MATTER

Is governed by
Is made up of

atoms - Law of conservation of matter

- Law of definite proportions
- Law of multiple proportions

Can react to form Are composed of

ions molecules - Electrons Dalton’s atomic theory

- Protons
- neutrons

Can either be
constitute

Covalent compounds
cation anions

Can combine to form

Ionic compounds

I. DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY

- John Dalton proposed an atomic theory of matter that can explain chemical observation
as predicted by the fundamental laws:
1. Law of Conservation states that matter is not created nor destroyed.
2. Law of definite proportion states that different samples of the same compound always contain
the constituent elements in the same proportion by mass.
3. Law of multiple proportion states that if two elements form more than one compound, the
various masses of one element combining with a fixed mass of another element are related by
small whole-number ratios.

ATOMIC THEORY
1. Atoms are the smallest particles of matter. They cannot be divided into smaller particles, they also
cannot be created nor destroyed.
2. All atoms of an element are identical, but the atoms of one element are different from atoms of
other elements in terms of mass, size, and properties.
3. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element which are combined in fixed ratios.
4. Atoms retain their identity during chemical reactions, which involve combination, separation, and
rearrangement. They are indestructible.
 II. ATOM
- It is the smallest unit of matter.
- It has subatomic particles, namely proton, neutron, and electron.
- The mass of an atom contains protons and neutrons which are densely concentrated at
the nucleus and the electrons are orbiting around it.
o The sub atomic particles
a. Proton
- It is the first subatomic particle discovered by Eugene Goldstein.
- It has positive electrical charge found in the nucleus.
b. Electron
- It is the second subatomic particle discovered by James Thompson.
- It has negative electrical charge found outside the nucleus.
c. Neutron
- It is the third subatomic particle discovered by James Chadwick.
- It has neutral charge found in the nucleus with proton.
The number of neutrons in neutral atom is derived by the mass number minus the atomic number or
the number of proton/ electron.

III. ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER

• Atomic number – refers to the number of protons in its nucleus
Atomic number=number of protons=number of electron
• Mass number – refers to the sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons in its
nucleus.
Mass number=number of protons + number of neutrons
Number of neutron = Mass number – number of protons
• Isotopes – this are atoms with the same
atomic number but different mass number.
Example:

Atomic number Mass number

2
1𝐻 Symbol of the element

Examples on determining the atomic#, Mass #, # of proton, # of electron, # of neutron.

Name Symbol Mass# Atomic # # of proton # of # of

electron neutron
Protium 1
1𝐻 1 1 1 1 0
Deuterium 2
1𝐻 2 1 1 1 1
Tritium 3
1𝐻 3 1 1 1 2
Oxygen 16 16
8𝑂 16 8 8 8 8
Oxygen 17 17
8𝑂 17 8 8 8 9
Oxygen 18 18
8𝑂 18 8 8 8 10

Isotope samples and their uses

Isotope/s Uses
Oxygen – 16, Oxygen – 17, Oxygen – Forensics
18 Determining the origin of a rock or an asteroid
Tritium (hydrogen isotope) Making glow-in-the-dark objects (such as clockfaces and
wristwatches)
Carbon – 14 Determining the age of organisms
Carbon – 11 Positron emission
Uranium – 238 and Potassium – 40 Determining the age of very old rocks
Cesium – 137 Cancer treatment
Krypton – 85 Fluorescent lamps and flash lamps in high-speed photography.
Measuring the thickness of plastic, rubber, paper, and other
materials.
Iodine – 131 Direct radioisotope therapy to treat hyperthyroidism
Iodine – 123 Diagnostic imaging
Radiation sources in radiation therapy
 Monitoring the function of the thyroid gland
Sodium – 24 Tracing gas leaks
Tracing oil leaks from oil pipes
Radiotracer in biological research
Studies of body electrolytes
Cobalt – 60 Inspecting materials to reveal internal structure, flaws, or foreign
objects (in place of x-ray)
Phosphorus – 32 Blood volume determination
Iodine – 131 Measuring of thyroid activity and treatment of thyroid disorders
Gadolinium – 153 Measuring density of bones
Iridium – 192 Industrial tracer

IV. MOLECULE AND IONS

A. Molecule – refers to the combination of at least two atoms in a definite proportion bound together by
covalent bond.
1. Diatomic molecule – molecules that contains only two atoms.
Ex:H2 – it is made up of two hydrogen atom.
CO – consist of one carbon atom and one Hydrogen atom
2. Polyatomic molecule – a molecule that contains two or more atoms.
Ex:H2O – two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.
CO2 – two oxygen atoms and one carbon atom.
B. Ion – this refers to atoms that gains positive or negative charge.
If an atom loses electron, it gains positive (+) charge. (Cations)
If an atom gains electron, it gains negative (-) charge. (Anions)

Ex: table salt (NaCl) Ionic bond

Na Cl
Transfer of electron

Na+ Cl- gained electron

lost one electron

Examples of Atoms and Ions

Na Na+ Mg Mg+2 Cl Cl-1 O O-2

Atom Ion Atom Ion Atom Ion Atom
Number of protons 11 11 12 12 17 17 8 8
Number of electrons 11 10 12 10 17 18 8 10
Net charge 0 +1 0 +2 0 -1 0 -2

1. Monoatomic Ion – ions that contains only one atom.

Ex: Na+, Mg+2, Cl-, O-2

2. Polyatomic ion – ions that consist of more than one atom.

Ex: OH-, NH4+

V. CHEMICAL FORMULA

- A chemical formula is written chemical structure of a compound.

