjöstad, stockholm, sweden ........................................................ 71
4.4.6. Seine rive gauche, paris ................................................................................. 75
4.6.Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 79
Chapter 5 : Brownfields regeneration in Greater Cairo context ...................... 80
5.1.Introduction........................................................................................................... 81
5.2.Greater cairo (study area) ..................................................................................... 82
5.2.1. Main issues of current conditions and urban development strategy .............. 83
5.2.2. Resources allocation utilizing existing assets ................................................ 85
5.3.Brownfields inside greater cairo ........................................................................... 87
5.3.1. Definition of brownfields in egyptian context ............................................... 87
5.3.2. Examples of brownfields inside greater cairo ............................................... 88
5.3.3. Types and scale of brownfield sites in g.c. .................................................... 89
5.3.4. The trend of dealing with brownfields........................................................... 91
5.3.5. Brownfields in gc; a problem and a solution; ................................................ 91
5.4.Brownfields regeneration in g.c ............................................................................ 92
5.4.1. Projects and initiatives ................................................................................... 92
5.4.2. Al azhar park from waste land to park........................................................... 95
5.4.3. Imbaba airport land project. ........................................................................... 99
5.5.Proposed actions for g.c. ..................................................................................... 104
5.6.Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 107
Chapter 6 : Conclusion and recommendation .................................................. 108
6.1.Introduction......................................................................................................... 108
6.2.Research conclusion ........................................................................................... 108
6.2.1. Theoretical conclusion ................................................................................. 108
6.2.2. Analytical conclusion .................................................................................. 110
6.3.Recommendations: ............................................................................................. 112

v
6.4.Further research .................................................................................................. 113
References .................................................................................................114
Appendix .................................................................................................119

vi
 List of Figures

Figure 1-1 Methodology and study logic of the Research ……………....... 4

Figure 1-2 Research Structure………………………………………………... 5
Figure 1-3 detailed Research Structure………………………………………. 6
Figure 2-1 Brownfield characteristics………………………………………… 10
Figure 2-2 different methods of intervention existing urban environment…… 18
Figure 2-3 Circle of Sustainability …………………………………………… 21
Figure 2-4 four phases of urban regeneration process………………………... 25
Figure 2-5 Illustration of sustainable brownfield regeneration………………. 28
Figure 3-1 Model of phases and potential of circular flow land use
management ………………………………………………………….……… 33
Figure 3-2 The Brownfield Bath Model – showing the filling and emptying
of the bath…………………………………………………………………… 34
Figure 3-3 The Land Use Puzzle Model. …………………………………… 35
Figure 3-4 Engagement strategy based on the interest/influence stakeholder
map ………………………………………………………………………….. 33
Figure 3-5 The Football Model interactive screen showing the stakeholder
selection………………………………………………………………………. 33
Figure 3-6 governance actors………………………………………………… 40
Figure 3-7 A-B-C Model, Economic Components of brownfield site. ……… 41
Figure 3-8 Illustrative interaction matrix for the urban land system. ……….. 43
Figure 4-1 steps and recommendations made by governments. ……………... 51
Figure 4-2 government reactions dealing with Brownfields. ………………… 52
Figure 4-3 project chain or the procedure of brownfield regeneration project.
……………………………………………………………………… 56
Figure 4-4 Brooklyn Navy Yard high line phases. ………………..…………. 60
Figure 4-5 high line view. …………………………………………………… 60
Figure 4-5 Brockton’s Brightfield illustrative site plan …………………… 64
Figure 4-6 Bilbao's Abandoibarra area, lift, before the project, on the right
after regeneration. …………………………………………………………… 67
Figure 4-7 master plan of Abandoibarra area. ………………………………. 68
Figure 4-8 Guggenheim museum. ………………………………………….. 68
Figure 4-9 hammarby sjostad master plan. ………………………………….. 72
Figure 4-10 hammarby sjostad before and after. …………………………….. 75

vii
Figure 4-11 hammarby model. ……………………………………………….. 72
Figure 4-12 Aerial image of the area left side (late 1980s) right side 2013. ... 75
Figure 4-13 zones of the project. …………………………………………… 76
Figure 5-1 boundary of Greater Cairo Land Use of urban mass in 2012. …… 83
Figure 5.2 Spatial recommendations inside GC main urban mass. ………….. 85
Figure 5-3 strategic plan of Cairo and Giza governorates. …………………... 86
Figure 5-4 Samples of brownfields or inside Greater Cairo. ………………… 88
Figure 5-5 Unoccupied and Unused buildings inside Greater Cairo Region. 88
Figure 5-6 Classification of Brownfields according to original land use
inside Greater Cairo Region …………………………………………………. 89
Figure 5-7 Classification of Brownfields according to average land price…... 90
Figure 5-8 classification of Brownfields according to ownership inside
Cairo. ………………………………………………………………………… 90
Figure 5-9 Azhar park project. ……………………………………………….. 95
Figure 5-10 Masterplan of Al Azhar park regeneration project ……………... 96
Figure 5-11 Imbaba airport land project……………………………………… 99
Figure 5-12 North Giza sector development plan……………………………. 100
Figure 5-13 initial proposal for reusing airport land…………………………. 101
Figure 5-14 masterplan for Imbaba Airport land regeneration………………. 102
Figure 5-15 Brownfields integrated regeneration model. ……………………. 104
Figure 5-16 Brownfield regeneration strategic integrated detailed model. …. 106

viii
 List of Tables

Table 2-1 Types and causes of Brownfields site according to location. …….. 12
Table 2-2 possible Benefits of brownfields. …………………………………. 15
Table 2-3 The evolution of concept and practice of urban regeneration. …… 24
Table 2-4 Sustainable brownfield regeneration key points. …………………. 29
Table 3-1 Examples of Stakeholders involved in the regeneration of
brownfield sites. ……………………………………………………………… 36
Table 3-2 Examples of Roles and Interests of Participants in brownfield
regeneration. ………………………………………………………………….. 38
Table 3-4 Sustainability Objectives that could be met in Brownfield
regeneration…………………………………………………………………… 45-46
Table 4-1 High line case analysis…………………………………………….. 61-62
Table 4-2 Bogton Brightfield case analysis ………………………………….. 65-66
Table 4-3 Bilbao case analysis………………………………………………... 69-70
Table 4-4 Hammarby Sjöstad case analysis…………………………………... 74
Table 4-5 Seine rive gauche case analysis……………………………………. 77-78
Table 5-1 Examples of implemented projects. ………………………………. 93
Table 5-2 Examples of proposed projects (conceptualized, or planned) …….. 94
Table 5-3 Al-Azhar Park case analysis……………………………………….. 97-98

ix
 Abstract

The thesis is discussing the concepts of brownfields regeneration as an approach to

achieve sustainable urban development. The research deals with different layers of
complexity of sustainable urban regeneration as a process, and brownfields as sites. It
analyzes some case studies, moreover it attempts to build on existing worldwide
experience of brownfields regeneration strategies, and investigate the principles of
sustainable urban planning strategy. The research main goal is to suggest a conceptual
framework for dealing with the process of redeveloping brownfields in the Egyptian
context, especially in Greater Cairo cities. The research addresses how brownfields
regeneration could be considered as a main approach to achieve more sustainable
strategic development in G.C.R.
This thesis consists of six chapters. Starting with an introductory chapter, followed by
the theoretical part, which consists of two chapters. It presents a theoretical review that
discusses different concepts of brownfields sustainable regeneration. In addition, it
reviews the complexity of brownfields sustainable regeneration and related issues in
complex urban systems .It investigates the impact of brownfields regeneration on urban
environment, the challenges and driving forces that could affect the process of
brownfields regeneration. The analytical part including (chapter four and five) presents
different examples of practices in different countries, and cities, recognized benefits,
challenges
Many cases for a number of projects that have been recognized as examples of
sustainable brownfield regeneration. Moreover, it investigates the current conditions of
brownfields in Greater Cairo contexts and relevant developmental approaches.
Finally, the research proposes a suggested conceptual framework in which
brownfields could be integrated strategically in urban development goals. The research
ends with conclusions and recommendations related to brownfields regeneration, that can
offer the opportunity to promote sustainable, feasible projects that revitalize Egyptian
cities.

Keywords
Brownfields, urban regeneration, sustainable development, urban land
management.

x
Chapter 1 : Introduction

1.1. Research Background

Egypt as one of oldest urbanized countries, with old city cores is suffering from environmental
declination. City cores require innovative approaches in order to repurpose these distinctive
areas according to their high-value land. However these sites are considered as a very
important asset in cities cores, they are usually still occupied by very poor buildings and
infrastructure. One main reason of having such deteriorated sites inside cities is caused by the
change occurring in cities over time. These changes, whether in economic base or
demographic shifts and social transformations, lead to emergence of different needs and
produced many vacant or under-utilized. These assets are known as Brownfields.
Brownfields are frequently vacant or under-utilized properties that would have been used as
industrial buildings or at other uses that are now declining. They often exist in desirable
waterfront lands, city centers, and old industrial zones or densely populated urban areas which
is a waste of land resources. Many scholars made studies related to how to deal with
brownfields, brownfields typologies, treating methodologies and found that, resulting
problems are not only physical, such as underused or vacant land and abandoned buildings,
but also social and economic, such as unemployment and social deprivation.

One of the approaches to formulate solutions for Brownfields problems is known as Urban
Regeneration. This approach usually takes the form of public strategy in order to regulate
urban processes and attempt to improve the urban environment. A central shift has occurred
in implementing regeneration from just physical urban renewal, to be defined as integrated
sustainable urban development concept. The revitalization of urban areas and development of
brownfield sites with the compact city approach in urban development decrease urban sprawl.
Therefore, urban regeneration also plays a vital role in developing compact urban forms. With
revitalization of declining areas in the city, it could improve the existing fabric, enhance local
character, and improve the built environment while achieving economic progress.

Egypt used to have many industrial activities inside cities cores; moreover some of the
activities of city centers have been transferred to other places, or even don’t exist anymore
because of technological development, which lead to a lot of vacant sites-Brownfields-
presenting an asset to be used during redevelopment strategies. The field of the contemporary
urban planning practice, many advocate a sustainable urban development by revisiting
brownfield sites in the heart of the cities as an essential asset for redevelopment. Those derelict
sites have become the target redevelopment areas in major developed cities. Most of
brownfields in Egypt are owned by public organizations and government, what makes it easier
to deal with and start a regeneration process on a sustainable base according to applicable
local needs
This research attempts to build on existing worldwide experience of brownfields regeneration
strategies, and investigate the principles of sustainable urban planning strategy to achieve
sustainable urban regeneration in cities with focus on greater Cairo region.

1
1.2. Problem Statement
Many Egyptian cities have been through various transformations. This resulted in
many deteriorated city cores with many vacant and abandoned sites. Brownfields usually
symbolize urban deterioration, inappropriate uses, and derelict assets, neglected potential
adjacent to deteriorated area, abandoned sites require reclamation/revitalization.
However, these sites are resource assets that represent neglected potential in
redevelopment plans. On the other hand, cities tend to expand, consuming surrounding
arable land to fulfill their inhabitants' needs. Thus, this research main problem can be
summarized as;
The current neglect to brownfields as an important asset that could be reused
strategically to regenerate the city and help in achieving sustainable urban
development.

1.3. Research questions:

The main research question is: Could brownfields regeneration be considered as a
main approach to achieve sustainable urban regeneration in G.C.R (Greater Cairo
Region)?
To investigate the answer of that question the research is addressing more questions

 What are brownfields regeneration? How brownfields regeneration can lead

such as:

 What are the main factors that affect brownfields regeneration?

to sustainable urban regeneration?

 Worldwide, what are the different approaches and projects experiences in

 What are the best approaches of sustainable brownfields regeneration for the
the field of brownfields sustainable Regeneration?

Egyptian context?

1.4. Goal and objectives:

The research aims at proposing a conceptual framework for strategies that can be
applied to deal with the regeneration of derelict assets (brownfields) in Egyptian
context, especially in Greater Cairo Region. The strategies should focus on brownfields
regeneration as resource that will support and contribute to the development and
upgrading of the sustainable built environment.
Objectives:

 Review and understand guiding concepts of the study as: (sustainable

To achieve this aim, the research has a number of secondary objectives:

 investigate the complexity and effective factors of sustainable brownfield

development, urban regeneration and brownfields redevelopment)

 analyze successful international practices and experiences of brownfields

regeneration

urban regeneration to recognize the extent of Brownfields regeneration

2
 Egypt: Investigate the applicability of sustainable urban regeneration of brownfields

 Investigate the present condition, problems, challenges, and potentials of

in Egyptian context

 Propose some recommendations for a refined approach to sustainable urban

brownfield urban regeneration in Greater Cairo.

regeneration of brownfield and its implications in Egypt

1.5. Methodology:
To achieve the study goal and objectives, quantitative and qualitative research
approaches are adopted. The methodology is divided into two main parts, Theoretical and
practical.
The theoretical study reviews and discusses concepts related to the brownfields
sustainable regeneration, and their implications. Practical study analyses and investigates
the applicability of these concepts worldwide and in the Egyptian context.
Main study phases of this research, outlined below, (Figure 1.1) describe how the
research was carried out and present the methods of outputs produced in the different
phases of the thesis. Background research through (Literature Review), Developing the
applied framework according to literature and international best practices in the field of
study. Using the synthesis analysis framework different examples from deferent counties
where urban regeneration was used as an approach or a tool to sustainable planning.
Investigating the Egyptian current situation will be through case study analysis, laws and
regulations, moreover GOPP strategic development plan. Conclusion and
recommendations are based on both theoretical and analytical studies according to
Egyptian context. Data collected through internet research; academic databases,
international and governmental reports, for secondary sources, in addition to key
informants interviews and site visits observations for primary sources. Literature review,
case studies, collected data are analyzed according to their contribution to research goals.

3
 Analyses

Figure 1-1 Methodology and study logic of the Research

1.6. Research Structure

The research consists of six chapters fig. 1-2, each chapter starts with an introduction
and summing up with conclusion notes on their linkage within the thesis. As shown in
fig. 1-3 following the introductory chapter 1, chapter 2 will review and discusses some
main definitions, theoretical concepts in fields of urban regeneration, brownfields, and
Sustainable development. Chapter 3 then explores the complexity of brownfields
regeneration and relevant international concepts, models and tools. Then analyzing drivers
and challenges associated with practical aspects of brownfields regeneration projects
Chapter 4 includes worldwide experience, where discussion will highlight different
approaches and case studies of urban regeneration projects and strategies.
Chapter 5 is more concerned with the issue in Egyptian context presented, Briefing
the political and socio-economic context affecting the urban regeneration process, and
analyzing the existence of brown fields in greater Cairo. And two examples mentioned as
overview for the background of brownfields regeneration there.
Chapter 6 the research concludes both theoretical and analytical studies, as well as
presenting some recommendations in an attempt to include an urban agenda for
regeneration strategies of brownfields in Egypt.

4
 chapter 1
Introduction

chapter 2
Towards sustainable brownfields regeneration

chapter 3
Complexity of brownfields regeneration

chapter 4
The World Wide Experiences (Best practices)

chapter 5
Brownfields regeneration in Greater Cairo context

chapter 6
Conclusions and Recommendations

Figure 1-2 Research Structure

5
1.7. Detailed Structure:

Recommendations
Conclusions
Ch. 6 conclusion and recommendations
• National level (laws
Theoretical study and policies)
Analytical study • City level (strategies)
• Project level

Figure 1-3 Research detailed structure

6
Chapter 2 : Toward sustainable Brownfields
regeneration

Sustainable brownfields regeneration

7
2.1. Introduction
Brownfields require interventions to be returned back to active use. In order to
achieve sustainable urban development and support facing urbanization challenges. To
study the concept of brownfields regeneration, it is very important to identify different
terminologies related to Brownfields, regeneration and sustainability. It is also important
to dig into literature of these fields in order to know more about the origins of sustainable
urban regeneration and how brownfields can be regenerated. Furthermore investigating
the positive or negative impacts of brownfields on cities.
This chapter is going to focus on the concept of urban regeneration as a concept or
an approach of intervention of redeveloping brownfields. sustainability concept will be
introduced as a main paradigm for development, particularly urban development. It aims
to sum up with a conclusion combining those three main terms to achieve a clear
conception for what is called "sustainable Urban Regeneration of brownfields".

2.2. Identifying Brownfields

Although the term brownfield is widely used nowadays, there is no a single widely
recognized specific definition. Its meaning varies; it is mostly formulated on national
level for each country. However, it is a relatively new concept, and its dominant use over
the past two decades was in the US and Europe1.next part is going to overview some
different definitions for brownfields.

2.2.1. Brownfield definition.

In 1992, the term brownfield was first used in the United States 2 . The most
commonly cited brownfield definition originates to the Environmental Protection
Agency (U.S. EPA) 1997. "Brownfields are abandoned, idled, or under-utilized
industrial and commercial facilities where redevelopment is difficult by possible
environmental contamination"3.
In 2000, a multi-disciplinary perspective proposed a definition stating that a
brownfield site is “any land or premises which has previously been used or developed
and is not currently fully in use, although it may be partially occupied or utilized. It may
also be vacant, derelict or contaminated.”4
The term “brownfields” represents land and properties that have been artificially
modified, but are not currently used to their optimized potential. Agricultural land is not
generally considered as brownfields.5 In other words, brownfields can be conceptualized
as „unemployed‟ non-agricultural land resources6
1
Perovic, S., & Kurtović Folić, N. )5015(. Brownfield regeneration–imperative for sustainable urban
development. Građevinar, 24)05.(, 333-383.
2
Greenberg, M. R., & Hollander, J. (2006). The environmental protection agency's brownfields pilot
program. American journal of public health, 96(2), 277-281.
3
U.S. EPA. 2003a. Brownfields Definition. U.S. EPA Brownfields Homepage. Available:
http://epa.gov/brownfields/index.html .
4
Alker, S., Joy, V., Roberts, P., & Smith, N. (2000). The definition of brownfield. Journal of
Environmental Planning and Management, 43(1), 49-69.
5
Alker, S., Joy, V., Roberts, P., & Smith, N. (2000). The definition of brownfield. Journal of
Environmental Planning and Management, 43(1), 49-69.
6
Myers, D., & Wyatt, P. (2004). Rethinking urban capacity: identifying and appraising vacant
buildings. Building Research & Information, 32(4), 285-292.

8
 Although there are many definitions and interpretations for brownfields, the most
widespread definition is the one proposed by the work group called CABERNET. They
stated that: "brownfields are sites that have been affected by the former uses of the site
and surrounding land, are derelict and underused, may have real or perceived
contamination problems, are mainly developed in urban areas, and require intervention
to bring them back to beneficial use.1
Brownfield's definitions differ from one country to another2 for example; the
United States approach links brownfield with specifically industrial and commercial
sites, usually with contamination. On the other hand the UK approach includes housing
sites and land that is lying derelict without any concerns about contamination3
In 5003, Dixon described brownfield as “any land, which has been previously
developed, including derelict and vacant land, which may or may not be
contaminated”4.
From all previous definitions, generally the term brownfields applies more to previously
used land or to parts of industrial or commercial facilities that are to be
redeveloped5.

2.2.2. Types and classification of Brownfields

Brownfields could be very small spots in mixed urban areas or large military
complexes, public spaces, industrial sites, coastal areas, and airports. While industrial
complexes are dominant, areas destined for other occupancies, in which the primary
activity is no longer operated, can also be regarded as brownfield sites. It is important to
identify and classify brownfield sites for knowing their proper treatment.6
Classification criteria of brownfields can be applied to whole sites or parts of sites7.
This criteria are mainly based on the characteristics that describe the current status of the

 vacancy,
site, which could have one or more of these characteristics see figure 2-1, like;

 dereliction,
 Size of the site.
 contamination,
 Partial occupation or partial utilization.
 previous use,
 the ownership situation

1
Ferber, U., Grimski, D., Millar, K., & Nathanail, P. (2006). Sustainable brownfield regeneration:
CABERNET network report. University of Nottingham: L & Quality Management Group.
2
The definition for Egypt will be discussed in chapter five
3
syms, clarke, 2011
4
Dixon, T. (2007). The property development industry and sustainable urban brownfield regeneration in
England: an analysis of case studies in Thames Gateway and Greater Manchester. Urban Studies, 44(12),
2379-2400.
5
Maliene V, Wignall L, Malys N (2012). "Brownfield Regeneration: Waterfront Site Developments in
Liverpool and Cologne". Journal of Environmental Engineering and Landscape Management 20 (1). pp.
5–16.
6
Fakultet u Podgorici, A., Perovic, S., & Folić, N. K. Brownfield regeneration–imperative for sustainable
urban development.)
7
Op.cit.1

9
 previously
developed
possible
contaminati
on vacant
land

Figure 2-1 Brownfield characteristics

Ref.: Page, G. W., & Berger, R. S. (2006).
Information on previous use is important to estimate the type and extent of potential
contamination of the site. It allows an estimation of the costs for site preparation
depending on different reuse options and related construction design needs. As far as site
ownership is concerned, the scope ranges from big private and public industrial
corporations, to small private enterprises in secondary industries. These various
ownership situations lead to different conditions for acquisition, funding and further use
options.1

According to their position within an urban community, there are three typical
brownfield types can be differentiated:2
 In the central area
 On the city’s border
 In historic areas
According to their purposes (previous use), typical brownfields are:3
 Industrial zones
 Military complexes
 Mining installations
 Railway complexes
 Coastal areas
 Municipal public service facilities
Many existing brownfield sites are contaminated as a result of past industrial or
commercial uses. Depending on what these sites were formerly used for, contaminants
may include a range of toxins, such as petroleum, metals, asbestos, pesticides, PCBs
and solvents.
These contaminants may create significant health and safety risks for those who live
and work close to brownfield properties. When abandoned brownfield lands are left
neglected, contaminants may migrate off-site, creating hazards for others nearby.

1
Grimski, D., & Ferber, U. (2001). Urban brownfields in Europe. Land Contamination and
Reclamation, 9(1), 143-148.
2
Klusáček, P., Krejčí, T., Martinát, S., Kunc, J., Osman, R., & Frantál, B. (2013). Regeneration of
agricultural brownfields in the Czech Republic–Case study of the South Moravian Region. Acta
Universitatis Agriculturae et Silviculturae Mendelianae Brunensis, 61(2), 549-561.
33
Lorber, L., Matlovič, R., & Stiperski, Z. BROWNFIELDS, GEOGRAPHY AND GEOGRAPHERS IN
CEE COUNTRIES-HOLISTIC APPROACH.

10
 In general terms, according to the U.S. EPA Types of brownfields Sites, potential
environmental pollutants include.1
a) Oil and petroleum facilities; Natural gas manufacturing, Gas stations, Oil
production, distribution and recycling.
b) Manufacturing; Chemical and dye manufacturing, Ordnance sites, Cement
plants, electronics manufacturing, iron and steel manufacturing, machine tool industries,
pesticides facilities, plastics facilities, pulp and paper mills, and textile mills.
c) Recycling; Automobile salvage and metal recycling,Tank/drum recycling
d) Treatment and repair facilities; Metal plating and finishing, Paint shops and
automobile body repair, Wood preserver facilities
e) Miscellaneous; Agri-business, Asbestos piles, Landfills and dumps, Rail Yards,
meat packaging plants, mining sites and wastes, power generating facilities and utilities,
quarries, print shops, and radiation mining, refining, and research sites.
Even if soil and groundwater at a brownfield site are not contaminated, deteriorated
buildings and surface, remains on these sites may still pose health and safety risks, and
have a negative impact on property values and on a neighborhood's image.

2.2.3 The existence of Brownfields.

Brownfield land exists before it was formally defined. Many scholars have argued
that deindustrialization and suburbanization are the two main causes of brownfields 2.
Brownfields exist usually in sites of the industrial sector. Worldwide especially in
industrial countries began shrinking in the mid-20th century. As many industrial areas
were sent out old cities, they often left behind abandoned and contaminated properties.
The mid-20th century, also observed the start of population loss in older central cities,
as residents moved into new homes on the urban border or relocated to newer population
centers outside old cities. Brownfields could be divided into three main types according
to, how they originated exist, their location and relative use as shown in table 2.1

1
U.S. EPA. 2003a. Brownfields Definition. U.S. EPA Brownfields Homepage. Available:
http://epa.gov/brownfields/index.html
2
Alker, Joy, Roberts, & Smith, 2000; Oliver et al., 2005; Ganser & Williams, 2007; Adams, De Sousa, &
Tiesdell, 2010)

11
 Table 2-1 Types and causes of Brownfields site according to location
Adopted from :( Grimski, D., & Ferber, U., 2001)

Brownfields in Brownfields in Brownfields in rural areas

traditional
industrial area
The decline in industrial
jobs, created a need for
wider structural change in
industry. This cause a lot
of squared meters of
Brownfields that are no
longer used as industrial
sites and some of them
classified as contaminated
sites because of the
precious industry that was
there.
metropolitan areas
Cities are filled with
large scale and small
scales sites of unused
lands. These sites were
previously used for
large-scale railway and
harbor infrastructure
facilities, small
industries and
buildings. Leaving
these areas for years
due to the change in
use create these
Brownfields.
Rural areas also contain
individual Brownfields sites
of a locally limited
dimension, which may be
hugely significant for the
relevant local government
authorities concerned. In the
past few decades, the sites
which were mainly
connected with primary
economic activities in
agriculture, forestry or
mining, have been
undergoing a consolidation
process resulting in the
abandonment of many sites.

Abandoned residential properties increased as the suburbanization increased. At about

the same time as deindustrialization, more people moved to the outskirt of cities
seeking better living conditions1. This out-migration made the property owners give up
maintaining the property in the inner city because demands fall2. Consequently, The
empty properties deteriorated and led to social and physical decline3 . In the declined
communities, public infrastructure such as railways or harbors could also be abandoned
or underused4.

2.3. Impact of brownfields in inner cities.

The deindustrialization and suburbanization result several consequences, in different
types of abandoned properties. These Brownfields have many negative impacts but also
have many potentials when considering redevelopment.

1
Tang, Y. T., & Nathanail, C. P. (2012). Sticks and stones: the impact of the definitions of brownfield in
policies on socio-economic sustainability. Sustainability, 4(5), 840-862.
2
Keenan, P., Lowe, S., & Spencer, S. (1999). Housing abandonment in inner cities-the politics of low
demand for housing. Housing Studies, 14(5), 703-716.
3
ibid
4
Grimski, D., & Ferber, U. (2001). Urban brownfields in Europe. Land Contamination and
Reclamation, 9(1), 143-148.

12
2.3.1. Negatives of Brownfields
Brownfields may have negative impacts on neighboring communities and the city
overall in different ways. For example, such properties exist in or near neighborhoods
that have a low-income population, inadequate education, high unemployment, crime,
real or perceived environmental contamination and other problems1.
Brownfields resulted major social and economic issues. The ending of industrial
activities resulted in loss of job opportunities and released large amount of land in the
surrounding area. Consequently, the economic conditions of the surrounding
communities decreased. The deprivation affected the welfare of community and further
damaged the value of land. The communities adjacent to these properties usually suffer
from criminal activities, unemployment, and decreasing economic output.2
Other aspects of withdrawal such as poor education and underprivileged health care
service may follow3. The issue of pollution mostly exists on the sites were previously
used by industry. Contaminants Possibility found on brownfield sites can pollute soil,
air, and water resources on- and off-site. This poses environmental and public health
threats. Safety is also considered as an issue, neglected sites are usually spaces for illegal
activities, such as dumping. Derelict or abandoned buildings on brownfield sites are
neglected even in an otherwise well-maintained neighborhood. 4 Brownfields are
considered as a drain on the local economy and a negative load on community, especially
in low-income neighborhoods. They suffer from a number of brownfield sites5. However,
urban planning and large-scale facility construction are usually the means to reduce or
reverse these negative impacts6. Brownfields are not hopeless places, and, in fact, they
are often prime locations for revitalization as they are considered as potential and
constraint in the same time.

