MEE 104 – Structure of Modern English

Questions
1. Demonstrate your understanding of Grammatical concepts by being able to describe and analyze
meaning and the use of various English Language structures. (Lexical Categories).

Answer: MEE 104

Variation is a prominent ingredient of language as it presents itself to us. Languages differ from each
other in various respects, e.g., in their sentence structure (syntax), word structure (morphology), sound
structure (phonology) and vocabulary (lexicon). However the extent and limits of variation are a
challenging puzzle.

Syntax in English is the arrangement of words and phrases in a specific order. If you change the position
of even one word, it’s possible to change the meaning of the entire sentence. All languages have specific
rules about which words go where, and skilled writers can manipulate these rules to make sentences
sound more poignant or poetic.
To see for yourself, look at the syntax examples below. Notice how moving the word only changes the
meaning of the entire sentence. Keep in mind that only can be an adjective or an adverb; adjectives
modify the nouns that come after them, and adverbs modify the verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs that
come after them.

Only Batman fights crime.

Meaning: Batman is the only person who fights crime. No one except Batman fights crime, not even
Superman.

Batman only fights crime.

Meaning: Fighting crime is the only thing Batman does. He doesn’t work, he doesn’t shower—fighting
crime is all he does.

Batman fights only crime.

Meaning: Batman doesn’t fight anything except crime. He doesn’t fight Alfred or Robin; he doesn’t fight
the dry cleaner if they accidentally stain his shirt. Crime is the only thing he fights.

Another characteristic of human language is that it is dynamic. Languages change over time.

Morphology is the study of words and their parts. Morphemes, like prefixes, suffixes and base words,
are defined as the smallest meaningful units of meaning. Morphemes are important for phonics in both
reading and spelling, as well as in vocabulary and comprehension.
Teaching morphemes unlocks the structures and meanings within words. It is very useful to have a
strong awareness of prefixes, suffixes and base words. These are often spelt the same across different
words, even when the sound changes, and often have a consistent purpose and/or meaning.
Phonology refers to the sound system of a language. In general, the basic unit of phonology is the
phoneme, which is an individual speech sound (such as /p/) that can often be represented by a single
grapheme, or letter (such as the letter p). There are, however, exceptions, such as the sound /sh/, which
is represented by two graphemes (sh). Each natural language has a different set of possible sounds that
can be combined to create words. Early in speech and language development, children's vocalizations
are indistinguishable, regardless of their linguistic environment. Ultimately, however, they develop a
repertoire of sounds and rules for their combination that are specific to the language to which they are
predominantly exposed. Phonological processing is necessary for both comprehension and production
of speech and language. It is also critically involved in processing written word forms for reading and
spelling. Thus, individuals with phonological processing disorders may present with impaired spoken as
well as written language skills.
Phonology deals with sound structure in individual languages: the way distinctions in sound are used to
differentiate linguistic items, and the ways in which the sound structure of the ‘same’ element varies as
a function of the other sounds in its context. Phonology and phonetics both involve sound in natural
language, but differ in that phonetics deals with sounds from a language-independent point of view,
while phonology studies the ways in which they are distributed and deployed within particular
languages. Phonology originated with the insight that much observable phonetic detail is irrelevant or
predictable within the system of a given language. This led to the positing of phonemes as minimal
contrastive sound units in language, each composed (according to many writers) of a collection of
distinctive features of contrast. Later work showed that a focus on surface contrast ultimately was
misguided, and generative phonology replaced this with a conception of phonology as an aspect of
speakers' knowledge of linguistic structure. Important research problems have involved the relation
between phonological and phonetic form; the mutual interaction of phonological regularities; the
relation of phonological structure to other components of grammar; and the appropriateness of rules vs.
constraints as formulations of phonological regularities.
A lexicon is often used to describe the knowledge that a speaker has about the words of a
language. This includes meanings, use, form, and relationships with other words. A lexicon can
thus be thought of as a mental dictionary.

Another characteristic of human language is that it is dynamic. Languages change

over time. 
2. Discuss comprehensively the different lexical categories that embody the
structure of English.

