CHAPTER TWO

PATHOLOGY
Plant pathology (also phytopathology) can also be seen as the scientific study of plant
diseases caused by pathogens (infectious organisms) and environmental conditions
(physiological factors). Organisms that cause infectious disease include fungi, oomycetes,
bacteria, viruses, viroid, virus-like organisms, phytoplasmas, protozoa, nematodes and
parasitic plants.
Plant pathology also involves the study of pathogen identification, disease etiology,
disease cycles, economic impact, plant disease epidemiology, plant disease resistance,
how plant diseases affect humans and animals and management of plant diseases.
NOTE: Not included are ectoparasites like insects, mites, vertebrate, or other pests that
affect plant health by consumption of plant tissues.
Plant Disease: is an impairment of the normal state of a plant that interrupts or modifies
its vital functions. The occurrence and prevalence of plant diseases vary from season to
season, depending on the presence of the pathogen, environmental conditions, and the
crops and varieties grown.
Scope of Plant Pathology
Plant pathology comprises with the basic knowledge and technologies of Botany, Plant
Anatomy, Plant Physiology, Mycology, Bacteriology, Virology, Nematology, Genetics,
Molecular Biology, Genetic Engineering, Biochemistry, Horticulture, Tissue Culture,
Soil Science, Forestry, Physics, Chemistry, Meteorology, Statistics, protozology,
phycology, unfavorable, environmental factors, nutritional deficiencies and flowering
plant parasites, and many other branches of applied science.
Objectives of Plant Pathology
To study the diseases (s) or disorders caused by biotic and abiotic agent,
To study of mechanism of disease development by pathogens.
To study of interaction between plant and pathogen in reiation to the overall
environment.
Causes of Plant Diseases
 Plant diseases are caused by pathogens. Hence a pathogen is always associated with a
disease. In other way, disease is a symptom caused by the invasion of a pathogen that is
able to survive, perpetuate and spread. Further, the word "pathogen" can be broadly
defined as any agent or factor that incites 'pathos or disease in an organism or host. In
strict sense, the causes of plant diseases are grouped under following categories:
1. Animate or biotic causes: Pathogens of living e.g. Fungi, Bacteria, Protozoa,
Nematodes, Algae.
Mesobiotic causes:These disease incitants are neither living nor non-living, e.g. Viruses,
Viroides.
Inanimate or abiotic causes: In true sense these factors cause damages (any reduction in the
quality or quantity of yield or loss of revenue) to the plants rather than causing disease.
The causes are:
(i) Deficiencies or excess of nutrient, Light, Moisture, Temperature, Air pollutants (e.g.
black tip of mango), Lack of oxygen (e.g. hollow and black heart of potato), Toxicity of
pesticides, Improper cultural practices, Abnormality in soil conditions (acidity, alkalinity)
Classification of Plant Disease
1. Infectious plant diseases:
Disease caused by parasitic organisms; the organisms included in animate or biotic
causes can incite diseases in plants.
Diseases caused by viruses and viroids.
2. Non-infectious or non-parasitic or physiological diseases: The factors included in
inanimate or abiotic causes can incite such diseases in plants under a set of suitable
environmental conditions.

DEFINITION OF BASIC TERMINOLOGIES

Pathogen: An entity, usually a micro-organism that can cause the disease. One of the
important characteristics of pathogenic organisms, in terms of their ability to infect, is
virulence. Many pathogens, especially among the bacteria and fungi, spend part of their
life cycles as pathogens and the remainder as saprophytes.
Biotroph: A plant pathogenic fungus that requires living host cells i.e. are obligate parasite.
Hemibiotroph. A plant pathogenic fungus that initially requires living host cells but after
killing the host cell grows on the dead and dying cells.
Necrotroph: A pathogenic fungus that kills the host and survives on the dying and dead
cells.
Pathogenicity: The relative capability of a pathogen to cause disease.
Pathogenesis: It is a process caused by an infectious agent (pathogen) when it comes in
contact with a susceptible host. Pathogenesis is the stage of disease in which the pathogen
is in intimate association with living host tissue. Three fairly distinct stages are involved:
Inoculation, Incubation, Infection
Virulence: The degree of infectivity of a given pathogen.
Invasion: The penetration and spread of a .pathogen in the host.
Colonization: The growth of a pathogen, particularly a fungus, in the host after infection is
called colonization.
Disease cycle: The chain of events involved in disease development.
Predisposition: The effect of one or more environmental factors which makes a plant
vulnerable to attack by a pathogen.
Deficiency: Abnormality or disease caused by the lack or subnormal level of availability of
one or more essential nutrient elements.