2.3.2. Benefits of Brownfields

Despite the contamination of Brownfields site, they are almost vacant land inside the
precious lands of the cities. Consequently, brownfields are perceived from being just
contaminated lands to assets for development of the city7. The clean-up and reuse of
brownfields provides many environmental, economic, and social direct and indirect
benefits. These benefits make worth to vestment in brownfields8. Some of these benefits
are direct as follows:
 Location benefits: brownfield area considered as an advantage itself, in light
of the fact that brownfields are frequently situated in key spots close
waterfronts, railways and transportation courses, and downtown area
territories. Besides reduction of urban sprawl which decrease the side effects

1
Walkowiak, E., & Frazier, D. (2000). Brownfields redevelopment as a catalyst for creating sustainable
cities. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, 39.
2
Spelman, 1993; Webster, 2000; Brown, B. B., Perkins, D. D., & Brown, G. (2004); Gibson, 2007
3
Cox, A. M., McKevitt, C., Rudd, A. G., & Wolfe, C. D. (2006). Socioeconomic status and stroke. The
Lancet Neurology, 5(2), 181-188.
4
Fuder, J. D. (2005). A heart for the city: Effective ministries to the urban community. Moody
Publishers.
5
Kaufman, D. A., & Cloutier, N. R. (2006). The impact of small brownfields and greenspaces on
residential property values. The Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics, 33(1), 19-30.
6
ibid
7
ibid
8
Groenendijk, N. (2006). Financing Techniques for Brownfield Regeneration-A practical guide. 4-29.

13
 of transportation (air pollution, congestion, etc.) due to reduction in


commuter travel.
Infrastructure benefits: Brownfields are sites that have already been
developed which means that they are connected with infrastructure. It is more
efficient to upgrade the existing infrastructure than extending new one into
new zones1.
 Economic benefits: Brownfields remediate and redevelopment can be a base
for economic development and increase the available jobs and taxes base of


the government.
Environmental benefits: encouraging and supporting the reuse of
brownfields can help protecting public health by cleaning –up the


contaminated sites and avoid their negative impacts.
Social benefits: Revitalization of urban cores, resolve many of socio-
economic problems associated with living in neighboring brownfield sites,
access to affordable housing. 2

Brownfields regeneration and bringing them back to life is a tool that widely
acknowledged achieving sustainable development.3
Therefore, it can be deduced that brownfield is a condition not a problem. These sites
are dead sites that could be revived with new life and vitality, which require intervention
but what kind of intervention? Table (2-2) combine and classify the possible benefits and
positives of brownfields that could be claimed.

1
Groenendijk, N. (2006). Financing Techniques for Brownfield Regeneration-A practical guide.
2
De Sousa, C. A. (2002). Measuring the public costs and benefits of brownfield versus greenfield
development in the Greater Toronto Area. Environment and Planning B: Planning and design, 29(2),
251-280.
3
Paull, E. (2008). The environmental and economic impacts of brownfields redevelopment. Northeast
Midwest.

14
 Table 2-2 possible Benefits of brownfields, based on EPA, CABERNET

Location benefits • Brownfield location considered as an asset itself, because

brownfields are often located in strategic places near
waterfronts, railroads and transportation routes, and city center
areas.
• Recovers desirable locations, allowing for smarter growth
through urban intensification
Urban / • Brownfields are places that have already been developed. They
Infrastructure typically are served with existing infrastructure, which can be
advantages more efficient to upgrade when compared to extending new
infrastructure into other new areas.
• Locates new development in areas where better use can be
made of existing municipal infrastructure and services such as
transit
• Preserves historical landmarks and heritage architecture
• Revives older urban communities and surrounding areas
• Preserves arable land, which may be productive farmland or
environmentally significant land.
• Reduces urban sprawl )Reduction of development pressure on
greenfield sites)
• Reduction in side effects of transportation; (air pollution,
congestion et cetera) due to reduction in commuter travel.
• Beautifies urban landscapes
Economic • Brownfields clean-up and regeneration can be a base for
Development/ Job economic development and expand the jobs and taxes base of
creation the government.
• Increased competitiveness for cities
• . commercial benefits for private parties
• Increases property assessment values and the resulting tax
base, leading to increased revenue for governments
social • Removes or renovates derelict buildings, decreasing the risk of
injury, vandalism and arson
• Renewal of urban cores, elimination of socio-economic
stigmas associated with living in the proximity of brownfield
sites, access to affordable housing., Improved quality of life in
neighborhoods
Environmental • Protection of public health and the environment by
encouraging and supporting the reuse of brownfields,
communities can facilitate the clean –up of contaminated land
and avoid its negative impacts

15
2.4. Interventions within continuously growing cities.
The world has been rapidly urbanized, with over 50% of the world population living
in urban areas. 1 Urbanization is one of the defining features of the 20th and 21st
centuries. The growth rates averaged 2.7 percent per year between 1950 and 2011 2 .
Moreover, increasing rate of urbanization imposes different types of challenges such as,
economic, physical, environmental, and social challenges3 . To face such challenges, it
requires deep understanding of urbanization concepts and context; inter linked concerns,
and the effect of available resources in different contexts. Urban planning is a key tool
for intervention in cities to deal with such challenging, though it is very challenges itself.

2.4.1. Urbanization and urban expansion.

According to the dictionary, urbanization is the processes by which towns and cities
are formed and become larger as more and more people begin living and working in
central areas. 4 That leads to increase in the population in cities and towns versus rural
areas. Urbanization began during the industrial revolution; when workers moved towards
manufacturing hubs in cities when obtain jobs in factories as agricultural jobs became
less common.
This process results in the physical growth of urban areas, either horizontal or
vertical. The physical urban growth is perhaps the more elementary and obvious
meaning. It refers to the use of land for urban purposes. However, urban growth could be
functional when focuses on people rather than on land or physical structures. It refers to
the activities of the people (economic, social and cultural) and seeks to determine whether
in any area these are urban in character or not.5

2.4.2. Urban Planning Challenges

Facing urban planning today and over the coming decades is challenging. For
example, providing water supply, housing, and sanitation to fulfill the needs of rapidly
growing urban populations requires delivery of urban land at scale linked to provision of
public infrastructure networks. 6 Urban planning will need to manage urban development
processes, because unmanaged urban growth can become a major obstacle to overall
sustainable development.7
A major urban challenge is to adequately plan for urban growth, especially in the
context of declining financial resources. Urban planning within a context of rapid
urbanization is no more a luxury, but a necessity.8 High rates of urban growth in the
absence of effective urban planning have resulted in spiraling urban poverty, the spread

1
Cohen, B. (2006). Urbanization in developing countries: Current trends, future projections, and key
challenges for sustainability. Technology in society, 28(1), 63-80.
2
Habitat, U. N. (2013). State of the world's cities 2012/2013: Prosperity of cities. Rout ledge.
3
ibid
4
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/urbanization, August 2016.
5
Hall, P., Gracey, H., Drewett, R., and Thomas, R., (1973) The Containment of Urban England vol I :
Urban and Metropolitan Growth Processes George Allen & Unwin.
6
Opcit.2
7
Taipale, K. (2012). Challenges and Way Forward in the Urban Sector: Sustainable Development in the
21st Century (SD21). New York: UNDESA.
8
AlSayyad, N. (2004). Urban Informality: Transnational Perspectives from the Middle East, Latin
America, and South Asia. Lexington Books.

16
of urban slums and informal settlements, inadequate urban water and power supply, and
degrading urban environmental conditions.1
Urbanization should be realized as a positive phenomenon and a precondition for
improving access to services, economic and social opportunities, as well as better quality
of life for populations. It is expected that 80 per cent of future economic growth will be
in cities2. Over the past centuries, cities have been a major catalyst of progress in the
advanced economies of today and this is now being repeated in the developing world.
Cities are the platform of social interaction, cultural development. Planning for such
cities is not only challenging, but it also could benefit from potentials of urbanization.

2.4.3. Urban interventions:

"Cities are never finished objects; land uses change, plots are redeveloped, the
urban area itself expands and, occasionally, shrinks"3. The intervention is required as a
response to changing and dynamic economic and social factors, that have grown,
declined or experienced major restructuring4. Changes in economic production and the
demand for buildings and land have resulted in changes in the use and density of urban
areas. Moreover, the appearance of new economic and social activities have resulted in
an intensification of use in some areas, whereas, in other areas, the closure of old
industries, a cessation of economic activities and migration have left abandoned
buildings, derelict and vacant land, creating islands of decay and deprivation.
Types of interventions oriented to response existing cities vary according to their
main concerns. The aim of some interventions is to transform physical structure only;
however, some include actions to change social and economic structure. There are two
main approaches to deal with existing urban environment, in order to tackle the problems
of decay arising from uncontrolled growth.5 These two approaches could be divided into
indirect and direct methods.
Indirect intervention of urban relocation can be adapted through rearrangement of
land uses and activities, making new settlements with job opportunities or increasing
employment in existing ones. This method does not consider resolving the existing
problems but it attempts to prevent their declining through reducing the inflow of
immigrants. This approach also depends on a regional or even national policy. It's a long-
term strategy and the results are not as obvious as it's supposed to be. However, the direct
method is more effective as its actions are based on direct intervention in the concerned
areas. The actions are applied generally to a specific area of a city. They can be divided
in two kinds: eradication and relocation of the population of deprived areas and
improvement and rehabilitation projects. See figure (2.2)

1
Gandy, M. (2006). Planning, anti-planning and the infrastructure crisis facing metropolitan Lagos.
Urban studies, 43(2), 371-396.
2
Heilig, G. K. (2012). World urbanization prospects the 2011 revision. United Nations, Department of
Economic and Social Affairs (DESA), Population Division, Population Estimates and Projections
Section, New York.
3
Jones, P., & Evans, J. (2008). Urban regeneration in the UK: Theory and practice. Sage.
4
Couch, C. (1990). Urban renewal: theory and practice. Houndmills, Basingstoke: Macmillan.
5
Desai, A. R., & Pillai, S. D. (1990). Slums and urbanization, second edition. London.

17
 Interventions in existing urban environment

Indirect Intervention Direct Intervention

Increase of employment Improvements and rehabilitation

opportunities in small towns of deprived areas Urban
acupuncture
New settlements with job Large- Small
opportunities scale interventio Tactical
urbanism
Redistribution of land Eradication and relocation of
deprived areas

Figure 2-2 Examples of interventions in existing urban environment ,edited by the

author

Because of the definition and complexity of urbanism, there are different

categorization of strategies according to aims are not proper for urban areas. To
strengthen economic structure, for example, besides the economic based strategies,
physical/ environmental and social oriented strategies are required.1
The aim of interventions that include actions to physical/environmental structure is
to improve living standards by supplying basic requirements of urban environment and
housing conditions.2 It usually involves policies to the following:
1. Change density and create open space,
2. Improve poor housing conditions,
3. Improve infrastructure facilities, and
4. Solve traffic problems and to increase accessibility.
While interventions that aim to improve social structure involve policies to;
1. Improve job opportunities,
2. Reduce crime rates,
3. Increase cultural and education opportunities,
4. Decrease social exclusion and remove social tensions, and
5. Eradicate disease, the provision of adequate housing.
Economic based interventions aim to strengthen economic structure may have the
policies to;
1. Load new functions or to change functions,
2. Build new economic relations, and
3. Create attractive cities and regions.

1
Wimo, A., Jönsson, L., Bond, J., Prince, M., Winblad, B., & International, A. D. (2013). The worldwide
economic impact of dementia 2010. Alzheimer's & Dementia, 9(1), 1-11.
2
Yigitcanlar, T., O’connor, K., & Westerman, C. )5002(. The making of knowledge cities: Melbourne’s
knowledge-based urban development experience. Cities, 25(2), 63-72.

18
2.4.4. Urban acupuncture and regeneration
Urban acupuncture is a socio-environmental theory which combines recent urban
design and traditional Chinese acupuncture; it focus on small-scale interventions to
transform the larger urban context 1 . Urban regeneration of brownfields may be
considered as a method of urban acupuncture in some cases or cities. Urban acupuncture
is proposed to produce small-scale interventions in not only the urban fabric but also
through economically socially, catalytic; what make it more sustainable as a concept. The
goal of urban acupuncture is to relieve stress in the built environment, many examples of
these interventions were presented in Lerner book "urban Acupuncture" 2 . With this
concept, brownfields represent critical issues to be tackled by either small intervention
or large regeneration projects.

2.5. Sustainable urban Development

The concept of Sustainable Urban Development was defined in different ways.
Some suggested it to be physical appropriation through social interaction, and
environmental balance through compactness of urban form, efficient transportation,
density, and walkability. 3 However it must also meet future needs through inter and
intra-generational equitable resource management without going beyond the
environmental capacity, promoting social justice with inclusive decision-making
process4 by citizens’ active participation5.
The most commonly cited definition of sustainable development is “Sustainable
development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”6
It can be also defined as “the development that provides basic environmental, social and
economic services to all residents of a community without threatening the viability of the
natural, built and social systems that the delivery of these services depends” 7 .
Sustainability got into the focus in city planning during the 1990s.8
Next part is trying to understand how far the concept of Sustainable urban Development
affects the development process in the city.
A city that aims to achieve sustainable development should have a long-term balance
and integration between its systems. It requires not only environmental responsibility,
but also the economic efficiency. Moreover social cohesion, which provides

1
Acupuncture: is a collection of procedures involving penetration of the skin with needles to stimulate
certain points on the body
2
Lerner, J. (2014). Urban Acupuncture. Island Press.
3
(Banister, Watson, & Wood, 1997; Elkin, McLaren, & Hillman, 1991; Jenks, Burton, & Williams,
1996; Newman & Kenworthy, 2000)
4
Jepson Jr, E. J., & Edwards, M. M. (2010). How possible is sustainable urban development? An
analysis of planners' perceptions about new urbanism, smart growth and the ecological city. Planning,
Practice & Research, 25(4), 417-437.
5
Girardet, H. (1999). Creating sustainable cities (No. 2). Chelsea Green Publishing.
6
Brundtland Report, World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987.
7
International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives, 1994.
8
Hardoy, J. E., Mitlin, D., & Satterthwaite, D. (2014). Environmental problems in an urbanizing world:
finding solutions in cities in Africa, Asia and Latin America. Routledge.

19
opportunities for meeting social, cultural, and spiritual needs by enhancing health,
education, security, equity, cohesion, diversity and quality of life1.

2.5.1. Sustainable development dimensions (Objectives balance)

Sustainable development has four main dimensions, which are Social, Economic,
ecological and Institutional 2 . The development to be sustainable should consider the
balance between these four dimensions shown in fig. 2.1
‫ إ‬Social dimension
Development is considered socially sustainable; when it achieves social justice
through equitable resource allocation, eliminates poverty, and provides social services,
to all members of the society. The social dimension of sustainable development and its
main target is struggling to achieve this concept for both present and future generations.3
‫ إ‬Economic dimension
Economically, sustainability means providing economic benefit at present and in the
future, while paying more attention to the “natural capital”, which means the natural
resources of economic value, considered as the bases for the economic system, such as
plants, soil, animals, fish, and bio-environmental system such as air and water
purification4
‫ إ‬Ecological dimension
Ecologically sustainable system maintains a solid base of natural resources and
avoids excessive use of such resources. This involves the conservation of biodiversity,
attaining atmospheric balance, productivity of soil as well as other systems of natural
environment. From an environmental point of view, sustainability means setting limits
for consumption, population growth and pollution, as well as the faulty of production;
including wasting waters, cutting the forests or the soil erosion.5
‫ إ‬Political dimension
The institutional dimension of sustainable development is concerned with the
participation of all community members in the decision making process and the
attainment of the information that affect their lives transparently and accurately. It is also
concerned with the organizations, such as councils and committees.6

1
Law, W. W. Y. (2004). Sustainable Urban Regeneration and Social Impact Assessment: A Case Study
of Hong Kong. Unpublished PhD Thesis, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.
2
Sahely, H. R., Kennedy, C. A., & Adams, B. J. (2005). Developing sustainability criteria for urban
infrastructure systems. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 32(1), 72-85.
3
Grizans, J. (2009). Urban Issues and Solutions in the Context of Sustainable Development: A Review of
the Literature. Syddansk Universitet.
4
ibid
5
Dincer, I., & Rosen, M. A. (2012). Exergy: energy, environment and sustainable development. Newnes.
6
Citymayors, (2007). http://www.citymayors.com/environment/city's_ecological_footprint.

20
 Figure 2-2 Circle of Sustainable development.
Source: www.sustainabilitist.org , April 2016.

2.5.2. The ‘sustainable community’

During the 1980s, the concept of sustainable development arose as a popular solution
to the problem of meeting the physical needs of a rapidly growing population while
minimizing environmental damage.1 Sustainable communities are places where people
want to live and work, now and in the future. They meet the diverse needs of existing
and future residents. They are characterized by being sensitive to their environment, and
contribute to a high quality of life. They are safe, inclusive, well planned, built and run,
and offer equality of opportunity and good services for all.
Some scholars attempt to implement regeneration projects to create sustainable
communities/places. Sustainable communities represent the principles of sustainable
development through following2:
 Balancing and integrating the social, economic and environmental


components of their community;


Meeting the needs of existing and future generations; and
Respecting the needs of other communities in the wider region or
internationally to make their own communities sustainable.

All of these principles could be also applied when regenerating brownfields, in order to
make it more sustainable.

1
Bridger, J. C., & Luloff, A. E. (1999). Toward an interactional approach to sustainable community
development. Journal of rural studies, 15(4), 377-387.
2
McDonald, S., Malys, N., & Maliene, V. (2009). Urban regeneration for sustainable communities: A
case study. Technological and Economic Development of Economy.

21
2.6. Urban regeneration concept
Currently, urban regeneration is a commonly used term to represent urban recovery
or redevelopment projects. Urban regeneration is one of major interventions dealing with
existing urban areas. It is conceptualized through its procedure as a discourse of planning
and managing existing inner city areas rather than starting something from the empty
ground or demolishing the old to build new1.

2.6.1. Urban Regeneration definition

According to Dictionary of Webster’s New World, to regenerate means: ‘to cause
to be completely renewed, or restored or reformed’2. The term regeneration is also used
in the field of Biology in the meaning of “the regrowth of lost or injured tissue, or the
restoration of a system to its initial state.”3
"Urban regeneration" is a response to opportunities and challenges in a particular
place at a specific moment in time" more over being a result of the interaction between
many sources of influence. It is defined as ‘comprehensive and integrated vision and
action which leads to the resolution of urban problems and seeks to bring about lasting
improvement in the economic, physical, social and environmental condition of an area
that has been subject to change’.4

Using previous definitions, it could be said that, urban regeneration project deals
with four main characteristics:5
 The first one is being comprehensive and integrated; it should be well
planned with other surrounding areas, and it should not be fragmented.6
 The second is providing a solution for the existing urban problems;
through identification of problems, and who has the right to identify these
problems and make the decision to carry out urban regeneration.7
 The third is urban regeneration should offer a long-term and lasting
development. However, urban regeneration has to be done wisely and any
short term or unplanned urban regeneration is not acceptable.8
 Finally, every urban regeneration project should aim to improve economic,
physical, social and environmental aspects with equal weight.

Urban regeneration is re-using built environment that could create compact urban
form and preserve valuable natural and agricultural areas, minimize costs of urban
services.

1
Barnett, J. (1986). The elusive city : five centuries of design, ambition and miscalculation. New York:
Harper & Row.
2
http://www.webster-dictionary.org 25/2/2014
3
Couch, C. (1990). Urban renewal: theory and practice. Houndmills, Basingstoke: Macmillan.
4
Roberts, P., & Sykes, H. (Eds.). (1999). Urban regeneration: a handbook. Sage.
5
Raco, M. (2003). Assessing the discourses and practices of urban regeneration in a
growing region. Geoforum, 34(1), 37-55.
6
(Hausner, V. A. (1993). 2. The future of urban development. RSA Journal, 523-533.
7
(Lichfield, D. (1992). Urban Regeneration for the 1990s. London Planning Advisory Committee,
London.
8
Hausner, V. A. (1993) Ibid

22
 Urban regeneration deals with not only physical or environmental issues, but also
social and economic issues, as a comprehensive planning approach. That is why urban
regeneration can be applied in areas, which suffer economic or social problems. 1
Regenerating the urban tissue could produce some realistic results, such as creating
habitable residential or working areas and increasing urban standards. In addition to
solving urban or regional problems, it offers creating competitive cities, and also,
compact urban form and reducing cost of urban services.2

2.6.2. Historical evolution of urban regeneration

The regeneration is the latest term of urban redevelopment, which started even
before the world wars 1&2. Its concept started during the era of city beautiful movement.3
The term urban regeneration used for the first time in the USA in the 1960s, after the
relocation of some marine activities then most of derelict lands was often reassigned to
central business type of activities. In the 1320’s. Its second use was launched, on the
London Docklands, and then in Barcelona 4 . Urban regeneration led to the complete
transformation of empty lands, through reconstruction of multi-activity ‘‘bits of the
city’’.
Later, in the1330’s, urban regeneration was launched in many urban areas, often-
high density populated, with various functions, but facing many urban problems.
Although the priorities of urban regeneration change over time and space, the concepts
and practices of urban regeneration have evolved over the years. Table 2.2 provides a
summary of past policies and strategies in which the shifting socio-political attitudes is
revealed.
From the regeneration history, has evolved from a simple form of renovation or
rehabilitation of obsolete infrastructure and built-up land, to targeting the restructuring
of the urban fabric, the renewal of the urban economy, or the city image. It is clear that
urban regeneration shifted its procedure from the straightforward physical problem to a
more complex multi-agent dealing with multi- partnership people. However,
regeneration objectives became more complex and crucial.

1
Silver, C. (2013). 16th International Planning History Society Conference, 20-23 July 2014.
PLANNING PERSPECTIVES, 28(3), 495-496.
2
Gordon, P., & Richardson, H. W. (1997). Are compact cities a desirable planning goal? Journal of the
American planning association, 63(1), 95-106.
3
Bianchini, F., & Parkinson, M. (1993). Cultural policy and urban regeneration: the West European
experience. Manchester University Press.
4
Tallon, A. (2013). Urban Regeneration in the UK. Routledge.

23
 Table 2-3: The evolution of concept and practice of urban regeneration
Reference: compiled from Roberts (2000), Beswick and Tsenkova (2002), Couch et al.
(2003), Booth (2005), Schenkel (2006) and McDonald et al. (2009)

Period 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s

Policy type Reconstruction Revitalization Renewal Redevelopment Market-led regeneration Sustainable regeneration
Extended notion of
Reconstruction and In-situ renewal and Towards a more
Many major schemes of Sustainability
extension of older areas Continuing from 1950s; Neighborhood schemes; comprehensive form of
Major strategy development and (environment, economy,
of towns and cities often suburban and peripheral peripheral growth; policy and practice; more
and orientation redevelopment; flagship social and cultural);
based on a 'master plan'; growth; slum clearance community-involved emphasis on integrated
projects; emphasis on planning and
suburban growth slum clearance treatments
management
Partnership the dominant
National and local Decentralization in Emphasis on private
Towards a greater approach; devolution of Towards a multi-sector
Key actors and government; private local government; sector and special
balance between public power to the local partnership; growth of
Stakeholders sector developers and growing partnership agencies; growth of
and private sectors authority; community participatory models
contractors with private sector partnerships
empowerment
24

Regional levels initially Focus on site initially; Reintroduction of strategic Continuing local level; re-
Spatial level of Emphasis on local and Regional level
gradually replaced by mlater more on local perspective; growth of emphasis on neighborhood
Activity site levels ofactivity emerged
local emphasis level regional activity schemes
Public sector
Continuing from 1950s Resource constraints in Private sector dominant Greater balance between Continuing from 1990s
investment with some
Economic focus with growing influence public sector; growth of with selective public public, private and with much diverse sources
private sector
of private investment private investment funds voluntary funding of funding
involvement
Improvement of Community-based Community self-help Commitment to
Social and welfare Emphasis on the role of
Social content housing and living action and greater with very selective state community involvement
Improvement community
standards empowerment support and development
Some continuation from Major schemes of
Replacement of inner Major heritage projects;
Physical 1950s with parallel More extensive renewal replacement and new More modest than 1980s;
areas and peripheral emphasis on architectural
emphasis rehabilitation of of older urban areas development; flagship heritage and retention
development quality
existing areas projects
Adoption of advanced
Environmental Growth of concern for Introduction of broader
Environmental Landscaping and some technology in
Selective improvement improvement with some wider approach to idea of environmental
Approach greening environmental
innovations environment sustainability
improvement
2.6.3. Urban Regeneration process.
Urban regeneration began as an attempt to recover the undesirable impacts of changes
and enable cities to attract new investment in the global economy
Urban regeneration process is expected to promote smart growth, generate sufficient
revenue and return from underutilized and abandoned property, create new job and
business opportunity, community empowerment, address people’s real needs, increase
environment quality, and providing quality of life for all.1
Urban regeneration process may be grouped in four phases;2
1. Process of transition in components of the city,
2. Understanding the need of interference to the built environment,
3. Interfering to the built environment.
4. Generation a new built environment and relations different from the previous one.

Generation a new
Process of transition
built environment

Urban
regeneration
process

Interfering to the Need for

built environment intervention

Figure 2-3 four phases of urban regeneration process

Ref.: Researcher based on Couch, C., & Dennemann, A. (2000).

2.6.4. The context of urban regeneration

Urban regeneration is not an isolated process. It is affected by wider economic, political
and environmental factors. The fortunes of a city are usually tied to the nation and,
ultimately, the global economy. Regeneration is a political strategy using a whole range

1
Yalcinta, H. A., & Kilinc, G. (2010).
2
Couch, C., & Dennemann, A. (2000). Urban regeneration and sustainable development in Britain
55
of planning regulations and policies to encourage developers to invest in run-down and
derelict urban areas.
The scale of urban generation projects and their authorities start from the institutional
level to local governance. It could also be a large-scale process of adapting the existing
built environment. In which they set their own agenda, allocation of finance and power
with varying degrees of direction.1
Area based initiatives for urban regeneration projects could range from the renovation
of a single derelict building to the regeneration of entire areas of the city.
Regeneration projects could be individual regeneration projects, major regeneration
areas. , developer-driven regeneration or flagship projects and branding. Urban
regeneration projects key elements should include long term perspective, political will
and commitment, multi-actor/stakeholder participation, organizational framework;
financing and of course maintain the process with consistency2.
Every area is independent, it is essential to recognize and appreciate the uniqueness of
different local areas3. The two factors of location and time explain why it should always
be responding to the ever-changing needs. Consistent with the shift in urban policies, the
nature of the area, and the world trend, different schemes and programs have been
formed; where each has its own focuses4.