Answer: MEE 104

Lexical categories are of two kinds: open and closed. A lexical category is open if the
new word and the original word belong to the same category. Nouns, verbs,
adjectives, and adverbs are open lexical categories. In contrast, closed lexical
categories rarely acquire new members. They include conjunctions (e.g., and, or,
but), determiners (e.g., a, the), pronouns (e.g., he, she, they), and prepositions (e.g.,
of, on, under). The creation of different grammatical forms of words is called
inflection.

Types of nouns

Nouns form a large proportion of English vocabulary and they come in a wide
variety of types. Nouns can name a person:

Albert Einstein

the president

my mother

a girl

Nouns can also name a place:

Mount Vesuvius

Disneyland

my bedroom

Nouns can also name things, although sometimes they might be intangible
things, such as concepts, activities, or processes. Some might even be
hypothetical or imaginary things.
shoe

faucet

freedom

The Elder Wand

basketball

Proper nouns vs. common nouns

One important distinction to be made is whether a noun is a proper noun or a

common noun. A proper noun is a specific name of a person, place, or thing,
and is always capitalized.

Does Tina have much homework to do this evening?

Tina is the name of a specific person.

I would like to visit Old Faithful.

Old Faithful is the specific name of a geological phenomenon.

The opposite of a proper noun is a common noun, sometimes known as a

generic noun. A common noun is the generic name of an item in a class or
group and is not capitalized unless appearing at the beginning of a sentence
or in a title.

The girl crossed the river.

Girl is a common noun; we do not learn the identity of the girl by reading this
sentence, though we know the action she takes. River is also a common noun
in this sentence.
Types of common nouns

Common or generic nouns can be broken down into three subtypes: concrete
nouns, abstract nouns, and collective nouns. A concrete noun is something
that is perceived by the senses; something that is physical or real.

I heard the doorbell.

My keyboard is sticky.

Doorbell and keyboard are real things that can be sensed.

Conversely, an abstract noun is something that cannot be perceived by the

senses.

We can’t imagine the courage it took to do that.

Courage is an abstract noun. Courage can’t be seen, heard, or sensed in any

other way, but we know it exists.

A collective noun denotes a group or collection of people or things.

That pack of lies is disgraceful.

Pack of lies as used here is a collective noun. Collective nouns take a singular
verb as if they are one entity – in this case, the singular verb is.

A pride of lions roamed the savanna.

Pride of lions is also a collective noun.

Nouns as subjects

Every sentence must have a subject, and that subject will always be a noun.
The subject of a sentence is the person, place, or thing that is doing or being
the verb in that sentence.

Maria is happy.

Maria is the subject of this sentence and the corresponding verb is a form of
to be (is).

Nouns as objects

Nouns can also be objects of a verb in a sentence. An object can be either a

direct object (a noun that receives the action performed by the subject) or an
indirect object (a noun that is the recipient of a direct object).

Give the books to her.

Books is a direct object (what is being given) and her is the indirect object
(who the books are being given to).

Nouns as subject and object complements

Another type of noun use is called a subject complement. In this example, the
noun teacher is used as a subject complement.

Mary is a teacher.

Subject complements normally follow linking verbs like to be, become, or

seem. A teacher is what Mary is.
A related usage of nouns is called an object complement.

I now pronounce you husband and wife.

Husband and wife are nouns used as object complements in this sentence.
Verbs that denote making, naming, or creating are often followed by object
complements.

Appositive nouns and nouns as modifiers

An appositive noun is a noun that immediately follows another noun in order

to further define or identify it.

My brother, Michael, is six years old.

Michael is an appositive here, further identifying the subject of the sentence,

my brother.

Sometimes, nouns can be used adjectivally as well.

He is a speed demon.

Speed is a normally a noun, but here it is acting as an adjective to modify

demon.

Plural nouns

Plural nouns, unlike collective nouns, require plural verbs. Many English plural
nouns can be formed by adding -s or -es to the singular form, although there
are many exceptions.

cat—cats
These two cats are both black.

Note the plural verb are.

tax—taxes

house—houses

Countable nouns vs. uncountable nouns

Countable nouns are nouns which can be counted, even if the number might
be extraordinarily high (like counting all the people in the world). Countable
nouns can be used with a/an, the, some, any, a few, and many.