Effect of Pathogen on the Plants

Morphological or structural changes: overgrowth, sterile flowers, hairy roots, witches
broom, bunchy top, crown gall, root knot, leaf curling, rolling, puckering etc.
Physiological changes:
Disintegration of the tissues by the enzymes of the pathogen.
Effect on uptake and translocation of water and nutrients.
Impairing the phenomenon of photosynthesis due to loss of chlorophyll
and destruction of leaf tissue.
Effect on the process of translation and transcription, and
Overall reproduction system of the host.

Symptoms of Plant Diseases

Necrosis: E.g. Wide spots, blights, burn, canker, streaks, stripes, camping-off, rot etc.
Wilt: Withering and drooping of a plant starting from some leaves to growing tip occurs
suddenly or gradually takes place due to blockage in the translocation system caused by
the pathogen.
Die-back: Drying of plant can be such as stem or branches which starts from the tip and
progresses gradually towards the main stem or trunk is called die-back or wither tip.
Mildew: White, grey or brown coloured superficial growth of the pathogen on the nest
surface is called mildew.
Rusts: Numerous small pustules growing out through host epidermis which gives" rusty.
Smuts: Charcoal-like or purplish-black dust like masses developed on the affected plant
parts, mostly on floral organs and inflorescent are called smut.
Blotch: A large area of discolouration of a leaf, fruit.
White blisters: Numerous white coloured blister-like ruptures are surfaced on the host
epidermis that forms powdery masses of spores of fungi.
Colour change: It denotes conversion of green pigment of leaves into other colours
mostly to yellow colour, in patches or covering the entire leaves, (i) Etioliation:
Yellowing due to lack of light, (ii) Chlorosis. Yellowing due to infection viruses,
bacteria, fungi, low temperature lack of iron etc. (iii) Albino: Lack of any pigment and
turned into white or bleached (iv) Chromosis. Red, purple or orange pigmentation due to
physiological orders etc.
Exudation: Such symptom is commonly found in bacterial diseases when masses of
bacterial cells ooze out to the surface of affected plant parts and form some drops or
smear, it is called exudation.
Overgrowth: Excessive growth of the plant parts due to infection by pathogens.
Sclerotia: These are dark and hard structures of various shaped composed of dormant
mycelia of some fungi. Sometimes, sclerotia are developed on the affected parts of the
plant.

GENERAL NATURE OF FUNGAL DISEASES OF PLANTS

Fungi belong to a large and diverse group of microorganisms. They are actually cells that
consist of a membrane-bound nucleus and are devoid of chlorophyll. They also have rigid
cell walls. These fungi have a vegetative body, of which some parts extend i n t o the air
and others penetrate the substrate of the organisms that it grows on. Fungi propagate
through sexual as well as asexual methods and spread through spores that are produced in
abundance. These spores are transmitted on plants through wind, water, soil, birds, and
insects. Fungal spores are spread by agents such as water and wind to other plants. They
develop in humid conditions and are often microscopic, growing on both living and dead
plant tissues. Fungal diseases can be seen at any time of year, but mostly occur during
fruiting. Plant diseases that are caused by fungi reduce the crops, create markings, and
affect the flowers and fruits, finally causing death of the plant. Common fungi diseases or
infections are: Early Blight, Brown Rot, Black Spot, Brown Patch Canker, Damping
Off, Decay, Bottom Rot, Dry Rot, Crown Wart, Potato Wart.