2.6.5. Different Approaches to Urban Regeneration

Although, one of the main characteristics of urban regeneration is that each case is
unique. There are some approaches that arose as response to urban problems and changes
in urban areas evolved depending on the problems and changes
 Property-led physical approach: The main aim is profit making. In which a
major retail-led or mixed-use scheme is expected to have multiplier effects in the
local economy5. The property led regeneration can also bring huge improvement
in the physical environment as well as economic benefits through holistic goal to
be achieved; single-sectors are usually ineffective to tackle the social, economic,
environmental and physical problems in the urban area.6 However, this approach
fails to deliberate the social and community problems and issues, which are very
important.7 (It may lead to gentrification8)
 Business-driven approach: in which the goal of regeneration is to increase job
opportunities. It highlights the importance of ‘underserved markets’ particularly

1
Galdini, R. (2005). Urban Regeneration Process-The Case of Genoa, an Example of Integrated Urban
Development Approach.
2
Alam, A. F. M. (2011). Social practice, spatial forms and sustainable urban. Age (in 2003), 15(1), 3..
3
Roberts, P., & Sykes, H. (2000). 14 Current Challenges and Future Prospects. Urban regeneration: A
handbook, 295.
4
Different experiences will be discussed in chapter 4
5
Dixon, T. D., & Marston, A. (2003). Huston, S., Darchen, S., & May, K. (2013). Recent Ipswich CBD
revitalisation-backdrop and reflections. In 19th Annual Pacific Rim Real Estate Society Conference (pp.
1-14). Pacific Rim Real Estate Society (PRRES).
6
Crisp, R., Gore, T., Pearson, S., Tyler, P., Clapham, D., Muir, J., & Robertson, D. (2014). Regeneration
and poverty: Evidence and policy review-Final Report.
7
SMITH, N. 1996. The New Urban Frontier: Gentrification and the Revanchist City
8
Gentrification means “the process by which poor and working class neighborhoods in the inner city are
refurbished by an influx of private capital and middle class homebuyers”
52
 in inner-city areas as important attentions for regeneration through business
investment1.
 Urban form and design perspective: Highlights the importance of the
relationship between sustainable development and urban form.2
 Cultural industries approach
Cultural industries approach stresses on the importance of creative and cultural media
industries for regeneration. Health and well-being perspective, which highlights the

 Community-based, social economy approach

role that well designed spaces, can have on neighborhood health and livability

which highlights the importance of involving local communities in decision making

and developing social capital networks3
Most of regeneration initiatives have shifted in emphasis from being purely property led
to seeking the integration of social and environmental factors, often through partnerships
between different public and private organizations.4

2.6.6. Sustainable Urban Regeneration

The definition of regeneration have been developed over time. Currently it is
strongly influenced by concepts of sustainability, increasing property values, promoting
entrepreneurialism as well as attracting private investment5. Regeneration is increasingly
seen as being attached within the sustainable development agenda by tackling physical,
social, economic and environmental issues together6.
Many of the approaches of urban regeneration are being tested to achieve
sustainability around the world in the forms of community participation, area based
regeneration, place making, economic restructuring, physical regeneration, development
of Brownfield sites, bottom up governance practice, public private partnership etc. 7 In
future years, many other techniques will be invented to plan cities in facing their different
nature of problems. ‘It has been continually questioned for years in order to identify its
scope by defining its focal points, politics and priorities put forward’.8
The main five sustainable urban regeneration concepts9:
 Shift to long-term perspective,
 Linking the top-down and bottom-up decision making processes,
 Combining physical to social and economic regeneration,
 Community involvement in regeneration partnership, and leadership
 Strategic vision in city level.

1
Porter, M. E. (1995). The competitive advantage of the inner city. The city reader, 274-286.
2
Burton, E., Jenks, M., & Williams, K. (Eds.). (2003). The compact city: a sustainable urban form?
Routledge
3
ibid
4
Jones, P., & Evans, J. (2008).
5
IPF (2009) Urban Regeneration: Opportunities for Private Investment. IPF: London
6
ibid
7
Evans, J., Bryson, J., Porter, L., & Hunt, D. (2005). Large-scale Urban Regeneration and Sustainability:
Reflections on the" barriers" Typology.
8
Yalcinta, H. A., & Kilinc, G. (2010). Evaluation of Urban Regeneration Practice in Turkey in
Comparison to General Framework for Managing Urban Regeneration in Developed Countries.
9
Carley, M., & Kirk, K. (1998). Sustainable by 2020?: a strategic approach to urban regeneration for
Britain's cities. Bristol, England: Policy Press.
53
 Sustainability could be seen as an appropriate concept for guiding urban
regeneration, as it is a community based process directed towards achieving the
economic, environmental and social well-being of the people through upgrading of the
urban areas1.

2.7. Sustainable brownfield regeneration concept

The concept of brownfield regeneration in the context of sustainability proposed as:
"Sustainable Brownfield Regeneration is the Management of brownfields recovery
to beneficial use in a responsive way to people; considering present and future needs,
environmentally sensitive, economically viable, institutionally robust and socially
acceptable, within the particular regional context2"

beneficial
use
responsiv
economic
e way to
ally viable
people
Urban context
Sustainable
Brownfield present
institution and
ally robust
Regeneration future
needs

socially environm
acceptabl entally
e sensitive

Figure 2 -1 Illustration of sustainable brownfield regeneration, adopted from RESCUE3, edited by Author

The hidden key element of this concept is the balance. The balance between the
stakeholders' needs, present and future generation, and different sustainability
dimensions regarding sensitive response to stakeholders and the context.
A regenerated brownfield site can be sustainable; yet, it has negative environmental
impacts. Positive effects in one or more aspects of sustainability may outweigh the
negative ones and the negative impacts on the site could be balanced on the
urban/regional scale. For example, an industrial development on a brownfield site (which
may produce negative environmental impacts) can be more sustainable than a public
park, as it contributes to saving natural resources of the alternative Greenfield site,
generates jobs and produces positive effects in the social and economic dimension. This

1
Ng, M. K., Cook, A., & Chui, E. W. T. (2001). The road not travelled: a sustainable urban regeneration
strategy for Hong Kong. Planning Practice and Research, 16(2), 171-183.
2
RESCUE (2005) Best Practice Manual. LQM Press, Nottingham
3
ibid
52
means a brownfield project that does not cause any negative environmental effects
overall does not necessarily be more sustainable than an industrial development where
potential activities and development are more sustainable in the broader regional context.
The concept of sustainable brownfield regeneration can be regarded as a situation that
can be achieved some time in the future. However, absolute sustainability cannot be
achieved, as the single dimensions of sustainability will always compete against each
other to a certain extent. Even the final situation would also contradict the principle of
the sustainability concept as future generations would be dealt a matter of fact if
‘sustainability objectives’ are done today. Therefore, the focus should not be laid on
situations regarded as optimal from today’s perspective, but allow for adaptation
potential and high flexibility when considering how to approach sustainable
development.
Additional concept development regarding some of the expressions “environmentally
sensitive”, “economically viable”, “institutionally robust” and “socially acceptable” in
the sustainability definition indicate an approach of “first do no harm”. The four
dimensions are equally ranked in the definition meaning that they intend not to worsen
the present state1. Alternatively, these expressions could be changed e.g.; “economically
viable” with “economically attractive / profitable”, “environmentally sensitive” with
“improving the environmental state”, “institutionally robust” with “fostering local and
regional institutions”, and “socially acceptable” with “socially desirable”2.
There are some points can be considered as the key principles of the sustainable
brownfield regeneration that used to guide and evaluate brownfields regeneration
projects. See table 2-4

Table 2-4 Sustainable brownfield regeneration key points

Sustainable brownfield regeneration
Key points
Recovery to beneficial use From negative to positive

Satisfaction of human needs Solution for existing problems

For present & future generations Long term & lasting development
Economic
Social and culture
Environmental Improve aspects / achieve
objectives (balanced & responsive)
Institutional
Physical
Linking top down & bottom up
Socially accepted
(community involvement)
Comprehensive and integrated
Within particular regional context
(strategic vision in city level)

1
Thornton, G. (2008). Brownfield regeneration. Retrieved from
http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/150793
2
ibid
53
2.8. Conclusion
Increasing urbanization challenges and increasing calls for sustainable development,
require more innovative and untraditional solutions like brownfields regeneration. Urban
regeneration objectives became more complex and critical.

In this chapter, the research the concepts of each of regeneration of brownfields, and
how could it be referred to sustainability. Form the theoretical review for the brownfields;
they can be defined as derelict, previously developed, under-utilized facilities. One main
threat related to brownfields is being contaminated sites. These sites have many
problems. However, brownfields are considered as potential and constraint in the same
time are mainly located in prime locations for revitalization.

Urban regeneration is conceptualized as a major intervention dealing with existing

urban areas. It is comprehensive and integrated vision and action to solve urban problems
while developing the economic, physical, social and environmental situation of an area.
The concept has evolved from a simple form of renovation or rehabilitation of a building,
to the integrated, comprehensive, responsive sustainable urban regeneration.

Main points have been concluded from compiling different concepts of brownfields,
sustainability, and urban regeneration. Physical, cultural, and institutional aspects are
considered as the key principles of the sustainable brownfield regeneration moreover,
Economic, Environmental, social aspects.

The next chapter is going to dig more in the field of sustainable brownfield regeneration,
its dynamics, and complexity.

30
Chapter 3 : Complexity of brownfields regeneration

31
3.1. Introduction
In chapter two, the research has covered the literature and historical background about
each of brown fields, regeneration, and sustainability. An over view have been offered
through different layers of the process. However, the complex nature of brownfields,
make it needs further understanding. Brownfields regeneration could be conceptually
sustainable; however, its process is affected by the dynamics and complexity of the urban
systems, which make the process more challenging and complex.

This chapter will review and discuss the complexity of brownfields regeneration and
related issues. In order to investigate the dynamics of creation and regeneration of
brownfields sits, avoiding creating new brownfields, and recycling existing ones. It is
also trying to explore how brownfields could be key part of urban land management.

It also deals with challenges and driving forces of the regeneration process of
Brownfields, with different stakeholders' perspectives, and how their interests and roles
affect the process of the regeneration.

Internationally, there are governing factors and conceptual models to understand the
challenges and driving forces that could affect the process of brownfields regeneration.
Moreover the barriers to successful regeneration. Sustainability assessing of brownfield
regeneration.

3.2. Brownfields Regeneration in Complex Urban Systems

Cities are extremely complex and dynamic system consists of many complicated
sub-systems. These urban sub-systems, and their related problems, can only be fully
understood in the context of the whole city )in the perception of a ‘whole system’(1.

Urban systems are nonlinear systems which are difficult to predict in order to
understand the effect of variables across different levels of actions. Feedback,
accumulations and nonlinear relationships make up complex nonlinear feedback
systems2. In such systems a small change in the initial condition of a system could cause
a chain of events leading to large-scale phenomena. This Sensitivity to the initial starting
conditions of a model is a characteristic of a “chaotic”3 behavior. Complex and chaotic
systems may be unpredictable but they are understandable.

This concept is particularly applicable to brownfields. The most significant

brownfield challenges are linked to firstly understanding the complexity of regeneration
process and then applying this knowledge to find sustainable solutions for the sites that
link to regional strategies, but also taking account of the wider dynamics of the overall
urban area.

1
Knox, P. L. (1995). World cities in a world-system. Cambridge University Press.
2
Boeing (2015). "Chaos Theory and the Logistic Map"
3
ibid
35
 3.2.1. Dynamics of brownfield regeneration/creation
Brownfield regeneration is a complex process. Brownfield regeneration can be very
effective on wider urban development scale, so it is essential to understand the dynamics
of the process, and the underlying nature of the brownfields creation problems.

In response for clarification of dynamics of the brownfields regeneration/creation as

circular process, Brownfields regeneration is a shift from linear to circular economy.
Circular economy is an economic and industrial system that takes the reusability of
products and raw materials and the resilience of natural resources as a preliminary point,
minimizes the value destruction of the overall system and pursues value creation in each
link of the system1. In a circular land use model as shown in figure (3.1), Ferber argued
for considering the flow into the brownfield stock as well as the flow out through
regeneration 2 . This will become more important when urban construction loses its
economic or social viability and become derelict. When buildings are first approved for
development, second life of the site should be considered in ten to twenty years’ time.
Otherwise, there will be a risk of creating more future brownfields rather than
regeneration.

Figure 3-1: Model of phases and potential of circular flow land use management Ref. Preuß, T., &
Ferber, U. (2006)

Amount or stock of available land for development influences the approaches of

brownfields regeneration. A conceptual model focus on the dynamics of brownfield

1
Tukker, A. (2013). Product services for a resource-efficient and circular economy–a review. Journal of
Cleaner Production.
2
Ferber, U., Jackson, J. B., & Starzewska-Sikorska, A. (2011). Circular flow land use management.
33
regeneration/creation was developed by CABERNET 1 . The conceptual model
demonstrates that as long as the brownfield bath continues to 'refill' due to the creation
of brownfield sites, cities will always have brownfield sites2 as illustrated in figure (3-2).
Sometimes more sites become derelict than are regenerated and therefore the overall area
of brownfields will increase. More importantly, a number of types of sites remain on the
bottom of the bathtub for a considerable amount of time, the so-called persistent or
hardcore sites. These sites are often sites with low economic value that have remained
abandoned for several years.

With a specific concern to the financial feasibility and timing of regeneration,

Brownfields sites could be left for more years and used for other productive uses. These
uses could include energy production through using the site for solar panels or other
renewables, or even finding temporary leisure and cultural uses. This type of temporary
use might need extra funding to make it possible. These temporary uses should be
actively supported.

In terms of brownfield regeneration and the land use cycle, there will always be a
flow of brownfields into the bath as sites change in use and are regenerated. However, in
terms of the land use cycle, ideally there should be a steady flow of sites into and out of
the bath in equal volumes. The remaining volume of brownfields should be at a low level
(a low volume in the bath) and this volume should not consist of any hardcore sites (there
should be no sludge in the bath).3

3.2.2. Brownfields in the context of urban land

management
In the context of urban land management, Brownfields distribution and the land use
cycle; changes in industrial activities impacts are seen in reducing of enterprises and the
loss of a number of old industries. Growth in other service industries and transformations
in the urban lifestyle lead to momentous changes in land use. These drivers of land use
change have influenced the formation of brownfields in urban areas. The current
dynamics of the urban system have resulted in a wide scale dereliction in some areas and
scattered temporal declines in other regions. Overall these changes have left many cities
with a significant legacy of brownfield sites. The persistence and distribution of
brownfield sites represents a major urban management problem.

Taking into consideration the complexity of this urban problem, brownfield

regeneration should consistently
be part of a coherent spatial and
strategic land management
approach, particularly with
respect to the wider issues of
economic, environmental and Figure 3-2: The Brownfield Bath Model – showing the
social dimensions of sustainable filling and emptying of the bath ref CABERNET (2006)

1
CABERNET (2006) Sustainable Brownfield regeneration: CABERNET network report.
2
ibid
3
For the UK, the target is to build 60% of new housing on brownfield land. In terms of the persistent or
hardcore sites, in the UK these are determined as sites that have remained derelict for over nine years.
Within the 60% target there is no specific strategy to deal with the hardcore sites.
34
development. Land management and brownfields are highly relevant cross cutting topic
for urban development however they are usually seen from other spatial or sectorial
aspects point of view. Therefore, an integrated approach to comprehensive strategies is
needed.

The Land Use Puzzle Model 1 demonstrates the

interlocked nature of brownfield distribution, land
development and the land use cycle. The model
demonstrates that the creation of brownfields is part of the
overall land use cycle and is in fact necessary to permit
cities to manage their development through the creation
and stimulation of new regeneration.
This model emphasizes the complex and connected
nature of the urban system in flux, where land ‘pieces 'are
changing in use (moving in puzzle) as land is being
redeveloped. The spaces, representing derelict land, can
be filled, sites can be reused, within a ‘semi-structured
land use plan', as shown in Figure (3-3) Figure 3-3: The Land Use Puzzle
Model ref. CABERNET (2006)

3.3. Brownfields in stakeholders’ perspectives

Various studies of urban management and planning showed the topic involves so
many scientific and social disciplines that it is difficult not only to understand how the
whole system works, but also to define its limits2.

One of the key dimensions of brownfield regeneration is the diversity of professions

involved in the process. This diversity of professions could be categorized into the groups
of stakeholders that affect, or affected by, brownfield regeneration as illustrated in table
(3-1). The more Stakeholders are identified and involved from the early preparation for
regeneration project, the smoother the project planning process. Successful Brownfields
regeneration often relies on strong coordination among stakeholders including local
communities; local, government; private parties; and nonprofit organizations. Successful
development of brownfields can be enabled or accelerated when these stakeholders work
together to follow a common regeneration goals.

1
ibid
2
⁹EEA (2002) Towards an Urban Atlas, Assessment of Spatial Data on 25 European Cities and Urban
Areas, European Environment Agency, Copenhagen;
35
Table 3-1: Examples of Stakeholders involved in the regeneration of brownfield sites,
ref: Williams, K., & Dair, C. (2007)

Stakeholder Examples of types of stakeholder within each Group

groups
Stakeholders involved in land-use planning and regulation
Service . Local authority regulators (e.g. planners, urban designers,
providers and environmental health officers, highways and transport regulators,
councilors, landscape architects)
Regulators, Environment Agency regulators
legislative . Councilors
consulters, . Building control (Local authority or approved inspectors)
. Utility regulators and service providers (gas, electricity, water
and drainage)
. Central government departments and regional authorities
Non-statutory . Business interests
consultees, . Pressure groups
interest groups, . Community group interests
and individuals . Individuals
Stakeholders involved in development and construction
Property Public sector and private developers
developers and . Investors
developer . Land owners
interests . Shareholders of investing institutions and developers
. Construction workers
. Suppliers
Professional . Lawyers
advisors . Architects, planning consultants, conservationists and
archaeologists
. Civil and environmental engineers
. Surveyors
. Insurers and valuers
. Landscaping consultants
Stakeholders involved in end use
End users . Clients of developers (e.g. manufacturers, business
entrepreneurs, retailers, home buyers, public service providers)
. Residents of dwellings and residential homes
. Proprietors of commercial businesses including, offices,
shops; restaurants, and their suppliers, employees and customers
. Manufacturers and their suppliers, employees and
customers
. Managers and proprietors, of public/ private institutions
including schools, hospitals, and leisure centres and their
employees and visitors
. Landowners of public/private open space, parks, gardens,
woodland and the public that uses those areas

32
 Different stakeholders have diverse perspectives and unlike needs. As a result,
problem-oriented solutions for brownfields will need to focus on multi-stakeholder
approaches that respect the range of perspectives as well as the diversity of stakeholder
values. It should be noted that although new tools and approaches are required, there are
already available several good practice examples and valuable tools that are widely
recognized and used.

To identify the individuals or groups that are likely to affect or be affected by a

proposed action, and sorting them according to their influence on the action and the
influence the action will have on them ,stakeholders mapping and analysis could be
effectively used1 as shown in figure (3-4).
Stakeholder analysis is used to assess how the interests of those stakeholders should
be addressed in project plan, policy, program, or other action. The previously mentioned
analysis should be done during the preparation phase of a project to evaluate attitudes of
stakeholders regarding the potential changes. However, in the future it can be done once
or frequently to track changes in stakeholder attitudes over time.

Figure (3-4): Engagement strategy based on the interest/influence stakeholder map ref.:
http://www.stakeholdermap.com/stakeholder-analysis.html

1
Fletcher, A., et al. (2003). "Mapping stakeholder perceptions for a third sector organization."
in: Journal of Intellectual Capital
33
 3.3.1. Roles and Interests of Participants
Each participant of these previously mentioned groups has either a role or interest or
both, which affect brownfield regeneration project. The following table (3-2) summarizes
the roles each participant could play in brownfields regeneration and their interest in a
successful transformation. The key idea is to consider multi perspective approach where
every participant has incentive or interest to make brownfield regeneration happens.

Table 3-2: Examples of Roles and Interests of Participants in brownfield regeneration,

EPA (2006)

Participants Examples Role Interest

‫ إ‬Want to receive the value of their

Sell or
Property property
develop the
Owner ‫ إ‬Want to manage any liability
Property
concerns
‫ إ‬Want to see the project succeed in
‫ إ‬Local
Redevelop terms of revitalizing
Governments
the property blighted properties and generating
‫ إ‬Community
Public- from a economic or community
Groups
Sector community growth
‫ إ‬Grant
Stakeholders and economic ‫ إ‬May want the successful property
Recipients
development assessment, cleanup, and
‫ إ‬Nonprofit
perspective reuse to enhance the community’s
Organizations
image
‫ إ‬Want to see the project succeed in
terms of revitalizing
blighted properties and generating
‫ إ‬Investors
economic or community
‫ إ‬Lenders Provide
Private- growth
‫إ‬Developers resources to
Sector ‫ إ‬Want to earn an appropriate return
‫ إ‬Insurers develop the
Stakeholders on investment
property
‫ إ‬May want to tie the property
redevelopment into a larger
redevelopment plan for the
neighborhood or community
‫ إ‬Want to ensure that the property is
‫ إ‬Attorneys
Provide cleaned up and safe for
‫ إ‬Environmental
technical, appropriate levels of use and/or
Other Consultants
regulatory, or reuse
Parties ‫ إ‬State and
other ‫ إ‬Want to alleviate future
Federal
guidance environmental concerns on the
Regulators
Property

32
Due to the diversity of stakeholders and their different roles, effects, interest, and
perspectives, The Football model was developed by CABERNET to highlight how
different stakeholder perspectives can affect the regeneration process (represented by the
football) as shown in figure (3-5). With this interactive model, individuals are asked to
list the most significant regeneration drivers. When the process (football) is activated,
the significant 'driver' determines where the football falls. When various groups of
stakeholders list their drivers, it is informative to review the divergence and convergence
in their views and how they 'kick' the football.

Figure (3-5): The Football Model interactive screen showing the

stakeholder selection , ref.: CABERNET (2006)

3.4. Drivers and challenges of brownfields regeneration

Brownfields regeneration complexity is mainly affected by multi-disciplinary issues.
Urban planning, economic, environmental, social and technical issues are key factors that
could affect the regeneration of a brownfield site between challenges and opportunities.
Some factors may act as drivers for the regeneration while others act as obstacles or
challenges, that needs to dealt with.

3.4.1. Governance factor

Governance could be either a driver or obstacle for brownfields regeneration.
Governance’ refers to the policies and actions of government, market and society that

33
together aim to influence urban developments 1 . Governance involves a process of
interaction, coordination and collaboration between different groups of actors.
Within the complex settings of urban
development, there are three important groups
of actors; Public actors; as Government,
private actors; as Market and Societal actors; society
as society as illustrated in figure (3-6).

Actors from these three groups have different Market

 Government instruments could be one or

policies and actions instruments to contribute.

more of the following; Government

- laws and regulation,
- policies,
- financial instruments i.e. taxes
and funds,
- Information and communication. Figure (3-6): governance actors, developed by the
Some of these instruments could be more researcher

 Market instruments are tools that admit

effective than others.

 Instruments of societal action could be; organized ad-vocative action, such as NGO
the competitive character of the market; it could be affecting supply or demand.

action, interest groups, campaigns and protests, neighborhood networks, joint

procurement initiatives, and cooperatives. Collaboration and coordination between
different actors and synchronizing of actions are essential to be sustainable.

3.4.2. Brownfields regeneration drivers:

One of the most influential drivers for regenerating brownfields is the expected benefits.
Benefits for society and all stakeholders could be economic, social, environmental,
political, physical upgrading. For example, economic benefits could be commercial
benefits for private sector and fiscal benefits for governments.

Private stakeholders are motivated to interfere in brownfields regeneration because of the

profit factor which can be developed through transforming the site into a useable and
marketable object by directly selling the property after remediation. In some cases an
additional motive for the owner is to divest liability risks/costs2
Although often it will be the private sector that gains commercial benefits, such benefits
can also be achieved by the public sector if it is involved in property selling and/or
economic exploitation after redevelopment.

 Public fiscal profits:

In addition to possible commercial benefits for government, some of the benefits of

brownfield redevelopment translate directly into positive financial effects for
government:

1
Tosics, I. (2011). Governance challenges and models for the cities of tomorrow.
2
Groenendijk, N. (2006). Financing Techniques for Brownfield Regeneration-A practical guide.
40
- Restoration and/or enhancement of the tax base of unoccupied and underutilized sites
(increase in revenue from property tax, income taxes)
- increased utilization of existing hard (infrastructure) and soft public services (efficiency
gains due to better dispersion of fixed costs, increase in revenue from user charges)
- Revenue from development charges.
Brownfield regeneration can facilitate the reuse of industrial lots in cities. Incentives
for developers can encourage high-density urban development in city centers, but this
development must be a respond to demand. On the one hand, there are many barriers for
redevelopment, such as expensive land prices, demolition cost of existing facilities, and
limited land use by zoning regulation and cleanup costs. On the other hand, there are
much welfare from brownfield redevelopment, such as urban revitalization, increased
asset value of the site and the surrounding site, improved tax base, increased employment,
environmental protection, effective use of existing infrastructure and prevention of urban
sprawl.1

3.4.3. Economic viability of brownfields sites

One of the most important drivers of brownfield regeneration is the economic viability
of individual sites. This can be affected by many different factors, which can alter quite
considerably over time. The economic status of a site can be affected by:
‫ إ‬Indirect as well as direct costs of the regeneration,
‫ إ‬Predicted revenues / return from the site
‫ إ‬The type of financing and the associated financial risks
‫ إ‬National and local taxes and their perceived risk of fluctuations
‫ إ‬Any development agreements between the land owner and / or the municipality
and the developer
The "Economic Components of the A-B-C Model" can illustrate different types of
brownfield regeneration projects, representing their economic status, as shown in figure
(3-7).

Figure (3-7): A-B-C Model, Economic Components of brownfield site, ref.

CABERNET
1
Trends in Urbanisation and Urban Policies in OECD Countries: What Lessons for China?, 2010
www.oecd.org/urban/roundtable/45159707.pdf
41
 This model identifies three types of sites according to their economic status (due to
the cost of regeneration, the value of the land, and revenue drivers for brownfield
regeneration). Sites are classified as:

‫ إ‬A Sites – are highly economically viable and private funding drives the development
projects.

‫ إ‬B Sites – are on the borderline of profitability. Such projects tend to be funded through
public-private co-operation or partnerships

‫ إ‬C Sites – are not in a condition where regeneration can be profitable. Their regeneration
mainly depends on public sector or municipality driven projects. Public funding or
specific legislative instruments (e.g. tax incentives) are required to stimulate regeneration
of these sites

The A-B-C model highlights the funding drivers for brownfield regeneration. The
conceptual model can be used to assist decision makers, responsible for urban
development and investment to characterize strategies for dealing with different types of
brownfields. By identifying the type of site and considering the factors that are affecting
a site's category, i.e. if it is an A, B, or C site, both public and private bodies can examine
intervention options and regeneration strategies1.

3.4.4. Brownfields regeneration challenges

Several challenges helped in make brownfields remediation and regeneration unique
in comparison to other real estate development projects. Obstacles and constraints of
regenerating brownfields sites could be of the followings:2

 Cleanup Considerations: The site could be polluted and require cleanup, which
require more time, and cost. Cleaning up brownfields can be expensive, so
contamination is unlikely to be removed unless a site is intended for a new use that
makes the clean-up financially viable3. Brownfields regeneration may take longer
than typical real estate development due to environmental assessment and cleanup
activities.
 Technical and governance: Absence of adequate and consistently accessible
expertise within government agencies dedicated to the development of brownfields.


Lack of a common vision, and a consistent system for development.
Reuse Planning: A reuse plan goals or economic and environmental information
(e.g., market potential) may be unacceptable from people owns the land or live by it


to change, use or develop it.
Environmental Liability Concerns: Developers and property owners want to
manage past and future liabilities associated with the property’s environmental
history.

1
CABERNET (2006) Sustainable Brownfield regeneration: CABERNET network report.
2
Paull, E. (2008). The environmental and economic impacts of brownfields redevelopment. Northeast
Midwest.
3
What are brownfields? (n.d.). Retrieved August 30, 2016, from http://cielap.org/brownfields/
45
  Financial Barriers: The requirement for large capital investment; in some cases,
cleanup costs for a property may ultimately be more than the property’s value.