Here is a cat.

Cat is singular and—obviously—countable.

Here are a few cats.

Here are some cats.

Uncountable nouns, or mass nouns,  are nouns that come in a state or

quantity which is impossible to count; liquids are uncountable, as are things
that act like liquids (sand, air). They are always considered to be singular, and
can be used with some, any, a little, and much.

An I.Q. test measures intelligence.

Intelligence is an uncountable noun.

Students don’t seem to have much homework these days.

This example refers to an unspecified, unquantifiable amount of homework, so

homework is an uncountable noun.
 Possessive nouns

Possessive nouns are nouns which possess something; i.e., they have
something. You can identify a possessive noun by the apostrophe; most
nouns show the possessive with an apostrophe and an s.

The cat’s toy was missing.

The cat possesses the toy, and we denote this by use of ’s at the end of cat.

When a singular noun ends in the letter s or z, the same format often applies.
This is a matter of style, however, and some style guides suggest leaving off
the extra s.

I have been invited to the boss’s house for dinner.

Mrs. Sanchez’s coat is still hanging on the back of her chair.

Plural nouns ending in s take only an apostrophe to form a possessive.

My nieces’ prom dresses were exquisite.

What is a pronoun?

Pronouns are short words we swap in for other nouns to make our writing and
speech faster and more varied. They’re words like:

 They

 I 

 You
 Who

 Themselves

 Each other

Pronouns make up a small subcategory of nouns. The distinguishing

characteristic of pronouns is that they can be substituted for other nouns. For
instance, if you’re telling a story about your sister Sarah, the story will begin to
sound repetitive if you keep repeating “Sarah” over and over again. For
example: 

 Sarah has always loved fashion. Sarah announced that Sarah wants to go to
fashion school.

You could try to mix it up by sometimes referring to Sarah as “my sister,” but
then it sounds like you’re referring to two different people:

 Sarah has always loved fashion. My sister announced that Sarah wants to go
to fashion school.

Instead, you can use the pronouns she and her to refer to Sarah:

 Sarah has always loved fashion. She announced that she wants to go to
fashion school.

Pronouns can replace both proper and common nouns. Certain pronouns
have specific rules about when they can be used, such as how it should never
be used to refer to a human being. We explain all of the different types and
their associated rules below.
 Personal pronouns

When you think of pronouns, you most likely think of personal pronouns.
Personal pronouns are pronouns that refer to specific individuals and groups.
Personal pronouns include:

 I/me

 She/her

 He/him

 They/them

 We/us

 You

Here are a few examples of personal pronouns in italics, with the nouns
they’re referring to bolded:

 The new student will arrive today. They will need a seating assignment and a

name tag. 

 My family loves nachos. We make them every Friday for movie night.

In the second example sentence, notice that nachos (a noun) and them (a

pronoun) aren’t emphasized. That’s because in this sentence, them isn’t a
personal pronoun because it isn’t replacing a proper noun, but rather we is.  
 Antecedents

Remember how we mentioned that in order to use a pronoun, you need to

introduce the noun first? That noun has a name: an antecedent. 

Antecedents are necessary because pronouns are versatile. Think about it

—“it” can refer to a bike, a tree, a car, or a city, and we just used it to refer to
something else entirely: pronouns’ versatility. Take a look at these examples
to see how antecedents and pronouns work together:

 My family tests my patience, but I love them. 

 The sign was too far away for Jorge to read it. 

 Danita said she is almost finished with the application.

Antecedents aren’t necessary when the reader/listener knows who or what

you’re discussing. Generally, you don’t need an antecedent for pronouns
like I, you, we, our, and me. But because there are no absolutes in grammar,
sometimes you do need an antecedent in this kind of situation—like when
you’re giving a speech where you introduce yourself and your credentials
before discussing your achievements. 

There are also circumstances where you might not introduce the noun first
and instead reveal it after using only pronouns to refer to your subject. You
might do this for dramatic or poetic effect in a piece of creative writing. 
 Relative pronouns

Relative pronouns are another class of pronouns. They connect relative

clauses to independent clauses. Often, they introduce additional information
about something mentioned in the sentence. Relative pronouns include these
words: 

 that 

 what 

 which 

 who 

 whom 

Traditionally, who refers to people, and which and that refer to animals or

things. Here are a few examples of relative pronouns at work:

 The woman who called earlier didn’t leave a message. 