GENERAL NATURE OF BACTERIAL DISEASES OF PLANTS

Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms, generally ranging from 1-2 pm in size that
cannot be seen with the unaided eye. Plant associated bacteria may be beneficial or
detrimental. All plant surfaces have microbes on them (termed epiphytes), and some
microbes live inside plants (termed endophytes). Some are residents and some are
transient. Bacteria are among the microbes that successively colonize plants as they
mature. Individual bacterial cells cannot be seen without the use of a microscope. Just
like people contracting bacterial disease (strep throat, TB, salmonella poisoning), plants
can also be effected by bacterial disease. Bacterial diseases in plants may affect stems,
leaves or roots or be carried internally. Generally, they belong to the genera Erwinia,
Pectobacterium, Pantoea, Agrobacterium, Pseudomonas, Ralstonia, Burkholderia,
Acidovorax, Xanthomonas, Clavibacter, Streptomyces, Xyllella, Spiroplasma, and
Phytoplasma.
A bacterial disease may cause a variety of symptoms: blights, cankers, galls, leaf spots,
overgrowths, specks, scabs, or wilts.
Control of Bacterial Disease
Bacteria diseases in plants are difficult to control. Emphasis is on preventing the spread of
the bacteria rather than on curing the plant.
Genetic Host Resistance: Resistance varieties, culture, or hybrids are the most
important control procedure.
Cultural Practices: seed or propagation materials, particularly disinfestation of
pruning tools. Practices that can either eliminate or reduce sources of bacterial, crop
rotation to reduce over-wintering.
Chemical Applications
Applications of copper-containing compounds or Bordeaux mixture (copper sulfate
and lime).
Antibiotics: streptomycin and/or oxytetracycline may also help kill or suppress plant
pathogenic bacteria prior to infection and reduce spread of the disease. Antibiotics are
also used to treat diseases caused by fastidious vascular bacteria.
Biological Control: The use of antagonistic or biological control products such as Blight
Ban and Agrosin K84 may also be effective for managing bacterial diseases of plants.
Government Regulatory Measures: The implementation of strict quarantines that
exclude or restrict the introduction or movement of fungal and pathogens infected plant
materials.

GENERAL NATURE OF VIRAL DISEASES OF PLANTS

Viruses are obligate parasites; that is, they require a living host in order to grow and
multiply. Once in a wounded cell, the virus particle sheds its protein coat and the nucleic
acid then directs the production of multiple copies of itself and related proteins leading to
the development of new virus particles. Cell-to-cell movement of plant viruses occurs
through the cytoplasmic "bridges" between cells called plasmodesmata and move
systemically throughout infected plants via the phloem. Although the details of plant
virus replication are complex and beyond the scope of this fact sheet, the general idea is
that plant viruses cause disease in part by causing a reallocation of photosynthates and a
disruption of normal cellular processes as they replicate.
Viruses are difficult to classify and, for want of anything better, they are given
descriptive (and sometimes colorful) names based on the disease they cause —for
example, tobacco ring spot, watermelon mosaic, barley yellow dwarf, potato mop top,
sugar beet curly top, lettuce mosaic, maize dwarf mosaic, potato leaf roll, peach yellow
bud mosaic, African cassava mosaic, carnation streak, and tomato spotted wilt. Many of
these viruses also infect plants of other species. For example, tobacco ring spot virus
causes bud blight in soybeans; maize dwarf mosaic infects sorghum, Sudan grass,
sugarcane, and Johnson grass in addition to corn, but it still retains its original name.
Plants can suffer from viral attacks just like humans. However, there is a major
difference. Plant viruses must enter the plant through a wound. This may be the result of
natural growth, mechanical injury, insects that puncture, or other plant infections. The
two most common of these are insects and mechanical injury, although viruses can be
transmitted by pollen or by seeds. Common insects that cause viral diseases are thrips and
insects that have piercing, sucking mouthparts like aphids, planthoppers, leafhoppers,
whitefly, scale and mealybugs. Mechanical injury can occur when pruning, repotting, or
propagating by budding or grafting. Just as in the case of a human virus, there is no
known cure.
Control of Viral Disease of Plant
Genetic Host Resistance: Recent advances in plant cell molecular biology and virology
have lead to the development of genetically modified plants with superior resistance to
some viruses.
 Cultural Practices: There are numerous cultural practices that can be used to reduce
plant losses due to virus infection: Scouting and removal of symptomatic plants, The
use of clean or sanitized tools and equipment,Hand washing, The use of disposable
over garments, Geographic isolation of production facilities may also help avoid
losses caused by plant viruses, The isolation of newly received plant material prior to its
introduction into the rest of a production system can also minimize the unintentional
introduction of pathogens.
Chemical Applications and 4. Biological Control
There are no chemical sprays or biological control approaches to eradicate viruses,
although insecticides and bio-control products can be used to control insect vectors.
Government Regulatory Measures: Management of insect vector populations in the field
can be difficult to impossible unless coordinated on a regional basis but may be highly
effective in closed production systems such as greenhouses or interior spaces.