Despite these challenges, significant opportunities exist for successful brownfields

redevelopment. A redevelopment idea that mechanism to bring new life to an area,
enhanced by public support for the project, can create the momentum necessary to
overcome the challenges associated with brownfields transactions.
Researches demonstrates that effective redevelopment of brownfield sites has the
potential to impact urban communities by providing well-paying jobs in blighted
communities, reducing urban sprawl and related fossil fuel consumption, and to revitalize
neighborhoods 1 . The governmental intervention to revitalize these areas may be
indispensable to make them more economically attractive2

3.4.5. The impact of brownfield regeneration:

The impact of brownfield regeneration into residential development on deprived
areas differs according to neighboring area type3:
 Escalation: where incomers arrive from similar or more deprived areas and
out movers go to less deprived areas. This neighborhood type represents

 gentrification: where the social composition is altered by incomers from less

upward progression through housing and labor markets;

 isolation: where there is less inward and outward migration to and from other
deprived areas and out-movers to similar or more deprived locations;

 Transit: where most incomers and out movers come from and go to less
less deprived areas, resulting in socially isolated neighborhoods;

deprived areas. Typically, this represents young households moving on to the

housing ladder.
These impacts must be considered or at least anticipated, to direct the regeneration
process to success.

3.5. Brownfield analysis from perspective of sustainability

Taking into account the complexity of this urban problem, brownfield regeneration
should consistently be part of a coherent spatial and strategic land management approach,
particularly with respect to the wider issues of economic, environmental and social
dimensions of sustainable development.

A systemic approach to objective focused problem solving has been shown to map
onto the challenge of ensuring that brownfield regeneration meets the criteria of
sustainability.

1
Nazon, D. (2007). Brownfields Redevelopment and Competitive Advantage Theory: Urban
Revitalization and Stakeholder Engagement in South Troy, NY. ProQuest.
2
Grimski, D., & Ferber, U. (2001). Urban brownfields in Europe. Land Contamination and
Reclamation, 9(1), 143-148.
3
Brownfield residential redevelopment in England report,2010
43
 3.5.1. Importance of Sustainability Objectives
When considering the sustainable development objectives, brownfield opportunities
and regeneration responsibilities can be characterized as follows1:
• Economic: Mobilizing human resources, using existing sites and infrastructure
to develop and improve the urban fabric. Generate economic growth in urban
area, increase public and private income.
• Ecological/ environmental: Cleaning up, restoring previously used land and
Placing brownfields regeneration at the forefront of regeneration strategies and
using this program as a driver for the clean-up of contaminated land. land
consumption reduction and urban sprawl by encouraging sustainable brownfield
regeneration projects.
• Social/ cultural: Ensuring the long-term sustainability of brownfields
regeneration by including socio-cultural dimensions. Communities can be
encouraged to provide representatives and equitable sustainable development;
which may reduce the potential for subsequent decline and recreation of
brownfields, improving the quality of life in city areas.
In order to achieve more progress in terms of sustainable brownfield regeneration, a
number of key aspects of the regeneration process need to be identified and assessed.
Sustainability assessment is a process of evaluating of possible outcomes across all
sustainable development elements (economic, social and environmental) as an integrated
discipline in decision-making2.
Sustainability assessment is increasingly being used in support of decision making for
brownfield restoration projects3 .
There is no standard prescriptive or method for assessing sustainability of brownfields
regeneration 4 , nevertheless there are general principles and descriptive standards as
evaluative approach.
For example, an informative framework was developed by Williams and Dair, with
an objectives-led approach to assess the sustainability of brownfield regeneration using
sustainability indicator framework. The objectives-led approach focuses on a discrete
number of clear sustainability aims and expands the framework by adding practical
examples of how these objectives could be achieved5, the framework is illustrated in
table (3-4).

1
Tölle, A. (2009). Report about concepts and tools for brownfield redevelopment activities (Output No.
3.1. 1 of the COBRAMAN project)
2
Bardos et al., 2011, Applying sustainable development principles to contaminated land management
using the SuRF‐UK framework
3
RESCUE, 2005; CL:AIRE, 2006; REVIT, 2007
4
Bartke, S., & Schwarze, R. (2015). No perfect tools: Trade-offs of sustainability principles and user
requirements in designing support tools for land-use decisions between greenfields and
brownfields. Journal of environmental management, 153, 11-24.
5
Williams, K., & Dair, C. (2007). A framework for assessing the sustainability of brownfield
developments. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management,50(1), 23-40.
44
 Table (3-4): Sustainability Objectives that could be met in Brownfield regeneration
Adopted from Williams and Dair
Sustainability objectives Examples of how these objectives can be met in
brownfield developments
Economic sustainability objectives
1. To enable businesses to be Reduce energy consumption in construction.
efficient and competitive . Reduce waste in construction e.g. recycling of
materials.
. Provide infrastructure and buildings that enable
businesses to keep energy and water consumption to a
minimum.
. Provide developments with renewable energy power
sources.
. Provide high quality urban design, including secure
premises.
. Provide high quality buildings that are flexible and
can be adapted with minimum costs.
. Provide transport infrastructure to meet business
needs.
5. To support local economic . Provide higher densities to enhance commercial
diversity viability.
. Provide a mix of uses to increase viability and vitality
of commercial areas.
. Enable a supply of properly serviced land and
business premises.
. Use locally produced goods and materials in
construction.
3. To provide employment . Provide a mix of uses to give choice of employment.
opportunities . Develop high quality buildings for manufacturing
and commercial activities.
. Increase the recruitment of local unemployed people.
. Provide a mix of uses to give choice of employment.
Environmental sustainability objectives
1. To minimize the use of . Use renewable materials, e.g. sustainably produced
resources timber.
. Use recycled materials, e.g. aggregates.
. Use renewable energy sources, e.g. wind turbines,
photovoltaic cells.
. Design developments for minimum waste during
construction, life and after-life.
. Use materials with low energy inputs
5. To minimize pollution . Remediate contaminated land.
45
 . Reduce air pollution including dust during
construction.
. Mitigate noise pollution both during and after
construction.
. Provide infrastructure for public transport, walking,
cycling.
. Raise densities on sites within 200 m of existing
centers, services and transport corridors.
. Design buildings for minimum energy consumption
in use.
3. To protect biodiversity and . Conserve flora, wildlife and habitats on site.
the . Provide wildlife refuges, such as ponds and wild
natural environment areas.
'Use sustainable urban drainage systems to protect
rivers and watercourses from pollution and flooding.
Social sustainability objectives
1. To adhere to ethical standards . Ensure ethical trading throughout the supply chain of
during a development.
the development process . Provide a safe and healthy work environment.
. Comply with labour conventions e.g. non-
discrimination at work and reasonable hours.
5. To provide adequate local . Provide space for training.
services and . Provide open space for community benefit.
facilities to serve the . Develop good quality energy efficient buildings for
development community activities.
. Offer a mix of retail spaces.
3. To provide housing to meet . Develop a mix of housing tenure and type.
local . Provide affordable housing.
Needs . Provide high quality and flexible buildings that
minimize the use of resources.
. Provide secure dwellings with the layout of buildings
and spaces arranged to deter crime.
4. To integrate the development . Provide multiple links to adjacent neighborhoods.
within . Reject or discourage gated developments.
the locality . Create a mix of transport provision with a variety of
modal links to services, work, leisure and homes.
. Provide good access for people with disabilities.
5. To conserve local culture and . Reuse locally valued buildings.
heritage, . Design developments to reflect local heritage and use
if appropriate local materials.

42
Another sustainability assessment approach is the Interaction Matrix. It is a conceptual
model that can be applied to brownfield regeneration1. The approach involves a well-
defined sequence of actions that ensures that all factors relevant to a proposed brownfield
regeneration project in a specific location have been explicitly considered. This matrix
can be used to study the relative inter-activeness, dominance and dependence of the
parameters. As illustrated in figure (3-8)

Figure 3-8 Illustrative interaction matrix for the urban

land system, ref. CABERNET, 2006

Sustainability assessment usually provides a framework for assessing the overall

outcomes in a holistic way. It could be used as a guiding base for financial investment
decision making, however there is no clear measurable financial outcome in economic
value, and the investments required for brownfield regeneration are financial.
Alternatively, cost–benefit analysis is used as the basis for investment decisions2. Cost–
benefit assessment compares the expected benefits of a project with its costs as a form of
economic valuation.

1
CABERNET (2006) Sustainable Brownfield regeneration: CABERNET network report.
2
Bardos, R. P., Jones, S., Stephenson, I., Menger, P., Beumer, V., Neonato, F., ... & Wendler, K. (2016).
Optimising value from the soft re-use of brownfield sites. Science of The Total Environment, 563, 769-
782.
43
3.6. Conclusion
Brownfields regeneration is not a simple process, but a complex one. It is affected by
many factors and its result are not granted, however it could be managed to reach a certain
limit of sustainability.
Brownfield regeneration can be very effective on wider urban development scale.
The dynamics of the brownfields regeneration/creation is a shift from linear to circular
process. There will always be a flow of brownfields in and out of the land use cycle, as
sites change in use and are regenerated. As possible, there should be a steady flow in
equal volumes. Regeneration of brownfield should consider soft reuse and temporary
uses as well as the hard reuse as built constructions or infrastructure development.
Brownfield regeneration should be part of a comprehensible strategic land management
approach. Land management and brownfields are highly relevant cross cutting topic for
urban development. Therefore, integrated approaches and comprehensive strategies are
necessary.
The regeneration of brownfields is a challenging issue that requires the involvement
of the entire range of stakeholders. Many studies, projects and organizations have
recognized the importance of stakeholder involvement and have promoted public
participation. Stakeholders’ perspectives proved to be different according to their
interests, and roles in the regeneration process
Brownfields are usually perceived as complex systems, where several issues need
to be addressed. Such issues could be Urban planning, economic, social, environmental
and technical aspects; for example contamination and remediation strategies and options,
site investigation, and risk assessment, project planning and financing. However, the
economic, social, environmental and political benefits represent driving motivation for
regenerating brownfields.
From the decision-making point of view, the context of policies and actions of
government, market and society could be either a driver or obstacle for brownfields
regeneration, as well the economic viability of individual sites. According to the cost of
regeneration, the value of the site, and the revenue, brownfield site could classified as A,
B, or C site which assist in regeneration opportunity valuation, and investigating
intervention options and regeneration strategies.
Sustainability assessment could be also used in support of decision making for
brownfield regeneration projects. However, there is no standard prescriptive or method
for assessing sustainability of brownfield regeneration. Objective and general principles
have been identified for the regeneration context of brownfields. Stakeholder
involvement and balanced objectives are important part of sustainability assessment. This
assessment usually provides a framework for evaluating the overall outcomes in a holistic
way. However, regarding the financial investments required for brownfield regeneration,
sustainability evaluation should be combined with cost–benefit analysis as a base for
investment decision making.
Ultimately, to develop a strategy for sustainable brownfields regeneration, multi
stakeholders approach is essential, where every stakeholder has role and interest to fulfill.
Sustainable Brownfield sustainable regeneration is a balanced approach that incorporates
environmental, socio cultural, technical, and economic aspects “to meet the present needs
without compromising the needs of the future”.

42
Chapter 4 : Worldwide Experience in Urban
Regeneration of brownfields, International
Case Studies

43
4.1. Introduction
This chapter presents analytical study of the applicability of previous concepts of
sustainable urban regeneration of brownfields. It reviews the international examples of
reactions to brownfields, how countries and governments deal with such condition.
Brownfields regeneration is an international concept in which most of world nations
are working on. As it is one main tool in sustainable development, however each country
deals with brownfield regeneration differently, according to its needs and priorities.
The goal of this chapter is to investigate and analyze variety of international
experiences of dealing with urban regeneration as a condition sustainably. It is also going
to review different types and the scales of interventions. Moreover, some good practices
from different counties presenting different previous uses and different goals in
development, taking in to consideration factors related to environment, economy and
urban conditions.
After finishing this chapter, research will have covered a comprehensive background
about sustainable urban regeneration of brownfields, not only theoretically, but also in
real life experience.in addition to different stages and methodologies done during
project chain.

4.2. International Reactions dealing with Brownfields

The regeneration of brownfields, especially in inner-city locations plays an
important role in revitalizing the whole city. Therefore, the international research and
policy activities increased in the context of spatial planning, economic and environmental
restoration and social and technical science1.
Many governments and countries e.g. OECD2 countries recognized the presence of
brownfields as a complex problem that goes far beyond single economic, environmental,
social or urban concerns. They started actively to promote brownfield regeneration as an
important policy that contributes to sustainable development3
Most of the international reaction to Brownfields have been affected by4 some factors

 The scale and number of contaminated properties,

which include:

 Land availability,
 Population density,
 Historic preservation objectives,
 Governmental priorities.

For example, The U.K., Netherlands, and Germany are countries, which have limited
undeveloped land and need to preserve their remaining green space5.

1
Ferber, U., & Grimski, D. (2003). Brownfields and Redevelopment of Urban Areas: Report Prepared by
Working Group" Brownfield Redevelopment" (CLARINET).
2
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
3
Trends in Urbanisation and Urban Policies in OECD Countries: What Lessons for China?, 2010
www.oecd.org/urban/roundtable/45159707.pdf
4
Smith, G. (2008). Contributions of brownfield development to urban internal expansion and urban
renewal in practice. In 44th International Society of City and Regional Planners Congress, Dalian,
China (pp. 19-23).
5
IEDC 2008
50
On the other hand, Countries such as the United States, Canada and Australia are less
restricted by availability of land; however, they recognize the importance of brownfields
to economic efficiency and urban renewal and, particularly in the United States, have
established integrated environment protection and land use planning approaches to
facilitate Brownfields activities1.
Although the underlying conditions are different, there are brownfields sites in the
traditional industrial centers and in metropolitan cities, as well as in peripheral
locations. Thus have led towards different strategies and programs to support the
regeneration of brownfields.

Governmental interventions were essential, as property market forces were not

enough to resolve the problem. Accordingly, and in light of the major benefits of
Brownfields to urban growth, governments in many nations are increasingly taking steps
to facilitate the reuse of Brownfield sites2. List of steps3 many governments made as
shown in figure (4-1) could also be used as recommendations.

Quantify, Encourage Develop a Provide

Develop
Define inventory applied system of financial
integrated
brownfields and describe research gradual efforts to
strategy
brownfields projects treatment reduce risks

Figure 4-1 steps and recommendations made by governments. Source; Author based on
CLARINET report

Figure (4-2) summarize the governments' reactions towards the issue of brownfields
Most of the reactions were in kind of initiatives, policies, and research programs.
Activities on different levels, considered constraints and requirements of the
regeneration, for examples; the technical and economic risks, land valuation
complications, time scales required for land acquisition and legal matters. In many cases,
policies considerations and programs were directed to the level of priorities for individual
projects and objectives.4

1
US EPA 2007
2
Smith, G. (2008).
3
COMMISSION EUROPEEENE, 1992
4
CLARINET, E. (2001)
51
 Figure 4-2 government reactions dealing with Brownfield, source; Author based on
CLARINET report

4.2.1. United States of America

The U.S.A government reaction to Brownfields was initially directed towards
cleaning up contaminated sites for protection of the public and the environment
In 1980, the US government decreed the 'Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation, and Liability Act' (CERCLA) Law, also known as "Superfund". This law
imposed a tax on the chemical and petroleum industries, and the tax went to a trust fund
for cleaning up disused contaminated waste sites1. The CERCLA established regulation
regarding contaminated brownfields and identified the liability of who is responsible for
cleaning up the toxic wastes at these sites. As a result of such strict regulation, developers
and business institutions preferred to keep these brownfields untouched and preferred
greenfield development. Many state governments responded to the problem by providing
economic incentives and liability exemption to developers. Pushed ahead by the state
governments, federal government enacted Brownfield Act in 2002 to support the
activities of state governments.2
The EPA’s Brownfields Economic Redevelopment Initiative started in 1335. The
objective of the initiative- as outlined in the brownfields Action Agenda- is to assist
states, communities, and other organizations or individuals in assessing, cleaning up,
sustainably reusing and preventing future brownfield 3 . Additionally to develop the
knowledge, experience, and public confidence required for continued implementation of
future brownfield projects at the local community level4.
In the beginning, brownfields redevelopment was directed towards cleaning up
contaminated sites for protection of the public and the environment. The success of the

1
OECD (2010). Regional development policies in OECD Countries
2
ibid
3
EPA, 1998
4
https://www.epa.gov/brownfields access 4-2016
55
brownfield initiative is the ability of redevelopment project to stimulate sustainable
environmental restoration and economic development.
With support from EPA, working group called ''Brownfield Redevelopment"
undertook a comparative study of the economic outcomes of efforts to regenerate urban
brownfields in several countries. The main goal was to assist governments to develop
sustainable policies and methods for achieving sustainable brownfield regeneration with
positive economic outcomes and benefits to society.1
Incentives from federal, state and local governments were provided by the
government who lead the way, more corporations followed and became interested.
Investors, developers and experienced contractors were involved and owners became
interested. Brownfields Law & Incentives were created to address the environmental
issues for property transactions, expansions and Liability protection. Funding was
provided for Assessment, Cleanup, Redevelopment of eligible sites and entities

4.2.2. The United Kingdom

As the World’s first industrialized country, de-industrialization mainly occurred in
the 1970'-90's need to reactivating previously developed sites. (PDL) Previously
developed land is the term used in UK to represent brownfield. Regeneration in UK
approach include reusing the land and buildings in unexploited former industrial,
commercial, transport, military etc. Regional development agency (RDA) and English
partnership (EP) 2 are the main governmental bodies responsible for dealing with
brownfields or (PDL)
UK government agendas focused on several, integrated goals not only on
environmental recovery. Mainly the government was less involved in particular
Brownfield sites; additionally they used incentives and regulations. Private developers
initiated about 75 % of regeneration projects in the UK, as they can take advantage of tax
credits for remediation costs3. Government provided tax incentives and other financial
aid (e.g. dereliction aid and gap funding scheme) to confront obstacles of brownfield
regeneration which usually require higher financial costs.
In the UK, the policy main objectives were economic development– attraction of
inward investment, for example by the establishment of business and industrial parks,
job creation, etc. These programs have been accompanied by ecological improvement in
areas damaged by former use. In recent years, there has been new emphasis on reuse of
brownfield sites for much needed housing land. In the "urban white paper" and
"sustainable communities plan" document, The UK government increased the brownfield
development targets for regional/local planning authorities from 50% to 60%.4

4.2.1. Europe experience

Since the 1980th Decline of industries; coal, steel and textile led to structural change
in industry in many EU countries. Due to low land value and high rehabilitation and
cleansing costs, brownfields were left derelict. Consequently, governments have
developed Comprehensive strategies and programs for brownfield revitalization with

1
https://www.epa.gov/land-revitalization access 4-2016
2
English partnership act 2008
3
Smith, G. (2008, September). Contributions of brownfield development to urban internal expansion and
urban renewal in practice
4
OECD (2010). Regional development policies in OECD Countries, P.G. 360.
53
support of the European structural policy, especially in UK, France and Germany. The
European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) was the main funding instrument used
for regeneration of derelict industrial sites. besides sector-specific “Community
Initiatives” for example; ”RESIDER” for steel sites, ”RETEX” for textile industry sites,
”RECHAR” for coalfields, and ”RENAVAL” for ship building sites help to realize the
structural change in traditional industrial regions.1
ERDF interregional activities have been initiated since 1989 by Article 16 projects,
RECITE II and INTERREG e.g. BERI: Brownfield European Regeneration Initiative
CONVERnet: Development of a Central European Conversion Network, REVIT:
Revitalizing industrial sites. The main focus have been on the exchange of best practice
on the site by site level integrating environmental aspects/soil contaminations,
management models and public participation.2
In 1998 the European Commission agreed that a more strategic and integrated
approach to urban issues is needed at the European level3.In 2000 the Urban Environment
Expert Group stated that “Brownfield issues play a major role in the context of
sustainable land use”4. The Brownfield regeneration was recognized as a key to tackling
urban sprawl and ensuring a more sustainable environment5
European research Networks, such as CLARINET (Contaminated Land
Rehabilitation NETwork), have highlighted the need for the consideration of
contaminated and brownfield land in a broader context. In 5005 the “Concerted Action
on Brownfield and Economic Regeneration NETwork )CABERNET(” provided a
framework to enhance the incorporation of sustainable development into land use
planning decisions, by focusing on the specific need to reuse the brownfield resource,
recommendations related to policy, good practice and research programs
Multiple initiatives were made in European Union countries on many levels;
policies, Research networks, projects, for example6;
BERI Brownfield European Regeneration Initiative, CABERNET Concerted
Action of Brownfield and Economic Regeneration Network, LUDA Improving the
quality of life in the Large Urban Distressed Areas, PROSIDE Promoting Sustainable
Inner Urban Development, RECULA Restructuring Cultural Landscapes, RESCUE
Regeneration of European Sites in Cities and Urban Environments, REVIT Revitalizing
Industrial Sites.
In addition, central and local governments made their own reactions and started
programs for reusing their derelict sites.For examples: In German: Local governments
deal with brownfields as opportunities for economic development. Their planning
efforts increasingly encourage development goals regulated by the potential land use7.
Netherland: central government administers programs that direct funding and
support to priority Brownfields sites, coordinated with local land use and planning
processes. Providing a strategic approach to reuse of contaminated sites, utilize

1
Ferber, U. (2011). Brownfield Integrated Governance–BRING Baseline Study–Development phase
Mai.
2
ibid
3
Communication Sustainable Urban Development in the European Union: A Framework for Action
(COM(98)605).
4
Expert Group, 2000
5
Soil Framework Directive, COM (2006
6
Tölle, A. (2009). Report about concepts and tools for brownfield redevelopment activities.
7
Garry, S. (2008)
54
Brownfields redevelopment to contribute to further urban planning goals, such as
improved housing, transportation, and quality of life1
Most of these programs offered approaches and recommendations to solve urban
development, economic, social and ecological issues, which include:
‫ إ‬Limiting greenfield development by re-generating brownfields.
‫ إ‬Functional and design improvement of the affected urban structures by recovery of
brownfields and while aiming at wider urban revitalization;
‫ إ‬conserving the architectural heritage of the industrial history by retrofitting historic
industrial buildings with new uses;
‫ إ‬creating employment opportunities and increasing the skills of unemployed people.
‫ إ‬restoring the landscape and improving of environmental quality, distorted by
industrial use.

As a result, International experience of brownfield regeneration in relation to

initiatives, policies, and programs showed that most of integrated land management
policies addressing brownfield regeneration focused on indirect incentives (market-led
initiatives), and enabling public intervention. policies mainly designed to address the
challenges facing brownfields regeneration: (legal obstacles and clarifying legal liability-
 legal incentives/regulations and direct and indirect financial incentives to encourage
brownfield development and discourage greenfield development using ‘taxation’ -
dealing with public opposition to brownfields through research programs and
information on the benefits of regenerating and reusing brownfields. 2

4.3. The project chain in brownfield regeneration

Nations have their own strategies, policies, and agendas in dealing with brownfields as
a condition of assets; however, most of brownfield sites are usually treated as
development projects. As every urban development project, there is project chain
consists of the procedure that brownfield regeneration project has to go through. These
stages starting with initiatives then planning, and a business model including the three
stages of finance, site or/and real estate development, and finally operation and
maintenance.as shown in fig (4.14)
These projects may differ in their goal, actors and stakeholder from public and private
sector play a role in each process. They all aim to apply regeneration process regardless
the source of their initiatives, which sometimes is government, other times may be
developers or even community itself.
Steps of the procedure of brownfield regeneration project3:
1. Initiative (I)
2. Planning (P) (including site assessment, initial design)
3. Financing of the project (F)
4. Site development (SD) (clean-up, remediation)
5. Real estate development (RD) (building)
6. Operation & maintenance (O) facilities in public domain (like public
infrastructure)

1
ibid
2
The Challenge of Sustainable Brownfield Regeneration in Europe, European Commission, 2007
3
Groenendijk, N. (2006). Financing Techniques for Brownfield Regeneration-A practical guide.
55
 O
RD Real
SD Site Operation
F estate
I Initiative P Planning developm &
Financing developm
ent maintena
ent
nce

Business model & cooperation issues

Figure 4-3 project chain or the procedure of brownfield regeneration project, reference:
Groenendijk, N. (2006)

4.3.1. The idea or start of the project (Initiative)

The idea for a regeneration project could be generated or developed by the property
owner, private investor, neighboring community, or the government1.

Government initiated projects :

Government usually gets involved in regeneration either because it originally owns the
property or its powers are needed to assemble land because of disparate ownership,
bankruptcies, or abandonment. In such projects public outreach is essential, although it
takes more time, effort and require different methods to be applied. The main reasons for
public information efforts are developing ideas for projects and seeking support for them.
It's essential to use public planning tools (e.g., request for proposal, public open
Competitions, Panel discussions, etc.). 2

Owner/developer-initiated projects:
These kind of projects usually are followed by developers who understand the
challenges or who have much experience in renovation or by the original asset's owners
who choose to transform their properties rather than destroy or abandon them3. Usually
these projects are profit oriented which are affected by market forces.

Community-initiated projects:
These could happen only if the community is powerful and enabled. however their
input or initiative can be two-edged influence. They can initiate as well as impede,
prevent, or change projects—whether for the better or worse is relatively subjective. 4

4.3.2. Planning and Design of the project

Planning strategies for a brownfield regeneration project are different from case to case
along with different conditions and context. Starting with regeneration goals which vary

1
Berens, C. (2010). Redeveloping industrial sites: A guide for architects, planners, and developers. John
Wiley & Sons.
2
Ibid, Berens, C. (2010).
3
Ibid
4
Ibid
52
according to many factors, e.g., economic needs of the community, nearby residents and
businesses, the characteristics of the project location, and ownership of the property1, etc.
For example, popular opinion often opts for parks rather than factories as the use for
many of these sites, especially those on waterfronts.

by many factors e.g. Future use, Site preparation, Economic viability, Legal
Developing a program and design for brownfield regeneration project could be affected

framework2.However planning for such projects must take into consideration the long-
term economic consequences, future directions of a city and the standard concerns and
aesthetics of a project.
A master plan is very useful tool in design and development phase which provides a
coordinated approach for achieving the target goals. It focus on ideas that provide the
highest possible return of regeneration. To achieve that, every master plan should
consider three design elements as main criteria: development quality, beautification,
and value enhancement3.
1. Development Quality
The quality of development can be managed and maintained with: a master plan, design
guidelines for circulation, open space, and phased building construction, even when
multiple developers participate.
2. Beautification of the public realm, including streets, parks, and waterfronts.
Beautification elements include landscape, lighting, street furniture, commercial signage,
and way-finding signs. Beautification can have an effect in enhancing the identity, value,
and desirability of a project.
3. Value Enhancement for the property and neighboring community e.g., Assembling
land into larger parcels, enabling additional density and infrastructure development

Infrastructure development can provide two kinds of incentive for regeneration

projects: access improvements and public facility development. Both add value and can
be part of a community’s economic development and very useful on city level
development.
1. Access Improvements
Transit and street redesign, new bicycle paths, pedestrian walkways, parking, and
other access improvements can add value to a project property as well as to the larger
community.
2. Public Facilities
New public facilities, such as transit hub, green parks, government offices, and
cultural and educational facilities, convention centers, arenas, museums, create new jobs
and bring in visitors. All can help improve a city’s economy and desirability. Investment
in public facilities also conveys a community’s positive commitment to and trust in its
future transformation.