 All the dogs that got adopted today will be loved. 

 My car, which is nearly twenty years old, still runs well.

Who vs. whom—subject and object pronouns

Knowing when to use who and when to use whom trips a lot of writers up.

The difference is actually pretty simple: Who is for the subject of a sentence,
and whom is for the object of a verb or preposition. Here’s a quick example: 
 Who mailed this package?

 To whom was this package sent?

See the difference? Who is a subject pronoun. It’s in the same category as I,
he, she, they, and we. Whom is an object pronoun, which puts it in the same
category as me, him, her, them, and us. An easy way to determine whether
you should use who or whom in a sentence is to answer the sentence’s
question by substituting another pronoun. With the new pronoun in place,
determine if the sentence still makes sense. For example: 

 He mailed this package.

 The package was sent to him. 

Figuring out when to use whom can be more difficult than knowing when to

use who because it typically comes before the sentence’s verb—notice how
the example object pronoun sentence changed more dramatically than the
subject pronoun sentence.  

Demonstrative pronouns

That, this, these, and those are demonstrative pronouns. They take the place
of a noun or noun phrase that has already been mentioned or is clear through
context, either in written or verbal communication.

This is used for singular items that are nearby. These is used for multiple
items that are nearby. The distance can be physical or metaphorical. Take a
look at these examples:
 Here is a letter with no return address. Who could have sent this? 

 What a fantastic idea! This is the best thing I’ve heard all day. 

 If you think gardenias smell nice, try smelling these.

That is used for singular items that are far away. Those is used for multiple
items that are far away. Again, the distance can be physical or metaphorical.
Here are a few examples of these pronouns in action:

 A house like that would be a nice place to live. 

 Some new flavors of soda came in last week. Why don’t you try some
of those? 

 Those aren’t swans, they’re geese.

Indefinite pronouns

Indefinite pronouns are used when you need to refer to a person or thing that
doesn’t need to be specifically identified. Some common indefinite pronouns
are one, other, none, some, anybody, everybody, and no one. 

Here are a few examples of indefinite pronouns in sentences:

 Everybody was late to work because of the traffic jam. 

 It matters more to some than others. 

 Nobody knows the trouble I’ve seen.

 When indefinite pronouns function as subjects of a sentence or clause, they
usually take singular verbs.

Reflexive pronouns

Reflexive pronouns end in -self or -selves: 

 Myself 

 Yourself 

 Himself

 Herself 

 Itself

 Oneself

 Ourselves

 Yourselves 

 Themselves

Use a reflexive pronoun when both the subject and object of a verb refer to
the same person or thing. Here are a few examples:

 She checked herself out of the hotel thirty minutes before check-out time.

 Take care of yourselves.

 Using myself when you mean me is a common mistake writers and speakers
make. Reflexive pronouns are only correct when the subject and object of a
sentence are the same. 

Intensive pronouns

Intensive pronouns look the same as reflexive pronouns, but their purpose is

different. Intensive pronouns add emphasis. Conceptualizing the difference
between them and reflexive pronouns can be challenging because the
emphasis isn’t always obvious. Take a look at these examples of intensive
pronouns and examine how they’re different from the examples in the
previous section:

 I told them I could do it myself.

 We asked ourselves, is this business really worth saving?

If you can remove a pronoun from a sentence and it loses emphasis but its
meaning stays the same, it’s most likely an intensive pronoun. Compare these
two sentences:

 I built this house. 

 I built this house myself.

See how the second one emphasizes that the builder had no outside help?
Intensive pronouns can help you express pride, shock, disbelief,
credulousness (or incredulousness), or any other strong emotion. Here are a
few more examples:
 They hiked the entire Appalachian Trail themselves?

 Did you, yourself, see Loretta spill the coffee?

Possessive pronouns

Possessive pronouns are pronouns that show possession. They include the

following:

 My 

 Your

 Our

 Their

 His

 Her

 Its

These can also be called possessive adjectives if they modify a noun in a

sentence. Take a look at these examples of possessive adjectives in action:

 I crashed my bike into a telephone pole.