EPIDEMIOLOGY OF FUNGAL DISEASES

Black Pod Disease
The most commonly destructive diseases of the cocoa tree are pod rots. A pod rot called
black pod is caused by a fungus (Phytophthora) that spreads rapidly on the pods under
conditions of excessive rain and humidity, insufficient sunshine, and temperatures below
21 °C (70 °F). Black pod disease is caused by many different Phytophthora spp.
pathogens all expressing the same symptoms in cocoa trees {Theobroma cacao). This
pathogen if left untreated can destroy all yields. Control requires timely treatment with
copper-containing fungicides and constant removal of infected.
Disease cycle, symptoms and signs
The symptom of black pod disease is the necrotic lesion on cocoa pod with brown or
black color, which eventually enlarged to cover the whole pod. White mycelia growth on
lesions that appeared several days after infection is the sign for causal pathogen of black
pod disease, which is Phytophthora spp.
Disease management
There are several methods available in order to control black pod disease such as cultural,
chemical and biological control. In addition, the cultivation of varieties that resistant to
black pod is an alternative in order to reduce disease incidence.

DAMPING OFF
Damping off is a horticultural disease or condition, caused by a number of different
pathogens that kill or weaken seeds or seedlings before or after they germinate. It is most
prevalent in wet and cool conditions.
Causative agent: Alternaria species. Cause leaf spotting, Botrytis cinerea- also known
as "grey mould", Fusarium species. Phyllosticta species. Cause leaf spotting.
Phytophthora - a genus of plant-damaging oomycetes (water molds), whose member
species are capable of causing enormous economic losses on crops worldwide.
Symptoms of Damping-off: This condition results in a poor, uneven stand of seedlings,
often confused with low seed viability. Cotyledons may break the soil surface only to
wither and die or healthy looking seedlings may suddenly fall over (post-emergence
damping-off). The seedling will discolor or wilt suddenly, or simply collapse and die.
Weak seedlings are especially susceptible to attack by one or more fungi when growing
conditions are only slightly unfavorable.
Above ground symptoms of root rot include stunting, low vigor, or wilting on a warm
day. Foliage of such plants may yellow and fall prematurely starting with the oldest
leaves. Healthy roots are fibrous appearing and are usually white or tan in color.
Life Cycle of Damping Off
Without a host plant, Rhizoctonia solau dwells in the form of small, brown or black
structures called "sclerotia" where it can survive for many years. Rhizoctonia solani can
survive in soil for many years in the form of mycelium. When the soil reaches a favorable
temperature (roughly 60° F), the host plant, in this case sugar beets, begins to excrete
chemicals. These secretions arouse the dormant sclerotia and the fungus begins to
produce a mass of long filaments (hyphae). The hyphae extend through the soil until they
make contact with the host plant.
 Dispersal & Growth Factors
Rhizoctonia soiani survival structures (sclerotia) can be dispersed by the wind, water
(rainfall, drainage, irrigation, etc) and soil movement (erosion, machinery, uprooting,
etc). Its prevalence means a combination of environmental factors may cause outbreak,
such as:
presence of a host plant
abundant rainfall or irrigation
increased temperatures in spring and summer Soil compaction reduces drainage, creating
a favorable environment for Rhizoctonia.
Prevention and Control
Purchase disease free plants and seeds. Know your supplier.
Use sterile well drained soil mediums.
Use plant containers with drainage holes, water from the bottom only, and avoid excess
watering.
Avoid overcrowding and overfeeding of plants.
Do not use water from ditches or drainage ponds or rain barrels in the germination room.
Spray the affected plants with fungicides