1. Molecular formula – indicates the actual number of each element in a compound.
2. Empirical formula – it is the simplest chemical formula.
✓ It shows the relative ratio between the number of atoms of different elements in the
compound.
 To further differentiate chemical formula from empirical formula, consider the examples below.
Compound Chemical formula Empirical formula
Naphthalene C10H8 C5H4
Hydrogen Peroxide H2O2 HO
Benzene C6H6 CH
Glucose C6H12O6 CH2O

Most compounds have the same molecular formula and empirical formula. For example, the molecular
and empirical formula of water is H2O; ammonia is NH3; methane is CH4; ethanol is C2H6O; and carbon
tetrachloride is CCl4.

VI. STRUCTURAL AND MOLECULAR MODELS

- The structural formula shows how atoms are bonded to one another in a molecule.
- A molecular model represents the structural formula using artistic methods like ball-
and-stick model and space filling model.
Molecular and structural formulas and molecular models of some common molecules.

Molecule Molecular Structural formula Ball-and-stick model Space-filling model

formula
Water H2O
H O H

Ammonia NH3
H N H

Methane CH4 H

H C H

H
Hydrogen H2O2
peroxide H–O–O–H

Carbon CCl4 Cl
Tetrachloride

Cl C Cl

Cl
 Oxytocin is a hormone secreted by the posterior
lobe of the pituitary gland, a pea-sized structure
at the base of the brain. It's sometimes known as
the "cuddle hormone" or the "love hormone,"
because it is released when people snuggle up or
bond socially.

This is the structural formula for Oxytocin.

Chemical formula C43H66N12O12S12.

VII. NAMING OF COMPOUNDS

A. Ionic Compounds
Ionic Compounds are made of cations and anions. Hence in naming ionic compounds, you should be
familiar with the name of cations and anions and take note of the following rule.

1. For binary compounds, metal cations take their names from the elements while the anions take
the first part of the name of the element, and add the suffix – ide at the end.

Cation Anion Compound Name of the Compound

Na+ O-2 Na2O Sodium oxide
Mg+2 N-3 Mg3N2 Magnesium nitride
Al+3 O-2 Al2O3 Aluminum oxide

2. For ternary compounds which contain three elements, the cation goes first in its name before
the polyatomic ion which usually ends with – ite or -ate.

Cation Polyatomic Compound Name of the Compound

Anion
Na+ NO3-1 NaNO3 Sodium nitrate
Na+ NO2-1 NaNO2 Sodium nitrite
Mg+2 PO4-3 Mg3(PO4)2 Magnesium phosphate
Mg+2 PO3-3 Mg3(PO3)2 Magnesium phosphite
Ca+2 CO3-2 CaCO3 Calcium carbonate
Ca+2 BrO4-1 Ca(BrO4)2 Calcium perbromate
NH4+ C2O4-2 (NH4)2C2O4 Ammonium oxalate

3. For compounds containing a metallic ion of variable charge, either the classical method or the
stock method of naming may be used. In the classical method, the name of the metallic ion ends in
-ous (for lower charge) and -ic (for higher charge). In the stock method, the metal is named first
followed by the value of the charge written in Roman numeral (enclosed in parenthesis).

Cation Anion Compounds Classical Name Stock Name

Fe+2 Cl-1 FeCl2 Ferrous chloride Iron (II) chloride
Fe+2 Cl-1 FeCl3 Ferric chloride Iron (III) chloride
Sn+2 OH1 Sn(OH)2 Stannous hydroxide Tin (II) hydroxide
Sn+4 OH-1 Sn(OH)4 Stannic hydroxide Tin (IV) hydroxide
Cu+1 SO4-1 Cu2SO4 Cuprous sulfate Copper (I) sulfate
Cu+2 SO3-2 CuSO3 Cupric sulfite Copper (II) sulfite
B. Molecular Compounds
1. For one pair of elements that form several different compounds, Greek prefixes are used to
determine the number of each element in the compound. For the first element, the prefix “mono” is
omitted.
1 – mono 6 – hexa
2 – di 7 – hepta
3 – tri 8 – octa
4 – tetra 9 – nona
5 – penta 10 –deca

Examples:
CO – carbon monoxide CO2 – carbon dioxide
NO2 – nitrogen dioxide N2O4 – dinitrogen tetroxide

2. For binary compounds, place the name of the first element; then, follow it with the second
element. The second element is named by adding -ide to the root of the element name.

Examples:
HCI – hydrogen chloride HI – hydrogen iodide
HBr – hydrogen bromide SiC – silicon carbide

3. For binary compounds considered as acids, use the prefix hydro- followed by the stem name
of anion ending -ic, then by the word “acid”.

Examples:
HCI – hydrochloric acid HI – hydroiodic acid
HBr – hydrobromic acid HF – hydrofluoric acid

4. Oxy-acids, those that contain hydrogen, oxygen, and another element, is named in two ways:
a. for anions ending with -ate, change -ate to -ic; then, follow it with the word “acid”.
b. for anions ending with -ite, change – ite to -ous; then, follow it with the word “acid”.

Examples:

Oxy – acids Anion used

H3PO4 Phosphoric acid PO4 -3
Phosphate
H3PO3 Phosphorus acid PO3-3 Phosphite
HNO3 Nitric acid NO3-1 Nitrate
HNO2 Nitrous acid NO2-1 Nitrite
H2C2O4 Oxalic acid C2O4-2 Oxalate
HC2H3O2 Acetic acid C2H3O2-1 acetate