 Your house is always decorated so nicely. 

This category also includes independent versions of possessive pronouns.

These include:
 Mine

 Yours

 Ours

 His

 Hers

 Theirs 

 Its

When you use an independent possessive pronoun, you drop the noun it’s
referring to. Here are a few examples: 

 She forgot her jacket, so I gave her mine.

 I had no idea whose bid won the auction, then my cousins told me theirs did. 

Interrogative pronouns

Interrogative pronouns are used in questions. The interrogative pronouns

are who, what, which, and whose. Here are a few examples of interrogative
pronouns at play:

 Who wants a bag of jelly beans? 

 What is your name? 

 Which movie do you want to watch? 

 Whose jacket is this?

Reciprocal pronouns

There are only two reciprocal pronouns:

 Each other

 One another

These pronouns refer to two or more people who are both the subject of the
sentence. Take a look at these examples:

 Javier and Priya, the two top salespeople on our team, are competing
with each other for Salesperson of the Year. 

 All my siblings are blaming one another for letting the boa constrictor out last
Thanksgiving. 

Distributive pronouns

Distributive pronouns refer to people, animals, and objects as individuals

within larger groups. They enable you to single out individuals while
acknowledging that they’re part of a larger group. Distributive pronouns
include the following:

 Either

 Each
 Neither

 Any 

 None

Here are a few examples of distributive pronouns in sentences:

 All of my friends entered the costume contest and none of them won.

 Cookies and muffins are available for dessert. Neither is appealing to me. 

Adjectives are words that modify nouns. They are often called “describing
words” because they give us further details about a noun, such as what it
looks like (the white horse), how many there are (the three boys) or which one
it is (the last house). Adjectives do not modify verbs or other adjectives.

Predicate Adjectives

Although many adjectives fall before the nouns they modify, as in the
examples above, those used in sentences or clauses with linking verbs fall
after the nouns they modify. Linking verbs describe a state of being rather
than an action; the most common linking verb is to be, and others include
sense verbs like appear, seem, look, smell, sound, and taste.

Cynthia is fatigued .

Those muffins look delicious .

The sunrise seemed golden .

Do you think this spaghetti sauce tastes spicy ?

Verbs are words that represent actions that are external (run, jump, work) and
internal (love, think, consider). Without verbs, you can’t do anything, you
can’t feel anything—you can’t even be anything.  

As the heart of sentences and clauses, verbs show what the subject is doing
or feeling, even if they’re just existing. Verbs are also the only type of word
that’s absolutely necessary to make a sentence. Not even nouns, which
represent things, need to be in every sentence. 

Types of verbs

Dynamic (action) verbs

Most verbs describe a physical action or activity, something external that can
be seen or heard. These verbs are formally known as dynamic verbs, but can
also be called action or event verbs.  

Examples: walk, laugh, swim, play, eat, drink, sing, dance, talk, say

There are a lot of actions that take place in our minds and feelings, which
are not external. Verbs that describe mental or internal actions are still
dynamic verbs, but they’re not always so obvious. These include “process
verbs,” which describe actions of transition.  

Examples: consider, guess, change, grow, live, endure, succeed, fail

Stative (state-of-being) verbs

The opposite of dynamic verbs of action is stative verbs of being. Stative

verbs describe a subject’s state or feeling, including things they like and don’t
like. 

Examples: want, need, prefer, love, hate, like, dislike, seem, understand,
know, believe, involve, realize

One of the most important parts of stative verbs is that you can’t use them in
the continuous tenses. Stative verbs stick to the simple tenses, or
occasionally use the perfect. 

The trouble is that some verbs can be dynamic or stative, depending on the
specific meaning and how they’re used. This includes the most popular
verb be. Let’s take a deeper look at these.

Verbs that can be dynamic or stative

A lot of verbs have more than one meaning, so they can be used as dynamic
or stative. These include perception words: see, hear, taste, smell, feel. 

When perception verbs are used as an involuntary action, such as passive or

unintentional actions, they are stative. This applies when these verbs are used
in the general sense, a state of being that’s always happening. 

I can’t see without my glasses. 