EPIDEMIOLOGY OF THE GROUNDNUT LEAF SPOT

DISEASE
Groundnut leaf spot is one of the important factors limiting groundnut productivity.
Early and late leaf-spot disease of groundnut caused by Cercospora arachidicola can
cause considerable yield losses without fungicide management.
Early Leaf SPOT
Morphology: Early leaf spot (ELS) is caused by the fungus Cercospora arachidicola.
The perfect state (asci and septated ascospores) of the early leaf spot pathogen
(Mycosphaerela arachidicola), described by Jenkins (1938), is rarely observed, but the
imperfect state ( C . arachidicola). During the imperfect state the dark brown stromata
produce brownish, septated conidiophores, which are generally restricted to the upper
leaf surface. The conidiophores produce colourless, curved, septated conidia.
***Conidiophores are a specialized hyphal branch of some fungi that produces conidia
Disease cycle and dissemination: Conidia germinate, forming germ tubes, which enter
open stomata and penetrate directly through the lateral faces of epidermal cells. The
mycelium is initially intercellular but becomes intracellular on the death of host cells.
Climate, micro-environments and method of irrigation (overhead or flood), has been
reported to affect disease severity.
Symptoms: Lesions are roughly circular, dark brown on the upper leaflet surface,
defoliation and lesions can also develop on stems, petioles and pegs
Disease management: The recommended control of ELS that will be discussed includes
the use of multiple fungicide applications, planting of resistant and tolerant cultivars and
farming practices such as crop rotation, manipulation of planting dates, careful handling
of pods during harvesting and shelling, as well as biological control.

Late Leaf Spot

Morphology: Late leaf spot (LLS) is caused by the fungus Cercosporidium personatum
(Berk, and Curt.). The LLS pathogen is seen primarily in its imperfect state, known as C.
personatum.
Disease cycle and dissemination: High relative humidity and an increase in atmospheric
cause an increase in fungal activity. The optimum range for grew for C. personatum is
25-30°C. Light is a requisite for sporulation.
Disease management programmes: Includes multiple fungicide applications, farming
practices with crop rotation.

RUSTS AND SMUT OF MAIZE

Belonging to the orders Urediniales (rusts) and Ustilaginales (smuts) which are
Basidiomycete fungi. The rusts have complicated life cycles which involve the infection
of two different plant species. The most well-known members of these groups are wheat
rust (Puccinia graminis tritici) and corn smut (Ustilago myadis). Rust fungi attack plants
such as ferns, gymnosperms, and flowering plants.
Differences: Smut fungi differ from rust fungi in several ways. While rust fungi require
two different hosts to complete their life cycle, smut fungi may complete their life cycle
on only one host, which is always a flowering plant. Another difference between rust and
smut fungi is seen in the way that they infect their host plants. Infections from rust fungi
are localized to that part of the plant close to where a germinated urediniospore,
aeciospore, or teliospore becomes established. Smut fungi spread to infest the entire plant
from a single initial infection site, often targeting specific organs.
Management:
By selection for genetically resistant wheat plants.
The best way to avoid ruined apples is to keep apple trees away from juniper trees and to
remove all infected juniper trees in the area.
One way that humans have reduced infection of corn by smut has been to wash away any
clinging fungal spores from the kernels of corn.
RICE BLAST
PATHOGEN: Magnaporthe oryzae
HOSTS: Rice (Oryza sativa).
Hundreds of millions of people world-wide depend on rice as a staple food. A crop
failure, for any reason, poses a real threat of starvation. Rice blast, caused by a fungus,
causes lesions to form on leaves, stems, peduncles, panicles, seeds, and even roots. So
great is the potential threat for crop failure from this disease that it has been ranked
among the most important plant diseases of them all.

Symptoms and Signs

The symptoms of rice blast include lesions that can be found on all parts of the plant,
including leaves, leaf collars, necks, panicles, pedicels, and seeds. A recent report shows
that even roots can become infected.
Disease Management: Cultural strategies to manage this disease like crop, application of
fertilize, using high quality and disease-free seed.
Genetic resistance rice and use of chemical fungicides to control the disease.