1
Ibid
2
CLARINET, E. (2001)
3
Kriken, J. L., Enquist, P. J., & Rapaport, R. (2010). City building: Nine planning principles for the
twenty-first century. Princeton Architectural Press.
53
4.3.3. Business model and cooperation issues
The activities in phases P, F, SD and RD constitute an iterative process where
different forms of cooperation between the public and the private sector can be as;

- Private development. The private sector is in charge of the process

throughout all stages, however assistance may be offered by government
during the planning and financing stages .
- Public development, in which private parties act only as buyer of redeveloped
sites. The initiative to redevelop is taken by government, that plans, finances,
takes care of remediation, and builds. Moreover, government remains firmly
in charge of the operation of public facilities on the site.
- procurement & concession. This development is publicly driven, but there is
significant involvement of the private sector in the project by means of
procurement of at least one of the phases of the redevelopment. Private
involvement can extend over almost all phases of the process, from design to
building and/or operation. In the latter case a concession system can be used
that can be based on the life cycle of the project (15-25 years). If all phases
are incorporated the arrangements are called integrated contracts.
- alliances. With procurement & concession private sector involvement can be
major, but private parties still act as contractors. With alliances, there is
equivalence between the parties involved.
Cooperation development model could be Private, Public, or PPP (public private
partnership) Procurement & Concessions or Alliance. One of these models could be taken
as starting point; usually PPP P&C or PPP Alliance could be more effective or add values.
The urban re/development project could be divided into four main phases: Design (D),
Finance (F), Build (B), and Operate (O, or: Maintain, M)1. In many cases, public-private
partnerships are the main approach where one or more of these phases ownership can be
transferred (T) from one to another. Legal arrangement could be made in the phases
which the private sector take responsibility, or transfer of ownership takes place2. Some
examples are:
- DFBT: the private sector takes care of the full development of the project which is
then transferred to the public sector.
- BOT: the private sector builds the project (designed and financed by the public
sector), operates the infrastructure for a certain amount of time, after which the project
is handed over to the public sector;
- F: private financing only
Costs and benefits analysis has to be considered for the regeneration project, for each
stakeholder. As costs and benefits will vary with end-use, it may be sensible to use 2-3
different variants. For each stage of the project-chain, participants and stakeholders have
to be identified and involved, and their type of involvement has to be specified.
In many cases, to encourage regeneration investment, public incentives are used to
help achieve the goals of the project. These Incentives could be3
• tax reductions,

1
Groenendijk, N. (2006). Financing Techniques for Brownfield Regeneration-A practical guide.
2
ibid
3
Kriken, J. L., Enquist, P. J., & Rapaport, R. (2010). City building: Nine planning principles for the
twenty-first century. Princeton Architectural Press.
52
 • subsidies for land costs,
• site assembly and preparation,
• infrastructure development for transportation and utilities,
• providing health care, education, and public safety services
• open space and landscape beautification
• additional density allowances

4.4. Brownfield regeneration projects case studies:

Many cities and region recognized their underused land, infrastructure, and buildings
as targets for governmental or private redevelopment seeking to attract new interest and
investment. The goal of regenerating these brownfields is to identify more economically
viable or socially desirable uses that best respond to city's needs.
Individual projects shows that in practice different strategies exist. Several good
cases around the world represent successful examples 1 of brownfields urban
regeneration, and the challenge was which case to select, how many cases to present.
The following Cases were selected to represent diversity of dealing with brownfield
regeneration in different cities around the world, different in size, location, approaches,
use, goals

4.4.1. Brownfields to green space projects ,

The regeneration of brownfields has become a central part of government efforts to
revitalize many cities. While the focus of these efforts has concentrated on promoting
industrial and commercial redevelopment, some cities have started to also consider
converting brownfields into parks and open space as part of a more comprehensive
regeneration strategy2.
Many types of green Space could be generated from previous brownfields for
example3:
‫ إ‬Linear Parks )restoration/passive(
‫ إ‬Neighborhood parks )active/passive(
‫ إ‬Large multiple use parks
‫ إ‬Ecological/Natural Habitat
Many objectives and benefits could be achieved from turning brownfields into green
spaces. Firstly, Bringing people back to once abandoned areas, while encouraging
recreation and connectivity could increase community's quality of life. Besides the value
of surrounding property could be increased as public facility is usually a catalyst for new
development. The challenge mainly is the high costs (capital and maintenance) limited
revenue and financing of the project which are usually public driven.4

1
following examples which are not included in the research : Washington Olympic Sculpture Park,
London olymbic regeneration, Munich Messestadt Riem, Hamburg (Hafen City), Shanghai Houtan
Park, Hong Kong Kai Tak Airport, Vancouver Dockside Green,
2
De Sousa, C. A. (2004). The greening of brownfields in American cities. Journal of Environmental
Planning and Management, 47(4), 579-600.
3
https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2016-05/documents/desousa-remediation-restoration-
revitalization-201603-33pp.pdf
4
ibid
53
 4.4.2. Brooklyn Navy Yard high line, New York, USA
Location: new York City
Former use: elevated railroad track
Project: park
Developer: New York city, friends of the high line (NGO)
Public outreach: information meetings, public forums,
Competitions, website updates, active publicity through
Newspaper and magazine articles
Time line: from 1999; first phase completed 2009; 2015

High Line Park is a 2.33 km an elevated section of a

disused New York Central Railroad. Inspired by the 4.8-
kilometer Promenade plantée (tree-lined walkway), a similar
project in Paris completed in 1993, the High Line has been
redesigned and planted as an aerial greenway and rails-to-
trails park.1

In the 1980s after the rail is out of services, a group of

property owners lobbies for demolition while neighboring areas'
residents and activist challenges demolition efforts in court. In
1999, Residents of the High Line neighborhood founded Figure 4-3 Brooklyn
"Friends of the High Line" organization, to advocate for the High Navy Yard high line
Line's preservation and reuse as public open space. Study showed phases ref.
that the High Line project is economically rational, leads to an thehighline.org
open ideas competition2, designing the High Line. In 2006 CSX
Transportation Inc. donated the High Line ownership to The
City. 3

Figure 4-4 high line view ref. www.archdaily.com

The High Line has become a defining feature in its neighborhood and a powerful
catalyst for investment. It's recognized as a significant contributor in the revitalization of
Manhattan's West Side. In 2005, the City rezoned the area around the High Line to
encourage development while protecting the neighborhood character. The combination
of the rezoning and the success of the park have helped to create one of the fastest
growing and most vibrant neighborhoods in NYC. Afterwards, new building permits

1
https://www.thehighline.org/blog/2012/02/01/an-elevated-park-%C3%A0-la-fran%C3%A7aise 5-2016
2
http://cargocollective.com/Uofanycstudioarch/HIGH-LINE-COMPETITION access 8-2016
3
http://www.thehighline.org/ 5-2016
20
 increased and many major development projects have been initiated increased private
investment including 12,000 new jobs1.
The design of the park is iconic and specific to its place inspired other cities to
investigate the feasibility of replicating it in their cities. the High Line is significant and
meaningful as a project that is politically, ecologically, historically, socially, and
economically sustainable 2 . Politically as a proof to community activism, saved by
neighboring community residents. Ecologically as a 6-acre green roof in the middle of
the city. Historically as a retrofit project, transforming an abandoned rail line into a new
public space. Socially as both a neighborhood and world-class park, where families,
tourists, and the community meet and socialize, and Economically as an entrepreneurial
effort that has demonstrated the ability of public spaces to generate revenue, attract
businesses, and stimulate local economic growth.
Table 4-1 high line case analysis

Factors/
examples
Recovery to beneficial use (From
from derelict elevated railroad track to vibrant park
negative to positive)
Satisfaction of human needs and The need for preserving High Line and reusing it as
solving existing problems public open space
Long term and lasting development From 1990 to 2015 considering the present and
for present and future generations future needs for public green spaces
The project is a defining feature for neighboring
Comprehensive and integrated areas and a powerful catalyst for investment. It's
(strategic vision in city level) within recognized as a significant contributor in the
particular context revitalization of Manhattan's West Side, and one of
the for New York city
Residents of the High Line neighborhood founded
"Friends of the High Line" organization, to
advocate for the High Line's preservation and reuse
as public open space. New York city government
stakeholders supported the idea and committed $50 million to
involvement establish the proposed park.
(Linking top down The New York City Department of City Planning
& bottom up) actively contributed to the success of project
development.
CSX Transportation company donated the High
Line ownership to The City
The success of the project created fast growing and
Improve aspects / vibrant neighborhoods in NYC. many major
Economic
achieve development projects have been initiated increased
objectives (balanced private investment including 12,000 new jobs
& responsive) Social and Conserve local culture and heritage,
culture Provide open space for community benefit.

1
https://www.asla.org/2013awards/524.html 6-2016
2
ibid
21
 To minimize the use of resources for example
Environmental Reuse existing structure and recycled materials
To provide natural environment for biodiversity
Institutional cooperation of responsible institutions
Creating recreational amenity and public
Physical promenade through adaptive reuse of the existing
structure
The main driver of this project the co-initiation and
Governance
collaboration of community and the governmental
factor
bodies.
driving factors
Economic study presented the viability of High
expected
Line project, which pushed to an open ideas
benefits
competition for designing the High Line.
Most of the challenges were technical and they
Technical and were addressed in design like dealing with
governance accessibility and the spaces below the line, as a
negative space.
Funding for the project was from many sources
governmental and non-governmental;
from the City of New York, Federal Government,
Challenges
the State of New York, and Friends of High Line,
Financial including other private and corporate funding
Barriers sources
(a contribution from private developers of an
adjacent luxury apartment building was in exchange
for zoning rights which enabled them to add more
floor area to their building)1
The return of this project is direct and indirect, it
benefits for the community and the city overall in

 Politically, it represents neighboring community

many ways;

 Ecologically, providing 6-acre green roof in the

residents activism,

 Historically, as a retrofit project, transforming an

middle of the city.
Investment-
Results return impact
 Socially as both a neighborhood and world-class
abandoned rail line into a new public space.
satisfaction
park, where families, tourists, and the community

 Economically as an entrepreneurial effort that has

meet and socialize

proved the ability of public spaces to generate

revenue, attract businesses, and stimulate local
economic growth

1
http://cargocollective.com/Uofanycstudioarch/HIGH-LINE-COMPETITION
25
4.4.3. Brownfield to Bright field
Many Cities in United States of America Use Brownfields to Go Solar1. New York
City, Chicago, and Philadelphia view their contaminated inner-city brownfield sites as
potential locations for large-scale solar installations. However, Chicago was the first to
create a mega urban solar plant in brownfield site2.
The U.S. Department of Energy created a bright fields program to enable communities
to transform idle, unproductive assets into pleasant properties that generate clean
energy and revenue for the community3.
A bright field is a brownfield that is redeveloped using solar energy technologies
– Concept created by US Department of Energy(DOE)4. The Bright fields approach
links solar energy to brownfields redevelopment. It transforms community derelict sites
into productive, green projects. This unprecedented campaign will help our nation put its
hundreds of thousands of brownfields back into productive use and at the same time
create high-tech jobs in blighted urban neighborhoods, improve air quality, and reduce
greenhouse gas emissions. The term ‘brightfields' refers to different types of solar
applications on brownfields, including photovoltaic arrays that can reduce cleanup costs,
building-integrated solar energy systems as part of redevelopment, and solar
manufacturing plants on brownfields.”

New York City launched SPEED, a searchable database of brownfield properties, a

“real estate search engine” that has gotten great traffic from the local developer
community. New York City government said SPEED includes historical maps so
developers can “toggle through time” and explore some 3,150 vacant commercial and
industrial brownfield sites spread throughout the city. The idea is to use some of these
sites for solar power plants.
The brightfield concept has been characterized in case of Brockton, Massachusetts, a
town known for its industrial backgrounds.
27-acre brownfield site, one of the legacies of former industry near downtown
transformed into brightfield. The is a 460-kilowatt electricity plant consists of 1,512
Solar modules that, when compared to conventional fossil fuels, accounts for an annual
reduction of 589,570 pounds of carbon dioxide and other emissions5.
Contamination of the soils called for placement of a relatively shallow membrane cap,
which made most redevelopment ideas almost impossible. Instead of leaving the
property derelict , the U.S. Department of Energy’s Brightfields program helped
conceptualize Massachusetts’ largest array of photovoltaic cells and largest brownfield-
to-brightfield project.

1
http://www.sustainablecitiescollective.com/dirt/23753/cities-use-brownfields-go-solar 10-2015
2
http://urbanshapers.info/2011/09/08/transforming-brownfields-to-brightfields-the-inventive-national-
initiative/ access 5/2016
3
Ribeiro, L. (2007). Waste to watts: A “brightfield” installation has the potential to bring renewed life to
a brownfield site. Refocus, 8(2), 46-49.
4
http://web.mit.edu/cron/class/nature/archive/student_projects/lrc/about_bright.htm access 5/2016
5
http://web.mit.edu/cron/class/nature/archive/student_projects/lrc/about_bright.htm access 5/2016.
23
 ‫ إ‬Brockton’s Brightfield 1
Project has many Benefits –
Converts blighted industrial
brownfield into clean energy
platform
– Enhances local property
values and encourages
reinvestment
– Improves Brockton’s image,
innovative, cleaner and greener

‫ إ‬Environmental; opportunity
of brownfield regeneration without
pollution, or noise or traffic and it
also reduce emissions CO2, SO2
and NOx Figure 4-5 Illustrative site plan for Brockton
‫ إ‬Economic; Converts idle brightfield . Designed by Dufresne-Henry ref.
brownfield into revenue generating web.mit.edu/
asset, Jobs for local installers
Revenues to MA-based renewable
energy businesses, Eliminate city’s liability for City-owned parcel
‫ إ‬Community-based project with political support on different levels local, state and
federal
‫ إ‬Community investment with multiple funding sources Partnership approach
This project is a proof it is viable to turn brownfields into environmental, aesthetic,
economic and educational assets2.

Table 4-2 Brockton’s brightfield case analysis

Factors/
examples
Recovery to beneficial use (From
negative to positive)
Satisfaction of human needs and
solving existing problems
Long term and lasting development
for present and future generations
Comprehensive and integrated
(strategic vision in city level) within
particular context
27-acre former industry site into active solar energy
platform (brightfield).
The project solves a problem of an empty polluted
brownfield, and fulfilling the need for clean renewable
energy
The project is considering the current and future
generation bring together fixable soft reusing for
brownfield with long lasting development of generating
solar energy
The project itself presents an example for integrated
brownfield regeneration into strategic development of the
city.

1
www.newmoa.org/.../LoriRibeiro-BrownfieldstoBrightfields-NEWMOA2008.pdf
2
Ribeiro, L. (2007)
24
 the U.S. Department of Energy’s Brightfields program
helped conceptualize Massachusetts’ largest brownfield-
to-brightfield project.
Federal, state and local officials, solar experts,
stakeholders environmentalists and community leaders were involved
involvement The construction of the project was funded by multiple
(Linking top down organizations; city, grant from the U.S. Department of
& bottom up) Energy, the Massachusetts Technology Collaborative
Renewable Energy Trust.
besides, the US Environmental Protection Agency and
NiSource, also provided the city of Brockton with
planning and educational grants for the project.
Converts idle brownfield into revenue generating
Economic asset, Jobs for local installers

The project provides educational benefits for the

community as a learning plaza, which will enable visitors
Social and
to learn about how photovoltaic solar energy works, and
culture
for surrounding school districts to use the site to teach
Improve aspects /
students more about pollution and solar energy.
achieve
objectives (balanced The use of solar power to produce electricity, Reducing
& responsive) fossil fuels consumption, carbon dioxide and other
emissions for electricity
Environmental
opportunity of brownfield regeneration Without
pollution, or noise or traffic and it also reduce emissions
of CO2, S
The project improves physical and perception condition of
the city's polluted brownfield to more futuristic and better
Physical
urban condition, improved the aesthetics of the
neighborhood.
Partnership and cooperation between government
Governance
agencies, nonprofit organizations and businesses is one of
factor
the success factor of the project.
Due to its size and economies of scale, the Brockton
Brightfield's large utility scale size reduced the cost to
about $7 per watt.
By selling the electricity and Renewable Energy Credits,
driving factors the city of Brockton expects to secure more than $130,000
expected in annual revenue from the project. These revenues will
benefits be used to pay debt service on the city and cover the
brightfield's operations and maintenance costs1.
The city estimates that the brightfield will pay for itself
within 15-20 years. The project also support the city
against rising electricity prices.

1
http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/nations-largest-brightfield-dedicated-in-brockton-
massachusetts-71477032.html access 8/2016
25
 The soil was contaminated and required replacement of a
Technical and
Challenges relatively shallow membrane cap, which made many
governance
redevelopment ideas very difficult and not feasible
Brockton’s Brightfield Project has many Benefits
– Enhances local property values and encourages
reinvestment
– Improves Brockton’s image, innovative, cleaner and
greener

Investment- Revenues to city-based renewable energy businesses,

Results return impact Eliminate city’s liability for City-owned parcel
satisfaction ‫ إ‬Community-based project with political support on
different levels local, state and federal
‫ إ‬Community investment with Multiple funding
sources Partnership approach
This project is a proof it is viable to turn brownfields into
environmental, aesthetic, economic and educational
assets

22
4.4.4. Bilbao culture regeneration
Bilbao represent a unique example of cultural regeneration. In addition to the
Guggenheim museum, it contains many architectural landmarks by star architects like
Calatrava, Frank Gehry, Norman foster and Arata Isozaki1.
Bilbao was a large industrial port city with focus of mining and industrial activities on
both sides of the river. Economic crises of the 1980s Deindustrialization affected the
entire waterfront, and provided an opportunity for urban regeneration within the city.
General process of urban transformation of the city made by recovery of old
industrial spaces and its waterfront. The area once was shipyards, the container areas are
now riverside promenades, open-air art galleries, new districts and business zones, where
quality architecture is one of the key aspects of renovation project.
The strategy for recovery was re-branding Bilbao as a “poly-centered global city” to
become a "city for innovation and knowledge" to attract creative and knowledge
professionals of all kinds 2 . Starting with iconic cultural building as a catalyst of
development framework focusing on services, culture as a new industry3.
One of four element of revitalization plan was the "recovery of the damaged urban
infrastructure" through the exploitation of the obsolete or abandoned industrial spaces
and the rehabilitation of the old town4.
In 1992 the Bilbao Ría 2000 public limited company was established with the only
goal to plan and manage the urban renewal of the city5 . Its role is to facilitate land
acquisition and development, coordinate and execute projects in relation to town
planning, transportation and the environment.
Abandoibarra (whose name means valley of Abando (Abando + Ibar) it's area: 348,500
square metres) Brownfield land formerly occupied by harbour and railway

Figure 4-6 Bilbao's Abandoibarra area, lift, before the project, on the right after regeneration.
ref http://www.skyscrapercity.com/

1
http://www.thecitiesproject.com/2008/09/bilbao-1.html access 5/2016
2
http://designobserver.com/feature/does-bilbao-need-another-guggenheim/25978/ access 6/2015
3
http://www.bilbaoria2000.org/ria2000/ing/bilbaoRia/bilbaoRia.aspx?primeraVez=0 access 5/2016
4
http://www.bm30.es/plan/pri_uk.html#5 access 6/2016
5
http://www.bilbaoria2000.org/ access 6/2016
23
infrastructure on the riverfront in central locations. The project involved the creation of
Bilbao’s new urban heart with a focus on new investment.
The project involved the replacement of the industrial quarters in the Abandoibarra
district. Several ship-building industries existed within this area, as well as the main
freight railway station of the city. The Abandoibarra regeneration project intended to
replace the whole industrial quarters with parks, museums, office buildings, university
facilities and residential buildings, see fig. (

Figure 4-7 master plan of Abandoibarra area ref. http://www.skyscrapercity.com/

According to master planner, Objectives of the plan was enabling a smooth flow of
vehicular traffic while encouraging walking and public transportation, a main high- speed
roadway became a boulevard with pedestrian paths. A new light rail connects the
Guggenheim Museum and the Euskalduna Conference Centre and Concert Hall with the
rest of the city. The plan makes Abandoibarra an integral part of the city by extending
the city grid to the area and by adding new green spaces that link to existing ones. .it
creates a long promenade beginning at the old
park, passing the museum and concert hall1.
Gugenhaim museum was of the first part of
revitalization effort for the area and the city of
Bilbao. The regeneration project of the area was
initiated and financed by the government. The
Guggenheim Foundation agreed to establish and
manage a Guggenheim Museum in the area.
After The Guggenhem Museum was opened
in 1997, became a popular tourist attraction, In its
first three years, almost 4 million tourists visited
the museum, helping to generate about €500
million in economic activity. The regional council
estimated that the money visitors spent on hotels, Figure 4-8 guggenheim museum ref.
restaurants, shops and transport allowed it to www.guggenheim-bilbao.es
collect €100 million in taxes, which more than
paid for the building cost2.

1
www.pcparch.com/pcpa_assets/2015/12/abandoibarra_mp.pdf
2
Crawford, L. )5001(. Guggenheim, Bilbao and the “hot banana”. Financial Times, 4.
22
 This regeneration project is a benchmark that "Bilbao effect" refers to how the museum
transformed the city1.

Table 4-3 Bilbao case analysis

Factors/
examples
former harbor and railway infrastructure on the
Recovery to beneficial use (From riverfront into (culture park; museums, office
negative to positive) buildings, university facilities and residential
buildings)
the need for revitalization and "recovery of the
Satisfaction of human needs and damaged urban infrastructure" while reusing
solving existing problems the obsolete or abandoned industrial spaces and the
rehabilitation of the old town
The city of Bilbao has transformed its image from
a declining industrial city to a modern post-
industrial one through long term and lasting
Long term and lasting development
development goals including the development of a
for present and future generations
knowledge-based high-tech sector, inner-city urban
renewal, environmental improvements and the
strengthening of cultural identity.
The strategy for recovery was re-branding Bilbao
as a “poly-centered global city” to become a "city
for innovation and knowledge" to attract creative
and knowledge professionals of all kinds.
Comprehensive and integrated quality architecture iconic cultural building as a
(strategic vision in city level) within catalyst of development framework focusing on
particular context services, culture as a new industry.
The plan makes Abandoibarra an integral part of
the city by extending the city grid to the area and
by adding new green spaces that link to existing
ones.
The regeneration project of the area was initiated
stakeholders
and financed by the government, the agency of
involvement
Bilbao Ría 2000, a non-profit, publicly sponsored
(Linking top down
partnership that operates based on a complex
& bottom up)
model involving all levels of government
To transform the economy from traditional
industries to culture and knowledge-based
Improve aspects / Economic economy
achieve To increase the value of land and properties
objectives (balanced through high quality urban design
& responsive) To provide services and facilities to serve the
Social and
development of the city
culture
To support cultural identity

1
Ploger, J. (2008). Bilbao city report.
23
 To improve the natural environment and to reduce
Environmental environmental contamination of the city and the
harbor.
To link and coordinate between different actors and
Institutional
balancing different intersts
Improve the connectivity, mobility and
accessibility
Physical
with the rest of the city.

the key success drivers was linking all levels of

Governance
government in the project, and the balance between
factor
different political interests
The financial model (self-supporting approach) of
driving factors
land value enhancement through changing the
expected
land-use of old industrial sites has been very
benefits
successful in financing urban regeneration in
Bilbao1.
Most of the challenges were handled by creating
public company responsible for the urban
Technical , regeneration projects in the city.
Challenges governance The company of Bilbao Ría 2000 was able to
and Financial finance and manage redevelopment strategies, and
take actions even in the context of strained public
budgets.
The project of regeneration brought many benefits
for the city; economic restructuring, employment
opportunities, environmental and physical
Investment- improvements, better mobility and accessibility,
return/ impact and
Results
of the project “Bilbao Effect,” a new term resulted due to the
/satisfaction success of this example of culture regeneration
that attracted tourists, generated rapid economic
transformation, and generated profits for the city
more than the costs of investment.

1
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/partnership/?p=2197 access 7/2016
30
 4.4.5. Hammarby sjöstad, stockholm, sweden 1

Location: Stockholm, Sweden

Duration: 1996–2017
Area: 200 hectares (160+40) water
excluded)
Previous use: industrial and harbor
area
New uses: residential district.

The Hammarby Sjostad project is a

recognized model in urban
regeneration of a brownfield site made
up of a former industrial area.
It's marketed as a sustainable
district, and a highly attractive and Figure 4-9 hammarby sjostad master plan, ref.
desirable environment. http://goo.gl/WqDKbh

The project began in the 1990s as a way to meet the sustainable housing and
infrastructure needs of the city’s growing population. The project has involved
regenerating an old industrial and harbor area into a modern mixed-used space that has
a low environmental impact. The 5004 Olympic bid was incorporated into the site’s
redevelopment, however after Sweden did not receive the bid, the city shifted it
development focus to building a sustainable community that is twice as efficient as a
typical one2. The City of Stockholm decided to turn the area around the Hammarby lake
into “a leading showcase of urban sustainability”

Figure 4-10 hammarby sjostad before and after

1
http://www.c40.org/case_studies/industrial-area-transformed-hammarby-sjostad
http://issuu.com/siemens_the_crystal/docs/stockholm_hammarby___jaerva_sustain?e=3714297/4945801
12/2015
2
Gaffney, A., Huang, V., Maravilla, K., & Soubotin, N. (2007). Hammarby sjostad. stockholm,
sweden: a case study. Urban Design in Planning, 1-82.
31
 200 hectare residential district 9000 housing units 20,000 people 200,000 square
meters of commercial space, jobs for 10,000 people1.
wide range of educational, cultural and recreational uses2.

Hammarby Sjöstad operates according to its own ‘eco-cycle’, the Hammarby Model
see fig. (4- ), which outlines environmental solutions for waste, energy, water and
sewage. The aim is to have half the total environmental impact compared to similar
districts built during the 1990s. In order to achieve that, the project has six main goal
areas:
 Land-use: transforming brownfield sites, creating green spaces;
 Transport: attractive public transport (including a free ferry), carpooling, cycle
lanes;
 Buildings: ‘environmentally sound’ materials;
 Energy: use of renewables (solar, solar cells,); biogas and re-use of waste; energy-
efficient buildings (overall, half of energy for consumption to be produced on-
site);
Water and sewerage: clean and efficient; using new water-saving technology; re-use
of drainage water; and
 Waste: thorough sorting; maximum recycling and re-use.

Figure 4-11 hammarby model ref. http://greencitychallenge.org/hammarby-

sjostad-sweden/

1
CABE, 2007
2
Dastur, A. (2005). How should urban planning engage the issue of sustainable development?
the case of hammarby sjostad, stockholm(Doctoral dissertation, Columbia University).
35
 Hammarby Sjöstad is planned as an integrated part of the city as natural extension
of Stockholm city centre1.

- Unique cycle system

The hammarby model is an eco-cycle system that integrates energy, solid waste, water
and wastewater for homes, offices and other activities in the area. the cycle also
includes storm water, rainwater and melt water.
Domestic refuse is separated into different chutes and the various fractions are then
transported by vacuum to containers at a central collecting station.
- Sustainable and renewable energy
renewable fuels, re-use of waste heat, biogas and household energy efficiency. The
adjacent hammarby thermal plant extracts heat from the treated wastewater and also
contributes by-product energy to the district cooling network.
- Waste as a resource
combustible waste as an energy source in electricity and district heating production.
thermal plant as sustainable heat supply, which recovers waste heat from treated
wastewater piped from the sewage treatment plant.
Centralized production of district heating and cooling, with cooling generated as a clean
by-product of district heating production.
solar panel installations on its walls and rooftops that use photovoltaic cells.
Wide range of public transports: light railway, bus services, ferry and Car
pools for residents and people working in the area.

- Eco friendly materials : All materials used - inside and outside the buildings
- were carefully selected based on environmental considerations.