Cake still tastes great even if it’s not your birthday.

When those same verbs are used for a voluntary action—specific, deliberate,
and/or temporary events—they are dynamic. Among other things, it means
they can be used in the continuous tenses. 

I haven’t been seeing well since I lost my glasses. 

We were tasting cakes for the wedding all afternoon. 

Likewise, some perception verbs have alternative meanings, especially if

they’re part of expressions or phrasal verbs. Often, this means they act as
dynamic verbs. 

Romeo and Juliet had been seeing each other for just five days when they
died. 

Other verbs, like think, have, and, above all be, follow the

same voluntary/involuntary rules as perception verbs. Depending on how
they’re used, they can be either dynamic or stative. 

I think toads are better than frogs. 

(stative: expresses an opinion or feeling always there; involuntary)

All morning I was thinking about how toads are better than frogs. 

(dynamic: expresses the temporary action of thinking; voluntary)

I have a ten-year-old dog. 

(stative: expresses permanent ownership; involuntary)

I am having a party for my dog’s eleventh birthday. 

(dynamic: used as part of phrase; voluntary)

He is nice to everyone. 

(stative: expresses an ongoing state or personality trait; involuntary)

He was just being nice to everyone to get a promotion. 

(dynamic: expresses a temporary/intentional state; voluntary)

Auxiliary (helping) verbs

Auxiliary verbs, or “helping verbs,” are used in English to change another

verb’s tense, voice, or mood. When auxiliary verbs are used, there’s always a
main verb that represents the main action. However, the auxiliary verb must
still be conjugated correctly. 

The main auxiliary verbs are be, have, and do. We explain how they’re used
specifically for conjugating below, but here are a few quick examples: 

I have eaten sushi many times before. (tense)

That piece of sushi was eaten by me. (voice)

Did you eat my sushi? (mood)

Modal auxiliary verbs

Some auxiliary verbs are added to another verb to show necessity, possibility,
or capability. Like other auxiliary verbs, modal auxiliary verbs are not the main
verb, but they do change its meaning slightly. Some common examples
are can, may, could, should, would, must, ought, and might.  

I could swim across the English Channel, but should I do it? 

She must be the strongest person on the team, and might be the strongest
person in the region. 

Phrasal verbs 

Phrasal verbs are phrases that act as individual verbs, often combining two or
more words and changing their meaning. The verb get, for example, becomes
many different phrasal verbs when combined with different prepositions. 

When the bus stops, passengers get out on the sidewalk. 

After losing his job, he’s getting by on savings. 

The important thing to remember about phrasal verbs is that they act as a
single verb, so you can still use them with other verbs and prepositions.
However, when you conjugate a phrasal verb, you only conjugate the part of
the phrase that’s actually a verb, like get. 

Verb categories

Aside from the different types, verbs also come in different categories.
Dynamic, stative, and auxiliary verbs all make up the categories below. 
Transitive, intransitive, and ditransitive

Transitive, intransitive, and ditransitive refer to how a verb acts with direct and

indirect objects. A direct object is the person or thing that the action happens
to, while an indirect object is the person or thing that receives the direct
object. 

Lindor threw the ball to deGram. 

In this example, the subject is Lindor and the verb is threw. The direct object
is the ball because that is what was thrown—Lindor did the action to the ball.
The indirect object is deGram because he received the direct object, the ball. 

Verbs that don’t use either a direct or indirect object are called intransitive.
These verbs are complete actions by themselves. 

Examples: go, walk, run, talk, sit, sleep, work

Verbs that use a direct object, but not an indirect object, are called transitive.
They don’t always need a direct object, but they have the option. 

Examples: clean, like, love, dislike, hate, want, learn, deserve, say

Verbs that use both direct and indirect objects are called ditransitive. They
don’t always need an indirect object, but they have the option. 

Examples: throw, make, buy, sell, read, give, lend, bring

Just as a verb can be either dynamic or stative depending on the meaning, a

verb can sometimes act transitive while at other times act intransitive. These
are known as ambitransitive. For example, if you ask someone if they’re
hungry, they might respond:
No, I already ate. (intransitive)

No, I already ate a sandwich. (transitive)

Active vs. passive voice

In English, the standard format where the subject performs the action is
known as the active voice. However, you can switch around your words to
make the direct or indirect objects the subject of the sentence, known as
the passive voice. As explained in our guide to the passive voice, you can
make a verb passive by adding a conjugated form of be in front of its past
participle. 