EPIDEMIOLOGY OF BACTERIAL DISEASES

Bacterial Blight of Soya Beans
Bacterial blight {Pseudomonas savastanoi) of soybeans is typically an early season
disease, which over winters in the field on plant residue. Initial infection of soybeans
occurs when wind or splashing water droplets from plant residue on the soil surface to the
leaves carry bacterial cells. The bacteria enter the plants through stomata and wounds on
leaves. In order for infection to occur, the leaf surface must be wet.
Bacteria that enter the host produce a toxin, which prevents chlorophyll production.
Bacteria can also be spread to uninfected leaves when they rub against infected ones
during cultivation, rain, and wind.
Disease Symptoms: Brown spots on the margins of the cotyledons characterize plants
infected early in the growing season. Young plants may be stunted and if the infection
reaches the growing point, they may die.
Favorable Environmental Conditions: Development of bacterial blight is promoted by
cool, wet weather. Disease outbreaks often follow windy, rainstorms.
Management
Genetic Resistance: The best management tool is to prevent disease establishment.
Cultivate plants that are not highly susceptible to the disease should be considered for
planting.
Cultural Practices: Crop rotation can be an effective method to avoid inoculum from a
previously infected crop.
Chemical / Biological Control: Use of Copper fungicides are labeled for control of
bacterial blight on soybeans.
CITRUS CANKER D I S E A S E
Pathogen: Xanthomonas axonopodis and Xanthomonas axonopodis
Hosts: Numerous species, cultivars, and hybrids of citrus and citrus relatives including
orange, grapefruit, pummelo, mandarin, lemon, lime, tangerine, tangelo, sour orange,
rough lemon.
Symptoms and Signs: Citrus canker can be a serious disease where rainfall and warm
temperatures are frequent during periods of shoot emergence and early fruit development.
Leaf Lesions, Fruit and Stem Lesions and Leaf miner Interaction

BACTERIAL SPOT OF PEPPER AND TOMATO DISEASE

Pathogens: Xanthomonas euvesicatoria and Xanthomonas perforans
Hosts: Pepper {Capsicum spp.) and tomato {Solarium lycopersicum)
Bacterial spot is one of the most devastating diseases of pepper and tomato grown in
warm, moist environments. Once present in the crop, it is almost impossible to control
the disease and prevent major fruit loss when environmental conditions remain favorable.
Symptoms and signs:
Leaves
Because the most obvious symptoms occur on leaves, the disease-is often referred to as
"bacterial leaf spot." Symptoms begin as small, yellow-green lesions on young leaves
which usually appear deformed and twisted, or as dark, water soaked, greasy-appearing
lesions on older foliage.
Fruit
Fruit spots begin as pale-green, water-soaked areas, which eventually become raised,
brown, and roughened on pepper and tomato fruit.
Disease Cycle and Epidemiology: The bacteria have a very limited survival period of
days to weeks in the soil, and thus their survival is almost always in association with
debris from infected or diseased plants. The pathogens have been reported to persist in
association with roots of wheat as well as a few weed species. The bacteria can be spread
by rain or by overhead irrigation. Bacteria also may be spread in water droplets when
pesticides are applied with high-pressure sprayers.
Management of Bacterial Spot of Pepper and Tomato
The primary management strategy of bacterial spot begins with use of certified pathogen-
free seed and disease-free transplants.
Chemical control, Pepper plants are routinely sprayed with copper-containing
bactericides to maintain a "protective" cover on the foliage and fruit.
Biological control options for bacterial spot are limited. However, a biological control
method that uses bacterial viruses (bacteriophages) that specifically kill the bacterial
pathogens is now available.

EPIDEMIOLOGY OF THE FOLLOWING VIRAL DISEASES

SWOLLEN-SHOOT VIRUS (Cacao swollen-shoot virus) (CSSV) is a plant
pathogenic virus of the family Caulimoviridae that primarily infects cacao trees. It
decreases cacao yield within the first year of infection, and usually kills the tree within a
few years. Symptoms vary by strain, but leaf discoloration, stem/root swelling, and die-
back generally occur. The virus is transmitted from tree to tree by mealybug vectors. It
was currently endemic in Togo, Ghana and Nigeria.
Hosts and symptoms: Cacao swollen-shoot virus (CSSV) principally infects Theohroma
cacao (cacao tree) and has a major effect on crop yields. Amelonado cocoa varieties are
particularly susceptible to infection and diseased plants show the following characteristic
symptoms:
Reddening of primary veins or 'banding' in young leaves
Yellow banding along the main veins of leaves
Chlorosis or flecking and mottling of mature leaves
Stem and root swellings.
Abnormally shaped pods, usually smaller and spherical
• Leaf chlorosis, Root necrosis and Small mottled pods,
Management
Before planting any new plantation, infected trees in the surrounding plantations be
removed beforehand.
Also, a cordon, or gap, should be left around the entire plantation, putting the new plants
a recommended 10 meters away from any old plantations that could possibly contain
infected trees
Education to farmers.