Hammarby Model is a holistic approach to infrastructure service provision and

integration of separate systems in order to accomplish the environmental objectives2.
The model combines urban utilities for the purposes of efficiency, innovation, and
ecological betterment.
Municipal control and restructuring brought about the project’s integration of
infrastructure as envisioned by the Hammarby Model and ensured that the developer
teams retained their commitment to the environmental program through project design
and construction. Coordination across and between agencies at all levels of government
and public/private cooperation were of key success of the project.
The project could be very successful example of brownfield sustainably regenerated to
ambitious environmentally housing project with many lesson to learn integrating
modern and complicated technologies and models.

1
http://www.symbiocity.org/en/approach/Cases-undersidor/Hammarby-Sjostad-three-in-one/1-2016
2
Dastur, 2005
33
 Table 4-4 Hammarby Sjöstad case analysis

Factors/
examples
Recovery to beneficial use old industrial and harbor area into a modern mixed-used
(From negative to positive) district that has a low environmental impact
Integrating brownfields sites into city development plans for
Satisfaction of human needs and
extensions of the city instead of new suburbs to meet the
solving existing problems
growing demand for urban living.
Long term and lasting
Providing a new residential district considering sustainable
development for present and
urban development with high environmental standards.
future generations
Comprehensive and integrated
Hammarby Sjöstad has been planned as an integrated part of
(strategic vision in city level)
the city as natural extension of Stockholm city centre
within particular context
The project was initiated and managed mainly by the city
stakeholders
municipality with cooperation in financing it from private
involvement
sector investors. the city planning department was able to
(Linking top
coordinate transportation, land use and development for
down & bottom
Hammarby Sjostad in a very efficient way specially with the
up)
high specific environmental standards.
To support and local economic development
Economic Provide a mix of uses to increase viability and vitality of
Improve aspects / commercial areas.
achieve Social and To provide housing to meet local needs, Develop a mix of
objectives (balan culture housing tenure and type.
ced & responsive) To be sustainable housing project with the specially designed
Environmen
“Hammarby Model” which treats cycles of water, waste and
tal
energy.
The main driving factor is the determination of the city
Governance
driving factors government to achieve the goal and environmental strategies,
factor
in addition to the cooperation of private investors.
Before the regeneration, some of the sites were derelict, but
the majority were in active use, so the city expropriated the
private properties with compensation at prices above market
value to speed up the acquisition process.
Technical
During and after the regeneration, land ownership is an issue
Challenges and
where political parties usually have different ideologies. While
governance
the left goes for municipal ownership, the right supports sale
of public land to private developers. That made a challenge for
what type of tenure to adopt; it has been changed over time
based on political majority.
The project is very successful example of brownfield
Investment-
sustainably regenerated to ambitious environmentally housing
return
Results project with many lesson to learn, starting with integrating
impact
brownfield regeneration to the specific model of closed cycle
Satisfaction
and environmental strategies
34
 4.4.6. Seine rive gauche, Paris
Location: 13th arrondissement, Paris, France
Duration: 1995-on going (2020)
Area: 130 hectares
Previous use: rail yards and industrial facilities.
New uses: Housing, offices and activities, commercial outlets, services, schools,
universities, public and cultural amenities

Figure 4‑12 Aerial image of the area ,left side (late 1980s) right side 2013 ©Philippe Guignard,

According to project developer Seine Rive Gauche is considered one of the French
capital’s largest and most important urban project since Haussmann’s time 1.
A dense, compact, mixed use, mix income, pedestrian and cycle friendly, and public
transport rich set of new development built from 1995 onwards on former rail yards, ware
houses, and industrial land, it has been cited as a model of quality in urban design and
planning integration with sustainable transport2.
Project objectives3:
 To provide a balanced development for the east side of Paris and generate

 To response the need of housing, offices and new public facilities for the city
employment opportunities in Paris Rive Gauche.

 To link the neighboring district to the river Seine.

 To develop the new districts with mixed land uses including office buildings,

 To achieve sustainable urban development, with its principles considering the

housing, schools, etc.

architectural context

1
http://stephanekirkland.com/seine-rive-gauche/ access 4-2016
2
https://www.itdp.org/our-cities-ourselves-principles-for-transport-in-urban-life/ access 1-2016
3
http://goo.gl/2xHJiV access 4/2016
35
 Gauche is an example of publicly driven urban development, where the role of the
private sector is limited to developing individual plots within the overall plan. The site
was divided into zones, each with its own coordinating architect, with different architects
and owners for each of the individual buildings.

Figure 4-13 zones of the project ref. http://stephanekirkland.com/seine-rive-

gauche/

The Paris Rive Gauche project is managed and developed by semi-public company
SEMAPA 1 which is directed by the Mayor of the 13th arrondissement and many
shareholders2 (governmental bodies and institutions).
13th arrondissement was declared as a ZAC (mixed development zone) in 1991, thus
enabled the launch of an operation conducted by SEMAPA and named Paris Rive
Gauche. In 2003, with changes to the PAZ (zone development plan) aimed at ensuring
high social mix, the Council of Paris changed the program to be more responsive to social
needs.
Project program:
- Administrative scope: 130 hectares of which 26 hectares covering rail tracks.
- Housing 585,000 sq.m. (7,500 units) i.e. around 20,000 residents eventually
;
- 6,000 family housing units (3,000 social and 3,000 private) ;
- 1,500 student accommodation units (750 social and 750 private).
- Offices 745,000 sq.m. : i.e. around 60,000 workers
- Activities 405,000 sq.m. : Small trades, liberal professions, commercial,
research, related to the river.
- Public amenities 665,000 sq.m.: National Library of France: 250,000 sq.m,
University: 210,000 sq.m, local amenities: 55,000 sq.m.
- Green spaces 98,000 sq.m.
.
The role of SEMAPA3 is:
 To buy or acquire the land from railway company or any other private owners

1
Société d’Économie Mixte d’Aménagement de Paris
2
municipality of Paris (57%), the national railway company SNCF (20%), the Parisian building authority
RIVP (10%), the French State (5 %) and the Île-de-France Region (5%). Only the remaining 3 % is open
to private investors.
3
http://en.semapa.fr/Urban-development/Operations-in-progress/Paris-Rive-Gauche access 1-2016

32
  To outline the urban and architectural project with the partnership of the city

 To carry out the works of infrastructure like streets, networks, sewer system,
council services and the coordinating architects

 To sell the building land to the developers, either private or public, even the
etc.

state to build for instance the new French library or the university complex.
The developers are appointed by the city council for public housing or public
facilities. There are competitions for private developments as office buildings,
private housing, shopping center, private facilities

The SEMAPA legally owns the land only for a very short time, acting as an
intermediary between the railway company, which owns the majority of the plots, and
interested outside investors. The construction of infrastructure for the site is hence
financed through the difference in acquisition and sales price between both parties.
development company had to acquire all land at the project’s start and hence
immobilized its capital for a very long period of time, until the sale of the last
development rights over 20 years later
these legal structures was designed to allow to apply more liberal rules of private
law which offer less bureaucracy in the tender procedure compared with an entity of
public law.

Table 4-6 Seine rive gauche case analysis

Factors/
examples
Rail yards and industrial facilities to new livable
district with housing, offices, commercial
Recovery to beneficial use (From
outlets, services, schools, universities, public
negative to positive)
and cultural amenities.

Resolving the problems of neglected underused

Satisfaction of human needs and
solving existing problems
Long term and lasting development for
present and future generations
Comprehensive and integrated
(strategic vision in city level) within
particular context
stakeholders
involvement
(Linking top down &
bottom up)
brownfields sites while fulfilling the growing
demand for urban living.
Providing a new dense, compact, mixed uses
district considering sustainable urban
development
Integrating brownfields sites into city
development plans to meet the growing
demand for urban living.
Creating compact development which reduce
sprawl by focusing development in areas
adjacent to and within existing developments.
The Paris Rive Gauche project was initiated by
the local authority of Paris city. It is managed
and developed by semi-public company
SEMAPA which is directed by the Mayor of
the 13th arrondissement and many shareholders
(governmental bodies and institutions)

33
 To provide a balanced development for the east
Economic side of Paris and generate employment
opportunities in Paris Rive Gauche.
Social and To response the need of housing, offices and
Improve aspects / culture new public facilities for the city
achieve To achieve sustainable urban development, with
objectives (balanced Environmental its principles considering the architectural
& responsive) context
To link the neighboring district to the river
Seine.
Physical To develop the new districts with mixed land
uses including office buildings, housing,
schools, etc.
The project was publicly driven, one of the key
success drivers was creating semi-public
Governance
driving factors company that manage the regeneration project.
factor
The site was divided into main zones to
facilitate and accelerate the op
The bureaucracy of procedure and public law,
Technical and
Challenges however legal structures was designed to apply
governance
rules of private law.
The project represents a response to the city’s
situation, providing a vibrant mixed livable
Investment-
district that attract people and businesses to an
Results return impact
area that was underused. It is an opportunity to
Satisfaction
renovate part of the city.

32
4.6. Conclusion
The main conclusion of case studies that every country and every city looks at their
brownfields as development potential and turn it to beneficial uses that are integrated into
strategic planning. Worldwide sustainability of brownfields regeneration is the ultimate
success. The uniqueness of each site means there is no single recipe for success. Still
there are some lessons that can be learned amongst global practitioners, both similar and
disparate, are worth thinking about.
With effective policies and appropriate incentives, brownfields can be transformed from
threats to development potentials. Great work on the sustainable regeneration of
brownfields is already being done throughout all over the world, but that effort needs to
continue and grow. The goal of policies was to direct development and investment
towards those areas in which it was most needed.
Another important issue, is how almost all of initiatives worked on social sustainability.
Through involving all stakeholders in vision, and applying appropriate designs according
to Master plans community input. Additionally Considering various needs and
opportunities; not only Community, but also Economy, Environment, Smart growth &
livability principles for sustainable communities.
Practical implementation of brownfields regeneration requires consideration of a
range of factors including: the economic drivers of real estate development, the land use
regulation, and skills of urban planning. Many of countries having brownfields have been
required to cooperation between the activities of planning and environment protection
agencies, and frame specific legislation to facilitate such cooperation and shared control.
All these previous concerns are considered as factors in the success and effect of
sustainable urban regeneration of brownfields worldwide.
Based on international successes and the strategic improvement in Brownfields
planning, such projects may be expected to become increasingly attractive.
Regarding the implementation of brownfields regeneration projects, the sustainability
issues are considered not just in planning phase, bust in every possible phase.
In the next chapter, research will try to investigate the Egyptian context. In addition
to seeing the opportunity of dealing with brownfields sustainably relative to international
experience.

33
Chapter 5 : Brownfields regeneration in Greater Cairo
context

20
5.1. Introduction
This chapter discusses the concept of brownfield regeneration in greater Cairo
context, and reviews the previous experience of brownfield regeneration. It investigates
the applicability of brownfields regeneration as a concept in greater Cairo; it starts with
defining scope of the study of greater Cairo, the city features, and brownfield sites to
what extent they could be considered as an asset during development process.
The main aim of this chapter is to develop a conceptual framework to integrate existing
brownfields as resource in strategic urban planning, in order to develop guidelines and
recommendations for existing and potential brownfields in the future. Main challenges
and issues facing urban development in GC are also going to be discussed. Brownfields
regeneration could be one of the major opportunities in dealing with these issues. It
could be a tool for effective urban management and achieving sustainable urban
development. Hence relooking to the existing assets that are mainly neglected and
reusing these assets (brownfields). With different approaches of brownfields regeneration
that consider beneficiary use not only for the asset owner but for the community and the
city also.
Additionally, Analysis of case studies that represent examples of brownfields
regeneration. Two implemented projects will be investigated, as they present initiative
practices of sustainable urban regeneration of brownfield sites.
As a final point, Sustainable urban regeneration of brownfields can be considered
as promising approach for the Greater Cairo strategic urban development, and other
Egyptian mega cities.

21
5.2. Greater Cairo (study area)
Greater Cairo (GC) is one of the most densely populated capital cities in the world
with a population of approximately 20 million people1. The increasing pressure of the
population on the existing built environment and infrastructure called for a significant
urban and spatial change. The lack of adequate urban management through this change
led to the deterioration of the existing city and the chaotic urbanization of the city's out
skirts.
GC represents an interesting case study of "brownfield regeneration", as it has been
transformed2 through massive urbanization process that have increased its population
and area in the last decades. GC inner city (urban mass) is the scope of the study area for
which the concept of brownfield regeneration is addressed. Main urban mass represents
69% of GC total urban area 804.2 km2 (191468 feddans). The study focuses on the urban
mass of Cairo Governorate in addition to some parts of the Governorates of Giza and
Qalyubia. it includes Districts and divisions of Cairo and Giza, especially urban areas on
the ring road and Nile River from the South (Maadi and Helwan), Al Salam from the
North and Shubra El- Kheima in Qalyubia governorate, excluding the new urban
communities (namely the 6th of October, Sheikh Zayed, the 15th May, New Cairo,
Obour, Shorouk and Badr).
The main urban mass is completely full, where very limited pieces of land are
available for development see fig 5.1.

1
CAPMAS, 2016
2
The global dynamics of urbanization has deeply transformed Cairo, which have increased
the city's population six times in the past 60 years. (Vignal & Denis, 2006) The fast
expansion of G.C.R.. Agglomeration has not been met with effective use of limited
financial resources allocated to the region. Besides, the governance of the agglomeration
has been always an elaborated issue given the intervention between central ministries
responsibilities with the local government roles (Madbouly, 2010). G.C.R. as one of the
world's most densely populated areas, with one of the lowest road space per capita
percentage and growth in the number of private vehicles; this was aggravated by
constructing bridges and flyovers by the government. (El Naggar & others, 2006) The
green area per capita is 1.5 m2 in the total agglomeration. In addition, a significant part of
that green area is not allowed for public users as it comprises private facilities that have a
closed membership. (Koei CO., and others, 2008)

25
 Figure 5-1 boundary of Greater Cairo Land Use of urban mass in 2012, Source:
GOPP

5.2.1. Main issues of current conditions and urban development

strategy
Urban development in GC is very challenging and dynamic. Identifying the
challenges facing the GC is very important for developing a strategic plan that meet
population’s need; and ignoring such challenges make it even more difficult to deal with
them over time. However, GC has a population that usually resists official designs for
the organization of the city1. Partially, Cairo’s urban development has been carried out
by private developers and property speculators rather than by the city’s planners. Private
dynamics prevail gradually that the planners have been forced to approve private
developers' results2.
It can be argued that, Greater Cairo has not been mastered or planned 3 . However,
strategic planning is still an active tool for managing urban development.

1
Denis, E. (1997). Urban planning and growth in Cairo. Middle East Report, 27, 7-12.
2
Sutton, K., & Fahmi, W. (2001). Cairo's urban growth and strategic master plans in the light of Egypt's
1996 population census results. Cities, 18(3), 135-149.
3
ibid

23
According to "Greater Cairo urban development strategic vision" report 1 , which
describes strategic directions of urban development and land use to meet the needs of
several sectors and residents. The main issues facing GC -particularly main urban mass-
regarding urban development and land use are:
1. Population and economic growth. The GC needs to contain the massive
population growth and create the conditions for sustainable economic
growth, while ensuring social justice. with Population concentration in 5.7%
of the total area, urban sprawl and erosion of agricultural lands2 and extent
of land suitability for development.
2. The unplanned growth of housing and services. The GC needs to change the
legacies that Egypt suffered from because of unplanned growth in the last
period, in addition to being ready for future development.
3. The environmental degradation of the urban areas. The GC needs radical
solutions to stop such degradation.

More detailed points from land use analysis in the areas of the main urban mass3:
- Increasing use of land allocated for housing even in the areas of other nonresidential
activities
- The large number of industrial buildings that are mainly located in the North in
Shubra El Kheima and in the South in Helwan;
- Institutional/administrative activities are highly concentrated in the middle areas of
the main urban mass.
- Scarcity of empty available land for development,
- Very low per capita share of green space
- Overall High population density, especially in unplanned areas.

Most of urban development challenges are related to the GC high densities of activities
and residential areas, in addition to the limited available vacant land. Moreover, Most of
the urban development projects are in new cities and on the periphery, which has
produced pattern of sprawl urbanization, inefficient land use and low densities, with
residents disconnected on the periphery.

1
Greater Cairo Urban Development Strategy repot, 2012
2
13,000 feddans annually between 1984 and 2007
3
ibid

24
5.2.2. Resources allocation utilizing existing assets
One of the major challenges in urban development in GC is resources allocation and
the most challenging resource here is the available land. Although the vacant lands inside
the city are very limited, there is a need for using or reusing areas inside the city not
outside, a need to rethink of neglected resources assets.

Considering relocating/redeveloping industrial sites, military sites and using vacant

spaces, beside Converting industrial land uses to other use. Which requires strategic
approach for dealing with these sites. In addition, re-distributing population density in

Figure 5.2 Spatial recommendations inside GC main urban mass ref. Cairo Vision report

some areas to make the most of land values represents many opportunities for
development
Regarding changing in land use, Polluting Activities are considered to be relocated
Outside of the Centre of the City. For example, The Ministry of Trade and Industry has
identified 21 environmentally unfavorable industrial activities to be relocated out of the
urban mass to improve the land use efficiency, and 'revitalize the living environment'1.

1
El Khateeb, S. M., & Elrahman, A. S. A. (2013)

25
 From Strategic Plan of Greater Cairo both Cairo and Giza governorates have
identified relevant objectives and targets for their existing and potential land assets see
figure 5- 3).
Cairo: Re-using the stock of land for public activities and land uses that can be
relocated outside the urban mass of Cairo to meet the needs of Cairo Governorate for
open and green spaces and services.
Giza: Planning land uses to cope with the future economic development dynamics
and considering the effect of the proposed arteries for roads and transportation.

Figure 3-3 strategic plan of Cairo and Giza governorates.

Ref; Cairo future Vision 2052 report

In addition relooking at derelict assets, neglected potential and inappropriate uses

that are located in or adjacent to deteriorated area. Abandoned resources that require
reclamation/revitalization in location that could attracts investors and increase urban
quality and people's livability. Brownfields represent potential asset that could be utilized
as resource.

22
5.3. Brownfields inside Greater Cairo
Greater Cairo cities are like many Egyptian cities which are old cities that had a long
development history. They contain many vacant and abandoned properties, these
properties were used in the beginning of the century or older than that and due to many
circumstances, and they are closed and remained for years, as vacant or derelict
properties within the city.
Due to dynamic land market, during the urban sprawl process1; many uses have been
moved to peripheral areas. Large-scale railway and harbor infrastructure facilities, in
inner cities were subject to re-use pressure.
The interest, use and ownership conflicts resulting from such a situation lead to large
areas of derelict land in urban areas.

5.3.1. Definition of Brownfields in Egyptian context

Although the term is commonly used in urban planner language, there is no specific
or common definition for the term (Brownfields) in Egypt, It is not consider In the
Egyptian laws2 or regulations, but relevant terms that could be used to refer to it are like
"areas to be redeveloped", '' re-planning areas'' or "undervalued land" "unused assets"
The "Brownfield" term had not been used before in any of the previous governmental
studies or plans work except in the physical survey for (Cairo 2050), The Term
"Brownfield" used to identify the sites that are not optimally used according the poor
utilization of the land.3
Although the term "Brownfield" used in the survey of (Cairo 2050) project, yet, there
was no common agreement on the criteria that can be used to define the relevant sites or
buildings. However, it was known between the members of the survey as "ignored /
unused lands or buildings", and the best use of it can be determined according the location
specification.4
El Khateeb, S. M, identified Brownfield as; a vacant land or unused building inside
the boundary of the city which properties might be known or not5.

Based on the previous definitions and as mentioned before in ch.2-, Brownfields in

Egypt can be defined as; 'any piece of previously used property that is abandoned or
underused, and considered as a potential site for redevelopment.'

1
Kovancı, P. )1332(. Urban Regeneration Issues and Policies as Complementary and Multi Aspect
Planning Tools. Unpublished Master Thesis, Middle East Technical University, Ankara.
2
There is no specific legislation directly assigned to brownfield redevelopment in the Egyptian laws,
Construction Law no. 119, the law identified areas to be renovated and developed through the strategic
plan of the city. Article (64) identified re-planning areas that maximize the benefits to both city and
region's population, and amendments contribute to carrying out the overall strategic plan and its outputs
(MHUUD, 2008).
3
According to Ghada Farouk (The head of technical office) in General Organization for Physical
Planning (GOPP)
4
According to Mohab El-Refaie' (The head of the Information Centre) in General Organization for
Physical Planning (GOPP)
5
El Khateeb, S. M., & Elrahman, A. S., 2012, Brownfields in GCR: A Neglected Potential for Re-
development the Old City.

23
5.3.2. Examples of brownfields inside Greater Cairo
Inside the inner cities of G.C.R and along the Nile river waterfront exist many sites
that could be considered brownfields figure (5-4).
These devalued properties include warehouses and storage, small factories and light
industrial workshops in many cases abandoned or neglected and occupying important
sites (location) within the urban fabric. In many cases, brownfields are not ruined
properties, but fully existed left derelict. They could be closed industrial areas, train
station old warehouse, or abandoned residential buildings. Examples for these sites are;
the railway warehouses and yards in Ramsis area, which occupied large areas in a central
location inside G.C., besides warehouses, closed industry uses, and old ports like in ather
el naby, imbaba and helwan that exist in the waterfront of the Nile River in G.C. as shown
in figures (5-5)

Figure 5-4 Samples of brownfields locations inside Greater Cairo

Figure 5-5 example of brwonfields in Athar el Naby Area

22
5.3.3. Types and Scale of brownfield sites in G.C.
Brownfields are not identified on a national scale; hence no statistical data represent
the areas or numbers for brownfields.1
However, the (CAPMAS)2, survey3 about (buildings and establishments) presents
numbers of unoccupied buildings and unused category that is defined as occupied
buildings without activities practiced like military sites or derelict properties that
contained old infrastructure buildings used in the past as.4
In 2009, a survey for all parts of Cairo made by GOPP and sponsored by UN-Habitat,
where the “Brownfield” term was identified for the first time. Brownfields are Located
in lands which are inside the city, have infrastructure and near to services. According to
that survey the total areas of brownfields inside the region were about 2,484,305 meters
squares.5 It could be argued that they are not large percentage of total urban areas, yet
they are located in central and valuable locations.
Considering the reuse, these areas can be classified by use and by property (owner and
value).

 According to original use

Original use Area (meter
square)
The original uses of brownfields in G.C are varied Residential 273,620.70
between industrial areas, commercial areas .The larger Commercial 39,442.80
area is in the use of transportation (Ramses railway Industrial 588,843.00
storage and warehouses, Ather el naby and Imbaba
Utilities 158,328.50
river port, etc.). then industrial uses like; old factories
Educational 315,432.40
and warehouses comes in second large percentage of
brownfields areas Transportation 982,044.50
Storage 125,457.00
Mixed Use 1,136.10
11% Total
Mixed Use 2,484,305.00
0%
2% 5%
Storage
Transportation
24% 39% Educational
Utilities
6% Industrial
13%
Commercial
Residential
Figure 5-6 Classification of Brownfields according to original land
use inside Greater Cairo Region (edited by author based on

1
El Khateeb, S. M., & Elrahman, A. S., 2012
2
Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics
3
In Cairo, 0.5 % of the total number of buildings are regular buildings made from stable
structure (Steel – Concrete structure) occupied without activities done inside. while about
0.3 % are Permissibility buildings that made from temporarily structure. The percentage in
urban locations of Giza is lower: (0.3, 0.2) % of regular and permissibility buildings, while
the urban locations (Helwan, and Qaliobeya) have higher percentage for regular buildings.
4
CAPMAS, 2006
5
El Khateeb, S. M., & Elrahman, A. S., 2012

23
 • According to land price
Properties varied in land prices from 1,000 to 40,000 Egyptian pounds per meter
square. The total amount based on maximum price of each price category is
15,000,000,000 L.E. (based on 2009 market survey)

20000-40000
1%
10000- 20000 500 / 1000
16% 8%
8000-10000
0% land Price (L.E. / Area (meter
meter square) square)
6000-8000
1% Between 500 / 1000 205,415.10
1000 -2000
4000-6000
38% Between 1000 -2000 927,877.80
23%
Between 2000- 4000 325,478.10
2000- 4000 Between 4000-6000 578,479.40
13%
Between 6000-8000 29,122.10
Between 8000-10000 294.4
Between 10000- 395,489.90
20000
Between 20000-40000 22,148.20
Figure 5-7 Classification of Brownfields according to average land price
(refrence: auther based on UNHabitat,2009)

 According to the ownership:

Ownership varied between governmental bodies, private sector and associations.
The governmental bodies represent the most percentage among other areas, as it
represents more than 60% of the total areas of brownfields in GC. It may be one authority
or different authorities that own the brownfield. In the last years, the government strategy
was to enable the privatization strategy, which aims to transfer most of public ownership
to private ownership, which cause in many cases that these building abandoned with no
use1.

Private

28% 33% Associations

Local
Ownerships Area (meter
Governorate
35%
square)
Ministerial
Ministerial 702,897.90
Local 872,071.00
4%
Governorate
Associations 96,857.40
Private 812,478.70

Figure 5-8 classification of Brownfields according to ownership inside Cairo,

Edited by author (Source: author based on UNHabitat, 2009)

1
El Khateeb, S. M., & Elrahman, A. S. A. (2013)

30
5.3.4. The trend of dealing with brownfields
Between Reuse and redevelopment or selling the property, the main trend of dealing
with underutilized real estate assets is selling to achieve maximum profit1 , which is most

 The owner (usually controlled or owned by banks2)

probably affected by

 The location
 The size (area) of the asset (land)
 the market (supply and demand) of properties in the neighboring areas
However, there is an increased interest in re-use and redevelopment.
Recently governmental initiated programs related to brownfield redevelopment at a
national level. Council of Ministers Resolution No. 2589 of 2015regarding of underused
state assets3 (Inventory of unused state assets and proposing plan to make the Maximum
return)
The obstacles challenges of brownfield redevelopment can be one or more of the

 properties Liability and ownership (complex pattern of ownership e.g.

following

 The requirement for large capital investment;

governmental owner ship, bank liability over property,

 Absence of adequate and consistently accessible expertise within

 Lack of a common vision, and a consistent system for development.

government agencies dedicated to the development of Brownfields;

Facing such Issues related to the re-use of abandoned industrial sites are mostly dealt
with by local authorities. However, within these authorities competencies for dealing
with brownfield-problems are not clearly structured. Due to the lack of general
regulations, decisions are made on a case by case basis.

5.3.5. Brownfields in GC; A problem and a solution;

A large number of GC problems are related to the inappropriate land uses, which
become existed in different areas of the region, as there are many urban land-uses not
matching with any proposed development approach for the region.
Many planned urban land uses had been located at certain times outside the region’s
urban space, such as several industrial and handicraft zones, airports, military barracks
and cemeteries. Many of those urban land uses have become inconvenient – due to land
use transformation processes – not only located inside the region’s urban space but also
in many cases at the core of its cities.
Specific brownfield problems, like the presence of contamination, infrastructure
requirements and the specific underground conditions for construction purposes, are
often inadequately considered. This can lead to significant difficulties, failure of
strategies to deliver effective and sustainable regeneration and could be complete project
failure. Less attractive ”brownfields” in peripheral locations with low property market
values are often insufficiently used. Intermediate uses have become a serious problem
for urban development in the areas concerned.