CASSAVA MOSAIC VIRUS

The viruses are members of the Family Geminiviridae and the Genus Begomovirus. The
first report of cassava mosaic disease (CMD) was from East Africa in 1894. Since then,
epidemics have occurred throughout the African continent resulting in great economic
loss and devastating famine.
Currently, CMD is managed through phytosantitation practices as well as the Use of
conventional resistance breeding. Additionally, vector management and cross-protection
help to minimize transmission and symptom development; through management practices
are useful.
Hosts and symptoms: These symptoms include: chlorotic mosaic of the leaves, leaf
distortion and stunted growth.

Causal agent and disease cycle: Cassava geminiviruses are transmitted in a persistent
manner by the whitefly Bemisia tabaci, by vegetative propagation using cuttings from
infected plants, and occasionally by mechanical means.
Control strategies: Control strategies for cassava mosaic disease include sanitation and
plant resistance. Chemical control of the whitefly vector has seldom been practiced by
farmers in Africa for economic reasons. Biological control of the whitefly vector remains
need to be explored.

THE LIFE HISTORY OF VECTORS OF PLANT DISEASE E.G. APHIDS

What is vector of plant diseases?
A vector is an organism that can carry pathogen (disease causing organism) from infected
plant to a health plant. Generally, a vector is an insect, a nematode, a fungi, or insect like
organisms e.g. spider mites. To qualify as vector, the organism must have the ability to
acquire the pathogen, must be able to retain the pathogen for some length of time and
lastly it must be able to inject it into a suitable/susceptible plant. The relationships
between the vector and pathogen can be described as simple if the pathogen does not
circulate or replicate in the vector or complex if the pathogen replicates or circulate in the
vector. In the latter case, the vector also acts as the host of the pathogen.
Description of aphids: Aphids constitute a large group of small, soft-bodied insects.
They may measure up to 6mm in total length. Aphids have piercing-sucking mouthparts
that enable them to remove plant fluids from a host. Aphids generally can be recognized
by their pear-like shape, a pair of cornicles (tube-like processes) at the posterior end of
their body, and fairly long antennae. The cornicles secrete a defensive fluid which warns
aphids of predators and other enemies. Aphids vary in color from green, yellow, red,
purple, brown, or black.
Life History of Aphid
In October the females lay eggs usually on the stems of trees or shrubs. The eggs are
black, with thick shells and can withstand extremes of temperature. It is in the egg form
only that aphids pass the winter. In March the eggs hatch out into wingless female
nymphs which are similar to the adults, with three pairs of legs, compound eyes,
antennae, etc. There is no larval or pupal stage comparable to those of the butterfly, but
with successive moults and continuous growth the nymphs become mature females. No
males are hatched at all.
The female nymphs feed on the shoots and leaves of the tree on which they hatch, at the
time when the buds are sprouting. After a series of ecdyses (moults) they become mature
and give birth to daughter aphids without any fertilization. This kind of reproduction is
called parthenogenesis. The daughters, moreover, are not produced from eggs but are
born alive as nymphs though they are surrounded at first by a transparent capsule like an
egg membrane,
 The daughters grow quickly and themselves have offspring by parthenogenesis. Some of
these develop wings which grow larger at each ecdysis. These winged daughters fly off to
an herbaceous plant such as a rose tree or bean plant.

Management of Aphid Vector

Non-Chemical: In some cases, cultural practices such as proper pruning, fertilizing, and
watering spray an important role in preventing or suppressing an aphid infestation.
When practical, try washing aphids off an affected host with a strong stream of water
Chemical: The use of insecticides is often the only effective means of managing an aphid
infestation. A number of registered insecticide formulations a r e available for aphid
control.

KOCH'S POSTULATES ESTABLISHING PATHOGENICITY OF DISEASES

In 1890 the German physician and bacteriologist Robert Koch set out his celebrated
criteria for judging whether a given bacteria is the cause of a given disease. Koch's
criteria brought some much-needed scientific clarity to what was then a very confused
field.
Koch's postulates are as follows:
The bacteria must be present in every case of the disease.
The bacteria must be isolated from the host with the disease and grown in pure culture.
The specific disease must be reproduced when a pure culture of the bacteria is inoculated
into a healthy susceptible host.
The bacteria must be recoverable from the experimentally infected host.

Koch's postulates have their limitations and so may not always be the last word. They
may not hold if:
The particular bacteria (such as the one that causes leprosy) cannot be "grown in pure
culture" in the laboratory.
There is no animal model of infection with that particular bacteria.
A harmless bacteria may cause disease if:
It has acquired extra virulence factors making it pathogenic.
It gains access to deep tissues via trauma, surgery.
It infects an immunocompromised patient.
Not all people infected by a bacteria may develop disease- subclinical infection is usually
more common than clinically obvious infection.
Despite such limitations, Koch's postulates are still a useful benchmark in judging
whether there is a cause-and-effect relationship between a bacteria (or any other type of
microorganism) and a clinical disease.
Brief about Koch’s limitation
The most common exceptions have to do with:
an inability to culture the pathogen outside of the normal host
a lack of suitable, especially non-human hosts that display the same symptoms
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF PLANT DISEASE CONTROL
The word 'control' is a complete term where permanent 'control' of a disease is achieved
whereas, 'management' of a disease is a continuous process and is more practical in
influencing adverse effect caused by a disease.
The goal of plant disease management is to reduce the economic and aesthetic damage
caused by plant diseases.
1. Avoidance of the Pathogen: Occurrence of a disease can be avoided by
planting/sowing a crop at times when, or in areas where, inoculum remain ineffective or
inactive, due to environmental conditions, or is rare or absent, The following methods
will achieve this;
I Choice of geographical area
Selection of a field
Adjustment of time of sowing
Use of disease escaping varieties
Use of pathogen-free seed and planting material
Modification of cultural practices
2. Exclusion: This principle is defined as any measure that prevents the introduction
of a disease-causing agent (pathogen) into a region, farm, or planting.
An important and practical strategy for excluding pathogens includes;
Treatment of seed and plating materials to produce pathogen-free seed
Planting stock that is freed of pathogens.
Field Inspection and certification
Quarantine regulations and Eradication of insect vector
3. Eradication of the Pathogen: It can be applied to individual plants, seed lots, fields
or regions but generally is not effective over large geographic areas. The following are
involved in this;
Biological control of plant pathogens
Eradication of alternate and collateral hosts
Cultural methods e.g. Crop rotation, Sanitation of field by destroying
Heat and chemical treatment of diseased plants.
v. Soil treatment or fumigation; by use of chemicals, heat energy, flooding and fallowing.
4. Protection: This principle depends on establishing a barrier between the pathogen
and the host plant or the susceptible part of the host plant. It is usually thought of as a
chemical barrier, e.g., a fungicide, bactericide or nematicide, but it can also be a physical,
spatial, or temporal barrier.
Protection often involves some cultural practice that modifies the environment, such as
tillage, drainage, irrigation, or altering soil pH. These strategies can be generalized as
follows;
Chemical control of insect vectors by application of chemicals (fungicides, antibiotics) by
seed treatment, dusting and spraying
Modifications of environment
Modification of host nutrition
5. Resistance: Use of disease-resistant plants is the idea! The use of disease-resistant
plants eliminates need for additional efforts to reduce disease losses unless other diseases.
Resistant plants are usually derived by standard breeding procedures of selection and/or
hybridization. Hybridization is a tactic where a plant having the desired agronomic or
horticultural qualities, but is susceptible to a disease, is crossed with a plant that is
resistant but which may or may not have the other desirable characteristics such as size,
yield, flavor, aesthetics, etc. Therefore this control strategy can be summarized as:
Selection and hybridization for disease resistance
Chemotherapy
Host nutrition
Therapy: Reducing severity of a disease-in an infected individual. Therapy of
diseased plants can be done by
Chemotherapy
Heat therapy
iii.Tree-surgery
Note that the first five principles discussed above are prophylactic (preventive) procedure
and the sixth is curative.

Integrated Disease Management: Integrated Disease Management (IDM) is a concept

derived from the successful Integrated Pest Management (IPM) systems developed by
entomologists for insect and mite control. In most cases IDM consists of scouting with
timely application of a combination of strategies and tactics. These may include site
selection and preparation, utilizing resistant cultivars, altering planting practices,
modifying the environment by drainage, irrigation, pruning, thinning, shading, etc., and
applying pesticides, if necessary. But in addition to these traditional measures,
monitoring environmental factors (temperature, moisture, soil pH, nutrients, etc.), disease
forecasting, and establishing economic thresholds are important to the management
scheme.