1
http://www.ecrami.com/Company.html access 3/2016
2
Banque Misr & National Bank of Egypt created (The Egyptian Company for real estate assets
management, and investment
3
Official newspaper no. 40 oct.2015

31
5.4. Brownfields regeneration in G.C
Although the concept of brownfields regeneration - as a major intervention dealing
with existing urban areas - is not very common in the context of G.C., some brownfields
sites were regenerated. Each one of them is incomparable example, but they all share one
characteristic; they are all redeveloped brownfields. Most of these projects regenerations
were independently treated through architectural competitions, master plans and investor
planning. However, there is no strategic approaches for integrating brownfields
regeneration on wider context related to strategic plan of GC nor sustainability.
However not all brownfields in GC are suffering contamination problems, they
present a very important asset, which is not wisely used. They are offering opportunities
of available sites in GC to be regenerated. Some of these brownfields are on waterfront
like Ather Elnaby, others are occupy a central location in the city like Imbaba airport
land, or even a heritage site in the city like Azhar Park. The process of regeneration
usually faces some common challenges like insufficient practical knowledge, indefinite
policies, absence of a reliable regeneration framework, and absence of citywide database
systems, especially for brownfields.

5.4.1. Projects and initiatives

Many examples of projects and initiatives related brownfields regeneration were
done. These examples varies in scale, goals, and initiative organization, or institution.
some of brownfield sites went through the regeneration process and was implemented
already like Azhar Park, and Imbaba airport land, and Nile city towers as shown in table
(5-1) .In addition to some other in progress projects either under construction or in-
planning process or just conceptualized ideas like Ramses railway project, Ather Elnaby,
and Helwan waterfront mentioned in table (5-2).

35
 Table 5-1 Examples of implemented projects

Project previous Developed Initiated

use use developed by

Aga khan
 Park
Azhar
Land trust for
park
infill culture
(2005)
(NGO)

 Luxurious
investment
complex

 Office
building

building
tower and
iron
Nile luxurious
warehou
city 25-storey
ses, private sector
towers1 Fairmont
worksho
 commercial
(1995) Hotel
p nile city tower, source
http://www.nilecitytowers.com/
( shopping
mall,
restaurants,
movie
theater,
cafes)

 residential MHUUC

 public park
district The Ministry

 road Axis
of Housing,
Imbaba Utilities and

 social
airport Extension Urban
land Communities

 investment
services ,
(Government
zone )

1
http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2012/08/27/ramlet-boulaq-the-battle-for-land/ &
http://www.egyptindependent.com/opinion/tale-towers-and-shacks

33
 Table 5-2 Examples of proposed projects (conceptualized, or planned)

Project previous use Initiator

name developer

Railway
Ramsis Ramsis
warehouses
Square Square
and depots
Competition

Ather el Warehouses,
naby Cairo
abandoned
governorate
factories

Unfitting
uses
Helwan (partially
water used GOPP
front military and
industrial
facilities)

Two case studies were selected to analyzing the process and how sustainably they

 Brownfield site
were regenerated , the selection criteria are:

 In the heart of the city

 Implemented
 Public use (benefit) considered
 Model to be replicated

34
 5.4.2. Al Azhar Park from waste land to park
Al azhar park is one of the very initiative of brownfield regeneration, That

 development of the park

included:

 restoration of Ayyubid wall

 social and economic development for the community of al Darb al-Ahmar

In 1984, the Aga Khan announced his decision to finance the creation of a park for
the citizens of GC. The suitable site (location and size) was the derelict Darassa site, a
30-hectare (74-acre) hill of remains that had been a rubbish dump for 500 years. 1
Al-Azhar Park (was opened officialy in 2005), undertaken by the Aga Khan Trust
for Culture, has since proven to be both a popular open space for the people of Cairo and
a powerful catalyst for urban renewal in the neighboring district of Darb al-Ahmar ,
which was revitalized, within the regeneration project to be catalyst for social and
economic development.
The Park project was therefore intended to be a case study for a variety of
development challenges, ranging from environmental rehabilitation to cultural
restoration. The objective was to create models of development that could be replicated
in many other settings, similar to Cairo2.

Figure 5-9 Azhar park source: http://www.sasaki.com/blog/view/42/

- Process of turning land infill to park:

in the early 1980s, the concept was still new and untested. the local authorities
approved the choice of the site and the first plans were drawn up. The work was delayed
by the integration into the Park site of three large fresh water reservoirs, each 80 metres
in diameter and 14 metres deep. But in 1990 a protocol was signed between the Aga Khan
Trust for Culture and the Governorate of Cairo that led to new plans taking into account
the water tanks.
In 1992, the Aga Khan Trust for Culture established its Historic Cities Support
Program, to implement urban rehabilitation projects in different parts of the Islamic
world. Cairo became its most demanding project, encompassing not only the construction
of the Park but also the restoration of the 1.5-kilometer section of the Ayyubid wall

1
Al-Azhar park, Cairo and the revitalisation of darb al–ahmar report,2005
2
ibid

35
revealed by the removal of the accumulated rubble. It also included the socioeconomic
rehabilitation of the neighboring Historic City, which required launching of numerous
restoration and community-initiated development projects. The larger area development
project became a testing ground, and a case study, for finding solutions to challenges
ranging from the technical demands of physical restoration to the equally challenging
issues of socioeconomic development.

Figure 5-10 5 Masterplan of Al Azhar park regeneration project ref. Al Azhar park report

- Challenges and results

The project faced technical, social and financial challenges in regeneration the area.
One issue was the integration of three large fresh water reservoirs into the park site.
Which required redesign the project.in addition to excavation, grading and replacement
with appropriate fill. The protocol was signed between the Aga Khan Trust for Culture
and the Governorate of Cairo led to new plans taking into account the water tanks.1
The project hired most of its staff members from the Darb al-Ahmar neighboring
community. The project staff were trained to be technically and administratively able to
carry out the activities and direct the project.
The project was designed to be financially self sustaining after the initial costs.
Investments are recuperated during the second phase. The Park was expected to have
financial shortage for the first two to three years of operation. Aga Khan Trust for Culture
covered this shortfall.

1
ibid

32
 - Results and achievements
This project is considered as application for the concept of sustainable brownfield
regeneration. It presents many lessons, good practices and concepts that could be learned

 The project recovered negative brownfield to positive beneficial use from landfill
as following:

 The response for existing problems which is low percentage of green open spaces
to Park for Greater Cairo.

 Comprehensive and integrated strategically on city level, and connected with the
in Greater Cairo

surrounding social issues within particular context ; A Park for Greater Cairo,

 Long term & lasting development; Development was effective and lasting by
besides restoration of the Ayyubid Wall and revitalization of Darb-Al-Ahmar

addressing the broader issues in a comprehensive way. The physical rehabilitation

 Improve responsive aspects & achieve balanced objectives

was successful and sustainable, as it was coordinated with social programs.

- Economic: Providing jobs and training for neighboring community

- Social and culture: providing open space for community
- Environmental: cleaning up land fill site and prong a green park
- Institutional: linking and bridging differences between local communities and
government authorities on issues that are important to residents
- Physical: improving the urban environment conditions in the park and in Darb-

 Socially accepted while linking “top-down” approach with "bottom up" in

Al-Ahmar, besides restoration of Ayyubid Wall

redevelopment process
- the community was involved as real stakeholder, not just considering the needs
and priorities
- Most of the development ideas come from the residents themselves.
- The role of the NGO institution was to help residents identify their own needs
and provide some of the means and expertise to create development solutions.
In conclusion, the project presented a successful example –for people to realize what is
possible especially for neighborhoods where decline is often accepted as inevitable.

Table 5-3 Al Azhar park case analysis

Recovery to beneficial use
)From negative to positive(
Satisfaction of human
needs and solving existing
problems
Long term and lasting
development for present
and future generations
Comprehensive and
integrated )strategic vision
Factors/ examples
The project recovered negative brownfield to positive
beneficial use from landfill to Park for Greater Cairo.
Solving part of green areas problem The response for
existing problems which is low percentage of green open
spaces in Greater Cairo
Development was effective and lasting by addressing the
broader issues in a comprehensive way. The physical
rehabilitation was successful and sustainable, as it was
coordinated with social programs.
Comprehensive and integrated strategically on city level,
and connected with the surrounding social issues within

33
 in city level( within particular context ; A Park for Greater Cairo, besides
particular context restoration of the Ayyubid Wall and revitalization of Darb-
Al-Ahmar
Socially accepted project
-the community was involved as real stakeholder, not just
considering the needs and priorities
stakeholders involvement
-Most of the development ideas come from the residents
)Linking top down &
themselves.
bottom up(
-The role of the NGO institution was to help residents
identify their own needs and provide some of the means
and expertise to create development solutions
Improve responsive aspects & achieve
balanced objectives
Economic
Economic: Providing jobs and training for
neighboring community
Social and
providing open space for community
Improve aspects / culture
achieve cleaning up land fill site and creating a green
Environmental
objectives )balanced park
& responsive( linking and bridging differences between local
Institutional communities and government authorities on
issues that are important to residents
improving the urban environment conditions
Physical in the park and in Darb-Al-Ahmar, besides
restoration of Ayyubid Wall
Governance
Political and social support and approval
factor
driving factors
expected
N/A
benefits
Technical and technical, social and financial challenges (three
governance large fresh water reservoirs
The project was designed to be financially self
Challenges sustaining The Park was expected to have
Financial
financial shortage for the first two to three years
Barriers
of operation & Aga Khan Trust for Culture
covered this shortfall.
successful example –for people to realize what is
Results
possible

32
 5.4.3. Imbaba airport land project.
The Imbaba Airport Land Development Project on an area of 204 feddans (154
airport land + 50 aviation academy land) represents an important step towards the
upgrading of North Giza1 sector.

Airport land (154

Aviation academy land (50

Figure 5-11 Imbaba airport land project

MHUUC (The Ministry of Housing, Utilities and Urban Communities) was assigned
to select the best suitable use for Imbaba airport land. The consulting team proposed
solutions that would improve the whole northen sector of Giza Governorate2, taking into
consideration that the third metro line will serve this area, the matter, which will support
the upgrading process.
This strategy is based on three principles:
‫ إ‬Providing and supporting all basic services, especially the educational service
through benefitting from the vacant pieces of land in the whole sector,
‫ إ‬Opening suitable traffic corridors and rarefaction of the deteriorated and unplanned
areas,
‫ إ‬Connecting the area with the Ring Road and the metro network.

1
North Giza area has grown due to infringement on agricultural lands; this area has high density of
population and lacks infrastructure and public services for population
2
MHUUD Imbaba airport land report, 2007

33
 Imbaba Airport Land Development Project:
Imbaba Airport Land Development is part of a comprehensive strategy to solve the
problems of the current situation North Giza sector figure (5- ). The plan aims at
providing integrated services, (schools, institute for higher education, public hospital,
medical centers, a sports city, five open playgrounds, three public parks and a set of green
areas) According to the plan, new residential units will be provided, new traffic corridors
will be opened and the metro network will be extended. the development plan proposed

 a mix use housing neighborhood,

five projects include;

 Imbaba park,
 the corridor of Ahmed Orabi which links the district (imbaba &Mohandsen)

 transformation of the existing aviation academy into a services center (

to the ring road,

 waterfront pedestrian walkway, which will offer Imbaba residents the

hospital, school and a district building)

opportunity to enjoy the Nile, improving accessibility and provision of open

space for the whole neighborhood.

Figure 5-12 North Giza sector development plan, source: MHUUC

100
 - Process of regeneration
The project began with proposing the best use of the land of the former Imbaba
Airport, an old out-of-service infrastructure that lied inside the urban mass of Giza.
The project was developed by the GOPP (General Organization for Physical
Planning) affiliated to the Ministry of Housing, Utilities and Urban Communities, with
the Giza Governorate in 2006 as a preliminary concept, that developed in 2008 as a final
master plan.

Initial Proposals for reusing the airport land1

 Schools compound to serve north giza
sector
- major traffic and security problems
and overcrowding students and
schools
- inability to service sector as a result of

 Public park
long-distance traffic

- It will not solve the problem of lack of

public services and education
- lack of funding for the establishment
of (about one million pounds per acre)
- misuse of land from the economic Figure5-13 initial proposal for reusing
point of view airport land

The previous proposals didn't provide a comprehensive vision for the study of the
problems of Urban deterioration and informal areas of north Giza sector and neighboring
areas. Accordingly, a relook for Imbaba airport land as part of the comprehensive
framework of northern sector of Giza was needed.

The goal was developing an integrated vision for the development of this sector (the
largest informal areas in Greater Cairo) and the exploitation of all its components,
including the airport. Therefore, the approved (implemented) proposal, aimed to upgrade
for the whole area through five sub-urban regeneration projects coordinated through a
master plan2 as shown in figure (5-14).

1
MHUUD Imbaba airport land report, 2007
2
Sahar attia, unhabitat 2015

101
 The approved master plan includes five projects

(1) A residential district (52.4

feddans) composed of 178 buildings
containing 3500 residential units to
accommodate almost 14,000 people

(2) A public park on an area of 38

feddans of open green spaces providing
various entertainment activities with a
maximum capacity of 10,000 visitors

(3) Ahmed Orabi Axis extension

project: 11 feddans will be allocated to
support and duplicate Ahmed Orabi
Corridor, which will help smooth the
traffic flow in the area

4) Investment services area 69

feddans

5) Main services center 26.6

feddans

Figure 5-14 3 masterplan for Imbaba Airport land

The Imbaba project was launched in regeneration
2006 and its implementation started in
2009. The first stage of the Development Project started with the implementation of three
projects1.
Development of the project depends on the following thought; Gradual replacement
within the boundaries of the land surrounding the airport as an approach to
redevelopment and the reduction of the population density and improve movement within
the region to be moved residents to the land of the new airport residential area.

- Challenges
Government was the owner of the land and the initiator of redevelopment,
consequently it was viewed as an autocratic visions that do not benefit the surrounding
areas. The challenges2 could be as follow
• There is Lack of trust between the public (residents of neighboring area) and
government. Although construction of residential area is completed, no one
yet declared who can buy or rent these residential units.
• Many agriculture land owner speculated their land or built informally to be

 Residential area supposed to be for those who will be relocated due to road
demolished and relocated in the new looking nice project.

expansions and providing services as planned, still the targeted residents not
surveyed nor registered due to administrative and institutional challenges

1
ibid
2
The challenges were conducted based on author observation, personal interviews with residents and
project consultant

105
 The park was officially opened in 2014 under the name 30th June, afterward

 Many plans were proposed for Investment area; however, none of them were
it was closed due to administrative and operational issues.

approved or declared as the official plan for biding or implementation.

Most of the challenges faces this project is administrative and executive ones. They could
be easily tackled via incorporating local NGOs and private sectors developers.
- Results and achievements
The Project of Imbaba airport regeneration is considered an excellent example of
brownfield regeneration. It has a comprehensive and integrated regeneration approach.
Through reusing the land of the airport to achieve compact development that enhance
existing cores and transport corridors, revitalize existing urban structures while creating
a more integrated urban area. The project has improved the connectivity of the Greater
Cairo region through road network and the metro line (under construction). It has also
upgraded unplanned sites, created green spaces and provided facilities for the
neighborhood. The project has successfully transformed vacant underused plots and
derelict site into educational and health facilities, public spaces, public buildings and
cultural centers. It could be stated as Brownfield regeneration that achieved 'Inclusion
and Connectivity' 1 . The main achievement of this urban regeneration project is
addressing the concerns of sustainable urban development through brownfield
regeneration intervention.

1
Sahar attia, unhabitat 2015

103
5.5. Proposed actions for G.C.
The proposed Actions and decisions for brownfields in G.C. should be considered
on many scales and levels. Starting from the policies and regulations, visions and
stratigies, to the specific projects level.
One of the crtical actions is to integrate brownfields in stratgic planning activities
see figure 5-15 . Strategic planning is mainly a management activity that is used to set
priorities, focus energy and resources, strengthen operations, ensure that employees and
stakeholders are working toward common goals, establish agreement around intended
outcomes/results, and assess and adjust the organization's direction in response to a
changing environment1. Effective strategic planning articulates not only the directions
and the actions needed to make progress, but also assessing how much it is successful2.

Vision Wh ?

strategy What?
Business
How?
model
Value E actl How?
proposition

Brownfield
Regeneration
project

Figure 5-15 brownfields integrated regeneration model

1
https://balancedscorecard.org/Resources/Strategic-Planning-Basics Access 2-2016
2
ibid

104
 Following a detailed proposed procedure for integrating brownfields regeneration
into strategic planning, see figure 5- 16.
• Identify and recognize Brownfields is the first step to start with.
Subsequently investigate the Site for Assessments, remediation, preparation
to check the readiness for regeneration.
• Recognize the benefits and challenges of regeneration on local level.
• Link to strategic development Goals (consider Vision for Site, neighboring
area, and Region, as suitable as scale of the project)
• Needs assessment for Society, Private sector (investor, developer, etc.),
Government institutions, and Other stakeholders groups
• engage key stakeholders while respect their interests and roles
• Consider the economic, social, environmental, institutional needs /objectives
• Use the opportunities to drive regeneration, and override the obstacles.
• Set Goals and Make Plans that achieve the goals while considering the
situation of area plans, zoning, regulations that may require additional
Adjustment and Revisions for the plans.
• Identifying partners, funding sources and cooperation model are of the
critical steps. That needs to thought-of carefully

The balanced sustainable objectives while Continuing Public and stakeholders

Engagement and Input are the main elements of achieving the sustainable brownfield
regeneration. Sustainable brownfield Regeneration is the management of the whole
procedure for a successful results that responsively satisfy people and stakeholders needs

105
Figure 5-16 Brownfield regeneration strategic integrated detailed model source;
Author, adopted from Wells, D. L. (1998). Strategic Management for Senior
Leaders

102
5.6. Conclusion
G.C. faces many challenges due to high densities of activities and residential areas,
in addition to the limited available vacant land. Besides, many brownfields are still
neglected in their central location in G.C. without intervention from the government or
local authorities. . However, brownfields inside G.C. can be part of many strategies
solutions and solutions of urban development.
Through the investigation of the current activities regarding the underutilized areas
(brownfields); The institutional set up, the government's policies, and the market force
are the major influences of the current issues found in the brownfields in Egypt. That
require direct intervention (from government, or NGO) and regulations to ensure they
are included in the market.
Brownfields regeneration is essential topic yet it has many challenges. The
constraints of brownfield regeneration in Egypt could be also the keys to solve many
problems. The conflict in the property ownership issues could be solved by involving
the key stakeholders and sharing the costs and benefits, although the governmental
institutions own most of them. The requirement for financial investment could be linked
to property market value and regeneration benefits. Moreover framing a common vision,
and reliable system within government agencies dedicated to the regeneration of
brownfield. It has to be comprehensively integrated into strategic development not just
governmentally owned brownfields but also privately owned.
The analyzed two case studies, showed that the concept of sustainable brownfield
regeneration is applicable in the context of G.C. and could generalized to be more
applicable in wider context. Although both cases faced some challenges. The application
of the concept is project based that could be supported with frameworks and regulations
for more replication.
As a final point, Brownfields regeneration has to be under strategic developing plans of
the G.C. which require changes in many fields to make planners capable to merge them
in the planning process. In addition, to consider sustainable balanced objectives
approaches rather than one economic objective.
I

103
 Chapter 6 : Conclusion and recommendation

6.1. Introduction
This chapter concludes all theoretical and analytical findings, in addition to research
recommendations and futuristic researches. Theoretical conclusion of sustainable
brownfields regeneration concepts, complexity of the systemic process, conceptual
models and frameworks .Analytical study conclusion includes international case studies
and local implementation trails. After that the recommendation will be on three different
levels, strategies and regulations, process and implementation, and final part regarding
Greater Cairo integrated strategies.

6.2. Research conclusion

The research tried to propose an updated approach of brownfield sustainable
regeneration as key to revitalize and regenerate the city. It integrates and synthesizes the
various issues in the field of urban regeneration internationally and on local level.
Moreover, it has investigated the concepts of brownfields regeneration, sustainable
development, urban regeneration and the ways of applying these concepts.

6.2.1. Theoretical conclusion

Brownfields as a concept arose with deindustrialization and suburbanization. It can
be defined as previously used property that is currently abandoned or underused, and
considered as a potential site for redevelopment. Brownfields could be classified
according to the previous use, vacancy, size of the site, ownership situation, and
contamination. Although brownfields have few negative impacts, they present numerous
potential benefits considering appropriate regeneration. The main positive point to be
taken in consideration when dealing with brownfields is they are potentials for
sustainable urban development. While main threat appears in actual or perceived
contaminated post-industrial sites that negatively affect human health and the
environment. Brownfields are preferable not to be treated as a problem, but as a
condition, that requires intervention.
Additionally, increasing urbanization challenges and increasing calls for sustainable
development, require more innovative and untraditional solutions like brownfields
regeneration.
Urban regeneration as a concept has evolved a lot from just physical improvements
into more deep and comprehensive besides its objectives became more complex and
critical. Urban regeneration is conceptualized as a major intervention dealing with
existing urban areas. It is considered as comprehensive and integrated vision and action
to solve urban problems while developing the economic, physical, social and
environmental situation of an area. The concept has evolved from a simple form of

102
renovation or rehabilitation of a building, to the integrated, comprehensive, responsive
sustainable urban regeneration.
The sustainable urban regeneration of Brownfield lands plays a significant role in
urban development. It is considered as a tool that could achieve the balanced
development of economy, culture, society and ecology. The recovery of brownfields sites
may provide the city with many opportunities to reconstruct economic structure, and
recreate healthier environment, more over to achieve social, cultural, economic
sustainability.
Main points have been concluded from compiling different concepts of brownfields,
sustainability, and urban regeneration. These points are the key principles of sustainable
brownfield regeneration that could be used to guide and evaluate brownfields
regeneration projects.
• Recovery to beneficial use (From negative to positive)
• Solution for existing problems while satisfying of human needs
• Long term & lasting development for present & future generations
• Improve aspects / achieve balanced objectives ) Economic, Social and
culture, Environmental, Institutional, and Physical)
• Linking top down & bottom up approaches
• Comprehensive and integrated strategically within particular regional
context

Brownfields regeneration could be conceptually sustainable; however, its process is

affected by the dynamics and complexity of the urban systems, which make the process
more challenging and complex. Starting with the dynamics of creation and regeneration
of brownfields sites, different stakeholders' perspectives, challenges, moreover driving
forces of the regeneration process.

Brownfield regeneration can be very effective on wider urban development scale.

The dynamics of the brownfields regeneration/creation is a shift from linear to circular
process. There will always be a flow of brownfields in and out of the land use cycle, as
sites change in use and are regenerated. As possible, there should be a steady flow in
equal volumes. Regeneration of brownfield should consider soft reuse and temporary
uses as well as the hard reuse as built constructions or infrastructure development.
Brownfield regeneration should be part of a comprehensible strategic land management
approach. Land management and brownfields are highly relevant cross cutting topic for
urban development. So integrated approaches and comprehensive strategies are
necessary.
The regeneration of brownfields is a challenging issue that require the involvement
of the entire range of stakeholders. Many studies, projects and organizations have
recognized the importance of stakeholder involvement and have promoted public
participation. Stakeholders’ perspectives proved to be different according to their
interests, and roles in the regeneration process.

Due to the complex nature of brownfields, several issues need to be addressed. Such
issues could be physical, economic, social, environmental and technical aspects; for
example Contamination and remediation strategies and options, site investigation, and
risk assessment, Project planning and financing. However, the economic, social,
environmental and political benefits represent driving motivation for regenerating
brownfields.

103
 From the decision-making point of view, the context of policies and actions of
government, market and society could be either a driver or obstacle for brownfields
regeneration, as well the economic viability of individual sites. According to the cost of
regeneration, the value of the site, and the revenue, brownfield site could classified as A,
B, or C site which assist in regeneration opportunity valuation, and investigating
intervention options and regeneration strategies.
Sustainability assessment could be used in support of decision making for
brownfield regeneration projects. The increasing recognizing of potential benefits of
brownfield regeneration to sustainable development resulted in a need for assessing how
sustainable is the regeneration of a brownfield project. However there is no standard
perception or method for assessing sustainability of brownfield regeneration, general
principles have been identified for the regeneration context. Stakeholder involvement and
balanced objectives are also important parts of sustainability assessment. Sustainability
assessment usually provides a framework for evaluating the overall outcomes in a holistic
way. However, regarding the financial investments required for brownfield regeneration,
sustainability evaluation should be combined with cost–benefit analysis as a base for
investment decision making.
As a final point, Sustainable Brownfield sustainable regeneration is a balanced
participatory approach that incorporates environmental, socio cultural, technical, and
economic aspects “to meet the present needs without compromising the needs of the
future”.

6.2.2. Analytical conclusion

The concept of Sustainable urban regeneration of brownfields is very important and
widely recognized internationally. Countries and governments have recognized the
complexity of brownfields. Their reaction to Brownfields have been affected mainly by
the scale and number of brownfields sites, and land availability for development, related
population density. The different conditions have led towards different strategies and
programs to support brownfields regeneration. Although several benefits of brownfields,
property market forces were not enough to tackle the challenges of regeneration.
Accordingly, governmental intervention was needed. Reactively they have taken many
steps to promote brownfield regeneration. They have outlined a definition for
brownfields or derelict sites; then, inventory list and describe brownfields. Many
governments have developed integrated strategies and supported applied research
projects. They have developed a system of gradual treatment and provided financial
efforts to reduce risks.
Activities of Initiatives, policies, institutional research programs have considered
constraints and challenges, for instance; time scales required for property acquisition,
property valuation difficulties, legal issues, the technical and economic risks, as well as,
priorities for individual projects and objectives.
Many reactions formed their models about how to reduce the risks and maximize benefits
of brownfields in countries like:
• EPA’s Brownfields and Land Revitalization Programs in United States of
America, which provides funds and technical assistance to communities, states
and others to assess, remediate and sustainably regenerate brownfields.
• (CABERNET) which is a multidisciplinary network expert stakeholder groups
that facilitates and enhances practical solutions by providing frameworks and

110
 tools for brownfields regeneration according to the context of sustainable
development of European cities.
• United Kingdom's National Planning Policy Framework, which set 60%. Of
housing projects to in be brownfield regeneration.

International experience of brownfield regeneration in relation to policy and programs

showed that most integrated land management policies addressing brownfield
regeneration focused on both direct/indirect incentives and enabling public interventions.
These policies were mainly designed to address the challenges facing brownfields
regeneration using legal, financial tools, moreover regulations incentives to encourage
brownfield regeneration.
There is no one tool or method that is guaranteed for success, but a combination and
sensitive selection of tools based on each case. Generally; policies and programs for
brownfields regeneration are mainly responsible for taking into consideration strategic
visions and goals of the city.
Worldwide, there are different approaches and projects experiences in application of
brownfields sustainable regeneration concept. The regenerated brownfields could serve
as residential, commercial, recreational, or cultural facility, moreover, a development
catalyst for neighboring communities or even for the whole city. If brownfields
regeneration were targeted on city level, they could act as urban acupuncture; some
planning strategies are suggested for regeneration process; like the example of
Abandoibarra in Bilbao, Hammarby sjöstad in Stockholm and Seine rive gauche in Paris.

Identifying vital actions would include all possible stakeholders, property ownership,
public authorities involved in regeneration, and identifying their objectives and
constraints. Moreover specifying participant involvement for each stage of the project-
chain, identifying groups to be involved, and specifying the type of involvement for each
group involvement.

Furthermore, initial costs and benefits should be analysed of regeneration for particular
project, and for each stakeholder. Selecting suitable development model to cooperate
between Private development, Public development, or PPP (public private partnership);
In order to develop terms of reference for contracting and implementation.

However these experiences are numerous and varied, there will be always a need for
further experimentation and implementation of urban planning approaches that link
environmental with economic improvements, preserve and enhance resources, engage
with affected community and transform Brown to Green

Regarding brownfields in G.C. and Egyptian context

One important goal in this research was to identify if sustainable Urban Regeneration
of Brownfields is applicable in Egypt with a focus on greater Cairo. It is a metropolitan
currently suffers from urban, social and economic challenges and problems.
Brownfields are main part of land and properties market in urban mass of GC. Which
could play a key role in urban development. Brownfields present great potential, what
make them real asset for development strategy.
Through investigation of Egyptian present conditions; by reviewing governing
conditions of brownfields, it was found that main constrains are ownership, lack of
common vision, or a consistent system for development. The property issues is
considered as one of the major constraints in regenerating Brownfields in Egypt due to

111
the lack of instruments in dealing with ownership of these lands. Specially, for those
owned by the governmental bodies and neglected mostly, without maintenance or
considering future developing plans.
Integrating Brownfields regeneration with planned intervention from the
government and local authorities could lead to comprehensive solution with many social,
economic and environmental benefits. Including these assets in the strategic development
plans could be a key solution, as they represent valuable resource of the land which can
attract investors and developers with their prime locations especially

The study has found how brownfields regeneration has very beneficial effect on
sustainable urban development, particularly in two examples studied nationally of Al
Azhar Park and Imbaba Airport land, which verify the applicability of sustainable urban
regeneration of brownfields in Egyptian context.
Finally, regenerating Brownfields needs to be under umbrella of national developing
plans of the G.C., to make planners capable to merge them in the planning process. This
should be done in different disciplines and scales. Starting from changing in the
legislation itself. Urban planning laws and regulations need to include definition for what
is meant by unused or underdeveloped assets (brownfields), and their classifications
according to conditions of Egyptian context.

6.3. Recommendations:
Recommendations of research could be introduced on three different levels. They
could be introduced to different stake holders on national level, the level of city strategies,
moreover projects.
On Egyptian national level Recommendations may be in terms of laws, policies and

 Egypt should have a national urban local agenda for sustainable brownfields
regulations;

 Proposing regulations that allow the full and effective use of public and
regeneration and properties reuse

 To Establish, Incentivize policies that ensure the sustainable brownfields

private properties abandoned, and unused, underused, or unoccupied.

regeneration. Such policies should be integrated, not piecemeal ones. Using

flexible, adaptive policies, not rigid ones, that allow management and

 Consider contextual actions on the level of the city, with guidelines and
planning for sustainable urban development.

effective instruments.

 Creating channels of interaction between policy makers and stakeholders in

On city level, process and implementation, and application for Greater Cairo.

 Considering the economic perspective in parallel with social and

regenerating brownfield process.

 On the level of legislations and regulations, alternatives and options should

environmental perspectives.

be proposed to private landowners in order to keep owners’ rights and work

 Anticipating and preparing proposals for futuristic possible brownfields in a

on strategic development plans,

comprehensive balanced regeneration strategy.

115
 In order to merge brownfield into urban land markets and planning strategies of the
G.C.R. the following points should be achieved;
• Establishing of a strong database for under developed and unused assets. In
addition to updated detailed survey on Brownfields land in greater Cairo.
• Facilitate the cooperation between planning authorities and local authorities
through establishing organizational body, which offers a one-stop service for
regeneration.
• Brownfields regeneration objectives should be evaluated to fulfil strategic
development goals of Greater Cairo
• Encouraging developers and investors to develop projects in Brownfield sites
in G.C. while Involving public participation with the government in planning
strategies of Brownfields.
• Linking brownfields regeneration as an approach for upgrading neighboring
informal areas.

 Outline specific guidelines for assuring the quality of development

For particular projects:

 Beautification of the public realm have to be of the main objectives as it

 brownfield regeneration projects should provide infrastructure development

positively affects the identity, value, and desirability of a project.

like; improving accessibility and developing public facility. As they add extra

 Cooperation and partnership between public and private sectors has to be

value and economic development level of the community and the city.

considered in brownfield regeneration.

6.4. Further research

There are many direction and areas for future and related research topics for more

 Retrofitting existing underused building for better productive performance.

developed application;

 The comparison between temporary soft reusing of brownfields and hard mega

 Investigating responsive urban land management models that can; produce better
infrastructure development projects.

environment, attract investment, increase livability, and be more resilient.

113
 References

Abolina, K Urban Sustainability indicators development criteria. (2005.)

Adair, A., Berry, J., Haran, M., Hutchison, N., & McGreal, S. (2009). Urban
regeneration: Opportunities for property investment. Investment Property Forum.
Alker, S., Joy, V., Roberts, P., & Smith, N. (2000). The definition of brownfield.
Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 43(1), 49-69.
Banister, D., Watson, S., & Wood, C. (1997). Sustainable cities: transport, energy,
and urban form. Environment and Planning B: planning and design,24(1), 125-143.
Bardos, P., Bone, B., Boyle, R., Ellis, D., Evans, F., Harries, N. D., & Smith, J. W.
(2011). Applying sustainable development principles to contaminated land management
using the SuRF‐UK framework. Remediation Journal,21(2), 77-100.
Bardos, R. P., Jones, S., Stephenson, I., Menger, P., Beumer, V., Neonato, F., ... &
Wendler, K. (2016). Optimising value from the soft re-use of brownfield sites. Science
of The Total Environment, 563, 769-782.
Bartke, S., & Schwarze, R. (2015). No perfect tools: Trade-offs of sustainability
principles and user requirements in designing support tools for land-use decisions
between greenfields and brownfields. Journal of environmental management, 153, 11-
24.
Beswick, C. A., & Tsenkova, S. (2002). Overview of urban regeneration
policies. Urban regeneration: Learning from the British Experience. Retrieved May, 1,
2007.
Brown, B. B., Perkins, D. D., & Brown, G. (2004). Crime, new housing, and
housing incivilities in a first‐ring suburb: Multilevel relationships across time.Housing
Policy Debate, 15(2), 301-345.
Carmon, N. (1999). Three generations of urban renewal policies: analysis and
policy implications. Geoforum, 30(2), 145-158.
Couch, C., & Dennemann, A. (2000). Urban regeneration and sustainable
development in Britain: The example of the Liverpool Ropewalks
Partnership.Cities, 17(2), 137-147.
De Sousa, C. (2000). Brownfield redevelopment versus greenfield development: A
private sector perspective on the costs and risks associated with brownfield
redevelopment in the Greater Toronto Area. Journal of Environmental Planning and
Management, 43(6), 831-853.
Dixon, T. (2007). The property development industry and sustainable urban
brownfield regeneration in England: an analysis of case studies in Thames Gateway and
Greater Manchester. Urban Studies, 44(12), 2379-2400.
El Khateeb, S. M., & Abd Elrahman, A. S. (2013). Brownfields in GCR: A
neglected potential for redevelopment of the old city. The Journal of Urbanism, (26)
Fakultet u Podgorici, A., Perovic, S., & Folić, N. K. Brownfield regeneration–
imperative for sustainable urban development).
Galdini, R. (2005). Urban Regeneration Process-The Case Of Genoa, An Example
of Integrated Urban Development Approach. Paper presented at the Land Use and
Water Management in a Sustainable Network Society, 45th Cogress of European
Regional Science Association, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam.
Greenberg, M. R., & Hollander, J. )5002(. The environmental protection agency’s
brownfields pilot program. American journal of public health, 96(2), 277.

114
 Grimski, D., & Ferber, U. (2001). Urban brownfields in Europe. Land
Contamination and Reclamation, 9(1), 143-148.
Groenendijk, N. (2006). Financing Techniques for Brownfield Regeneration-A
practical guide.
Hall, P., Gracey, H., Drewett, R., and Thomas, R., (1973) The Containment of
Urban England vol I : Urban and Metropolitan Growth Processes George Allen &
Unwin.
Illaszewicz, J., & Gibson, K. (2009). Green and sustainable remediation: Creating a
framework for environmentally friendly site cleanup. Environmental Quality
Management, 18(4), 1-8.
Kaufman, D. A., & Cloutier, N. R. (2006). The impact of small brownfields and
greenspaces on residential property values. The Journal of Real Estate Finance and
Economics, 33(1), 19-30.
Kovancı, P. )1332(. Urban Regeneration Issues and Policies as Complementary and
Multi Aspect Planning Tools. Unpublished Master Thesis, Middle East Technical
University, Ankara.
Law, W. W. Y. (2004). Sustainable Urban Regeneration and Social Impact
Assessment: A Case Study of Hong Kong. Unpublished PhD Thesis, The University of
Hong Kong, Hong Kong.
Layne, J. (2000). Marked for Success? The Winnipeg core area's Initiative's
approach to uban regeneration. Canadian Journal of Regional Science, 23(2), 249-278
Ling, X. (2008). Exploring the Potential Application of Brownfield Redevelopment
in Dalian, China, Based on Municipal Experiences in Ontario, Canada.
Maliene V, Wignall L, Malys N (2012). "Brownfield Regeneration: Waterfront
Site Developments in Liverpool and Cologne". Journal of Environmental Engineering
and Landscape Management 20 (1). pp. 5–16.
McDonald, S., Malys, N., & Maliene, V. (2009). Urban regeneration for
sustainable communities: A case study. Technological and Economic Development of
Economy, 15(1), 49-59.
Mieszkowski, P., & Mills, E. S. (1993). The causes of metropolitan
suburbanization. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 7(3), 135-147.
Myers, D., & Wyatt, P. (2004). Rethinking urban capacity: identifying and
appraising vacant buildings. Building Research & Information, 32(4), 285-292.
Ng, M. K., Cook, A., & Chui, E. W. T. (2001). The road not travelled: a
sustainable urban regeneration strategy for Hong Kong. Planning Practice and
Research, 16(2), 171-183.
Perovic, S., & Kurtović Folić, N. )5015(. Brownfield regeneration–imperative for
sustainable urban development. Građevinar, 24)05.(, 333-383.
Point, G. H., & Area, N. M. Redevelopment of Brownfield, Vacant, and
Underutilized Properties in Greensboro, NC.
Porter, M. E. (1995). The competitive advantage of the inner city. The city reader,
274-286.
Preuß, T., & Ferber, U. (2006). Circular Flow Land Use Management: New
Strategic. Planning and Instrumental Approaches for Mobilisation of Brownfields,
Berlin (German Institute of Urban Affairs, Occasional Paper.)
Schenkel, W. (2006). Urban Regeneration and Urban Governance: Trade Off
Between Competitiveness and Social Cohesion. In Workshop (Vol. 4.)
Smith, G. (2008). Contributions of brownfield development to urban internal
expansion and urban renewal in practice. In 44th International Society of City and
Regional Planners Congress, Dalian, China (pp. 19-23.)

115
 Stewart, D. (2004). Smart Development” for Brownfields: A Futures Approach
Using the Prospective through Scenario Planning Method. Brownfield Sites II:
Assessment, Rehabilitation and Development, 233-241.
Syms, P., & Clarke, A. (2011). Good design in the redevelopment of brownfield
sites. Urban Design in the Real Estate Development Process, 137-158.
Thornton, G., Franz, M., Edwards, D., Pahlen, G., & Nathanail, P. (2007). The
challenge of sustainability: incentives for brownfield regeneration in
Europe.environmental science & policy, 10(2), 116-134.
Tosics, I. (2011). Governance challenges and models for the cities of
tomorrow. Issue paper on behalf of the European Commission-DG Regional Policy.
Budapest: Metropolitan Research Institute.
Walkowiak, E., & Frazier, D. (2000). Brownfield Redevelopment as a Catalyst for
Creating Sustainable Cities (Vol. 9, pp. 113-122). WIT Press: Rio Janeiro, Brazil.
Williams, K., & Dair, C. (2007). A framework for assessing the sustainability of
brownfield developments. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management,50(1),
23-40.
Yalcinta, H. A., & Kilinc, G. (2010). Evaluation of Urban Regeneration Practice in
Turkey in Comparison to General Framework for Managing Urban Regeneration in
Developed Countries. Paper presented at the 14th International Planning History
Society Conference.

Books

Couch, C. (1990). Urban renewal: theory and practice. Houndmills, Basingstoke:

Macmillan.
Desai, A. R., & Pillai, S. D. (1990). Slums and urbanization, second edition.
London.
Dixon, T., & Marston, A. (2003). The Role of UK Retailing in Urban
Regeneration. College of Estate Management. Reading.
Elkin, T., McLaren, D., & Hillman, M. (1991). Reviving the City: towards
sustainable urban development. London: Friends of the Earth.
Girardet, H. (1999). Creating sustainable cities (No. 2). Chelsea Green Publishing.
Hardoy, J. E., Mitlin, D., & Satterthwaite, D. (2014). Environmental problems in
an urbanizing world: finding solutions in cities in Africa, Asia and Latin America.
Routledge.
Jenks, M., & Burgess, R. (Eds.). (2000). Compact cities: sustainable urban forms
for developing countries. Taylor & Francis.
Jenks, M., Burton, E., & Williams, K. (1996). The compact city. A sustainable
urban form.
Jones, P., & Evans, J. (2008). Urban regeneration in the UK: Theory and practice.
Sage
Lerner, J. (2014). Urban Acupuncture. Island Press.
Newman, P., & Kenworthy, J. (2000). Sustainable urban form: the big
picture.Achieving sustainable urban form, 109-120.
Roberts, P., & Hugh, S. (Eds.). (2000). Urban regeneration: a handbook. London:
Sage Publications.
Sims, D. (2003). Understanding slums: Case studies for the global report on human
settlements. Urbanslums report: The case of Cairo, Egypt
Smith, N. (1996). The new urban frontier: gentrification and the revanchist city.
Psychology Press.

112
 Reports

Brundtland Report, World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987.

Edwards, D. (2005). Best practice guidance for sustainable brownfield
regeneration. Rescue.
EPA, 2006, Anatomy of Brownfields Redevelopment
Ferber, U., & Grimski, D. (2003). Brownfields and Redevelopment of Urban
Areas: Report Prepared by Working Group" Brownfield Redevelopment"
(CLARINET)
Ferber, U., Grimski, D., Millar, K., & Nathanail, P. (2006). Sustainable brownfield
regeneration: CABERNET network report. University of Nottingham: L & Quality
Management Group.
General Organization for Physical Planning (GOPP). (2009). The National Urban
Development Plan in the Arab republic of Egypt. Ministry of Housing, Utilities &
Urban Development.
Heilig, G. K. (2012). World urbanization prospects: the 2011 revision. United
Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA), Population Division,
Population Estimates and Projections Section, New York.
IPF (2009) Urban Regeneration: Opportunities for Private Investment. IPF:
London
Madbouly, M. (2010). Vision of Cairo 2050 within a national vision of Egypt.
General Organization for Physical Planning Ministry of Housing, Utilities & Urban
Development.
MHUUD Imbaba airport land report, 2007
MHUUD. (2008). The Unified Construction Law. No. 119. Cairo, Egypt.
NRTEE-2003-Canadian Manual on Brownfield Redevelopment
RESCUE (2005) Best Practice Manual. LQM Press, Nottingham
Tölle, A. (2009). Report about concepts and tools for brownfield redevelopment
activities (Output No. 3.1. 1 of the COBRAMAN project). Bydgoszcz, Poland.[online]
Available at: http://www. central2013.
eu/fileadmin/user_upload/Downloads/outputlib/cobraman_tools_brownfield_regenerati
on. pdf.
Un-Habitat. (2013). Planning and design for sustainable urban mobility: Global
report on human settlements 2013. Taylor & Francis.
Un-Habitat, (2011), Cities &citizens series, bridging the urban divide, "Cairo: A
city in transition".
Websites
http://cielap.org/brownfields access Jan. 2016
http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/150793 access Feb. 2014
https://www.epa.gov/brownfields Apr. 2016
https://www.epa.gov/land-revitalization Apr. 2016
Trends in Urbanisation and Urban Policies in OECD Countries: What Lessons for
China?, 2010 www.oecd.org/urban/roundtable/45159707.pdf
http://www.ecrami.com/Company.html access 3/2016
http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2012/08/27/ramlet-boulaq-the-battle-for-land/
http://www.egyptindependent.com/opinion/tale-towers-and-shacks
https://balancedscorecard.org/Resources/Strategic-Planning-Basics Access Feb.
2016

113
[1] https://www.asla.org/2013awards/524.html 6-2016
http://www.sustainablecitiescollective.com/dirt/23753/cities-use-brownfields-go-
solar 10-2015
http://urbanshapers.info/2011/09/08/transforming-brownfields-to-brightfields-the-
inventive-national-initiative/ access 5/2016
http://web.mit.edu/cron/class/nature/archive/student_projects/lrc/about_bright.htm
www.newmoa.org/.../LoriRibeiro-BrownfieldstoBrightfields-NEWMOA2008.pdf
http://www.thecitiesproject.com/2008/09/bilbao-1.html access 5/2016
http://designobserver.com/feature/does-bilbao-need-another-guggenheim/25978/
access 6/2015
http://www.bilbaoria2000.org/ria2000/ing/bilbaoRia/bilbaoRia.aspx?primeraVez=
0 access 5/2016
http://www.bm30.es/plan/pri_uk.html#5 access 6/2016
http://www.bilbaoria2000.org/ access 6/2016
pcparch.com/pcpa_assets/2015/12/abandoibarra_mp.pdf
http://stephanekirkland.com/seine-rive-gauche/ access 4-2016
https://www.itdp.org/our-cities-ourselves-principles-for-transport-in-urban-life/
access 1-2016
http://goo.gl/2xHJiV access 4/2016
http://en.semapa.fr/Urban-development/Operations-in-progress/Paris-Rive-Gauche
access 1-2016

112
 Appendix

Governance and Urban Management Structures

Strategies and institutional framework, laws
Ministries
Central ministries are powerful actors in relation to land and urban planning
An important factor that exacerbates this situation is the competition of power among
ministries. This has resulted in a complex and often contradictory system of urban
planning and land management.
The Ministry of Housing has a particularly strong role in urban governance, yet
rarely coordinates with the other ministries that prepare urban and regional development
studies and plans.
The Ministry of Planning and Local Development prepares regional development
plans and studies and
the Ministry of Tourism prepares coastal zone management plans.
All plans, whether at the national, regional or local level, must be reviewed and
approved by the Ministry of Defense and Military Production.
The Ministries of Agriculture and Land Reclamation, Awqaf and Culture (through
the Egyptian Authority for Antiquities) also directly affect the decision making in urban
planning in Egypt (World Bank, 2007).

General Organization for Physical Planning (GOPP)

The GOPP is one of the most significant actors responsible for urban planning and
governance in Cairo. It is responsible for preparing urban master plans for major cities.
The GOPP was created by Republican decision 1093/1973 which dictates the
creation of a general association for urban planning. In the framework of the new law
119/2008, they are given the responsibility of ..drawing strategic plans for the
Governorates in ways that are suitable to their possibilities and resources. Currently the
GOPP is involved in organizing the planning process on all levels (regional, urban, and
detailed) and preparing planning guidelines, urban development programs and coordination
of the planning processes allover Egypt. GOPP has produced dozens of strategic plans for
Egyptian Governorates, cities, small cities, and urban cordons for villages and hamlets.1

The Military
The military is one of the most powerful Egyptian institutions in relation to land and
urban development. their influence can be seen permeating the legal system and land
market.
They have leveraged their power to influence major infrastructure projects as well.
The Egyptian military plays a particular role in the legal system with respect to land.

Governorates and Governors

Since 1979, Governorates have had authority over urban planning, housing, land
development and infrastructure. However, planning in Greater Cairo is especially
difficult because the city is split into three distinct administrative units, the Governorates
of Cairo, Giza and Qalyubia. As a result, there is no one administrative body overseeing
growth and development in the metropolis (Sims, 2003). Besides these structural

1
http://gopp.gov.eg/ 9-2015

113
difficulties, there is no clear agreement on a common urban policy to be implemented in
Greater Cairo.
Furthermore, decisions concerning urban development within Governorates have
been made based on the personal vision of each Governor (World Bank, 2007).
Governors have the rank of minister, are appointed directly by the president and are
seen as his direct representatives holding great power.
Governorates depend on the central government for eighty percent of their budget.
The remainder is aggregated from fees, a very small portion of which can be used at the
Governorate’s discretion )Sims, 5010(. As a result of these limitations, Governors often
use whatever influence they have as direct representatives of the president to, for
example, initiate land development projects in partnership with private sector financiers.

Legal system
According to the Prime Minister's decision No. 467 of 2005, the restructuring of the
management board of the National Center for State land-use planning, the Council
includes representatives from the following ministries (ministries concerned as the
territory of the State):
1. Ministry of Defense and Military Production
2. Ministry of Housing, Utilities and Urban Communities
3. The Ministry of Endowments (Awqaf)
4. Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation
5. Ministry of the Interior affairs
6. Ministry of Petroleum
7. Ministry of Electricity and Energy
8. Ministry of Civil Aviation
9. Ministry of Local Development
10. Ministry of Agriculture and land reclamation
11. Ministry of Tourism
12. Ministry of Investment
13. The Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs
14. Ministry of Transportation
15. Ministry of Communications and Information Technology
16. Ministry of Culture

The main State bodies concerned are:

1. National Center for planning State lands-usage

2. The Supreme Council for Planning and Urban Development
3. General Organization For Physical Planning
4. New Urban Communities Authority
5. General Authority for Rehabilitation Projects and Agricultural Development
6. General Authority for Tourism Development
7. General Authority for Industrial Development
8. General Authority for Fish Resources Development
9. Military Survey Department
10. General Authority for Investment and Free Zones
11. General Authority for mines and quarries
12. General Authority for Government Services
13. General Authority of Survey

150
 14. General Authority for Antiquities
15. General Authority for Roads and Bridges

In addition to these bodies,

in accordance with Presidential Decree No. 221 for the year 2010, the governors
have the right to sell or privatize or lease the right to use the land in their territory, and
also the Prime Minister has the same right.
the multiplicity of laws and regulations, governing the use of the territory of the State
The most important laws governing the use land planning and development:

Unified building Law no. 119 of 2008 regarding urban planning and urban harmony
and Organization of construction work and the preservation of real estate wealth.
Law 100 of 1964 concerning the regulation of state-owned private ownership and
disposition of real estate rental.
Presidential Decree No. 549 of 1971 issued a license for the governor to sell state
property within the villages and towns boundaries.
Law 43 of 1979 of the local administration system.
Law 143 of 1981 regarding the desert land.
Presidential Decree 531 of 1981 regarding the rules of disposition the land and real
estate owned by the state which evacuated by the armed forces..
984 regarding some special rules for the disposal of state property.

conditions for the management and usage of the disposition of land allocated to urban
communities authority.

conditions for the management and usage of the disposition of land allocated to the
reconstruction and development of agricultural.

conditions for the management and usage of the disposition of land allocated the General
Authority for Tourism Development.
les to dispose desert land free.

military importance areas of desert land and their own rules.

e lands
until 2017.
-
owned land usufructuary right system.
. Council of Ministers Resolution No. 1999 of 2009 regarding the disposition of
certain real estate assets of public entities.
The set of laws and regulations which may- by different levels- affect on the urban
regeneration processes approach in GCR.
The most significant laws and regulations which should be considered during the
land-use reutilization management are:
‫إ‬Law of Building No. 119 of 2008 and its regulations, especially its first part of
urban planning and its articles related to planning and urban development at different
levels (national – regional – local), founding of Supreme Council for Planning and Urban
Development, preparing the strategic master plan and detailed master plan, dealing with
unplanned areas and re-planning areas.

151
 ‫إ‬Law of local administration system no. 43 of 1979; in respect of organizational
structure of local administration entities, its units, duties, financial resources and budget.
‫إ‬Law of expropriation of property for public interest no. 10 of 1990; in respect of
identifying public interest projects, compensation estimates and procedures during land
use reutilization projects.
‫إ‬Law of the protection of monuments no. 117 of 1983; especially regarding
identification of historic buildings, dealing with them, and protection/ maintenance
procedures.

The fundamental law for land acquisition and resettlement is the Law No. 10/1990
concerning the Expropriation of Real Estates for Public Interest.
The law defines the public interests and the procedure of land acquisition and
resettlement regarding public interests. According to the law,

 The construction of roads, streets, squares expansion or modification,

The public interests according to the law:

 Water and sanitation projects.

extension or create new neighborhoods.

 Irrigation and drainage projects.

 Energy projects.
 Create bridges and surface go around (level crossing) and lower passages or

 Transportation and mobility projects.

modification

 The purposes of urban planning and the improvement of public facilities.

 Whatever is of public interest in the work of any other law

155
 ‫الملخص‬
‫لعق ي ل ت ث في ا ضي غير ل ستغ ‪.‬‬ ‫ي قش ل حث ه يه لتع مل مع اص‬
‫ت ف لرس ل ل ‪:‬‬
‫ن ر استر تي ي ي ن تط يق ل تع مل مع ع ي ع لتط ير إحي ء‬ ‫‪ -‬قتر‬
‫أ ضي في لسي ل ر خ ص في م لق هر ل ر ب ف لربط بين‬ ‫لأص‬
‫مشر ع احي ء لح ر ل ست لأص لعق ي بين ت يه ق يم لق هر ل ر من‬
‫ن ر تط يقي‪ ,‬مع لتركيز ع ستر تي ي تح يل ا ضي غير ل ستغ لي‬ ‫خا‬
‫ل تع ق ب أف‬ ‫يس هم في عم ل ي ل ي ‪ .‬ب إض ف لي مح ل ف م لتعقي‬ ‫م‬
‫م ني ت ي ه ‪ .‬يعت ر ه ل حث مح ل لإض ف است من ل ر لع ل ي‬
‫استر تي ي إحي ء لع ر ني‪ ,‬تحقيق م ئ ستر تي ي لت طيط لع ر ني ل ست ‪.‬‬
‫لرئيسي ل حث كي ي عت حي ء مثل ه أص ك ج ئيسي لتحقيق لت ي‬ ‫لتس‬ ‫يت‬
‫لع ر ني ل ست ‪.‬‬
‫لع ي لتط يق ه‬ ‫س تح ي ي ل ت‬ ‫ي قسم ل حث ل قس ين ئيسيين‪ ,‬س ن ري‬
‫ل هيم في ج يع أنح ء لع لم في لسي ل ر ‪ .‬ل زء ل ر لأ ر ح ( ل ل لث ني‬
‫لث لث) يق ستعر ض ن ري ي قش ل هيم ل ت لأص غير ل ستغ أث ه ل حت‬
‫لع مل ل ثر لق ي‬ ‫س تعقي‬ ‫إحي ء لع ر ني ل ست ‪ .‬ب إض ف ل ستعر‬
‫ل فع لتي ي ن أ ت ثر ع‬ ‫لق‬ ‫ل م لع ر ني ل عق ‪ ,‬لتح ي‬ ‫في‬ ‫ل‬
‫ع ي حي ء مثل ه أص ‪.‬‬
‫خ ر كثير من‬ ‫ل زء لع ي ( ل ل لر بع ل مس) أمث م ت من ت‬ ‫يستعر‬
‫ل في انت من ه أص ‪ ,‬م ج لتح ي في ع ي احي ء لتط ير‪ ,‬ك لك‬ ‫ل‬
‫ع من ل ش يع لتي تم تط يق ك مث ن جح ي ن است م ‪ .‬يقتر ل حث ن ج ن ري‬
‫حي ء ه أص مت مل م مج من ل حي استر تي ي في تحقيق‬ ‫ي ضح كيف ي ن أ ت‬
‫ت صي ح كيف ي ن إحي ء مثل‬ ‫أه ف لت ي لع ر ني ‪ .‬ي ت ي ل حث بتق يم ست ت ج‬
‫ه أص غير ل ستغ أ ت ثل فرص مش يع مست م ‪ ,‬م ي لتعزيز ت شيط ت ي ل‬
‫ل ري ع ر ني ‪.‬‬

‫أ ضي‪ ,‬لق هر‬ ‫لع ر ني ‪ ,‬لت ي ل ست م ‪,‬‬ ‫حي ء‪/‬تط ير‪ ,‬اص‬ ‫الكلما الدال ‪ :‬ع‬
‫ل ر ‪.‬‬