Stricklen threw the ball to Williams. (active)

The ball was thrown to Williams by Stricklen. (passive)

Williams was thrown the ball by Stricklen. (passive)

Linking (copular) verbs

A linking verb is any verb, dynamic or stative, that directly connects or “links”
the sentence’s subject to other words in the sentence. For example:

Garfield is a cat.  

Here, “Garfield” and “a cat” are the same thing, so “is” acts as a linking verb. 

A linking verb—also known as a copula or copular verb in formal linguistics—

connects the subject not just to other nouns and adjectives, but also to
prepositional phrases and other verbs in the infinitive form. Although the
verb be is the most-used linking verb in English, other linking verbs
like seem and become are also common. 

Garfield is in the kitchen. 

Garfield became fat by eating lasagnas. 

Garfield seems to hate Mondays. 

Likewise, perception verbs are often linking verbs as well, but only when they
describe what is being perceived. 

The mild sauce also tastes spicy. 

Birds look happy when the sun comes out. 

The student felt pride when they used perfect grammar. 

Regular vs. irregular Verbs

Verbs have different forms to show different uses, such as an action that
happened in the past, or an action that happens continuously. Normally, these
forms follow the same patterns of conjugation, so that you can use the same
rules on all verbs. Verbs that use the normal forms are regular verbs. 

Unfortunately, some verbs don’t want to play by the rules. They have their
own unique forms with no patterns, specifically for the simple past tense and
past participle forms. These are the notorious irregular verbs, and there are
quite a few of them—including the most common verb be. 
To make matters worse, the only way to learn how to use irregular verbs is to
study them and all their forms. On the bright side, we explain the best ways to
memorize irregular verbs. But first, you’ll want to learn the standard verb
forms of the majority regular verbs below. 

Verb forms
3RD PERSON SIMPLE PRESENT PAST
ROOT
SINGULAR PAST PARTICIPLE PARTICIPLE
Dance
dances danced dancing danced
(regular)
Sing
sings sang singing sung
(irregular)

Infinitives and gerunds

Do you like to swim? Do you enjoy learning? If you want to use a verb as a

noun, you can turn it into an infinitive or gerund, the noun forms of verbs. 

An infinitive adds the preposition to in front of a verb’s root form. Although

technically two words, an infinitive acts as a single word, usually a noun, but
sometimes also an adjective or adverb. 

To forgive is divine. (noun)

Bring a snack to eat if you get hungry. (adjective describing “snack”)

Alternatively, you can turn the verb into a gerund by adding -ing, identical to
the present participle. A gerund is strictly used as a noun, and occasionally
you can use them to create gerund phrases, which act as a single unit to
modify the gerund.  

Running is too difficult. 

Studying the cosmos is not the same as understanding the cosmos. 

So what’s the difference between infinitives and gerunds? Often, they are
interchangeable—both infinitives and gerunds can act as subjects and direct
objects. 

Living with a dog changes your outlook on life. (correct)

To live with a dog changes your outlook on life. (also correct)

However, only gerunds can be the object of a preposition. 

When I’m not fishing, I’m thinking about fishing. 

Moreover, some transitive verbs only use infinitives as a direct object—

for example, want. 

I want to break free. (correct)

How to conjugate simple tenses

The simple tenses are the most straightforward—that’s what makes them
simple. They represent individual, one-time actions. 
How to conjugate the present tense

The simple present tense is used for actions that happen regularly or things
that don’t change, such as preferences or opinions. It’s made with the root
form, unless the subject is third-person singular (he, she, the singular they, it),
in which case you use the third-person singular present form. 

[ROOT] or [THIRD-PERSON SINGULAR PRESENT]

Kim feels lousy today. 

I study every night before bed. 

How to conjugate the past tense

The simple past tense describes a single action that already took place, or a

habitual action that no longer occurs. It uses the simple past form explained
above. 

[SIMPLE PAST]

When I was young, I played in the backyard every day. 

They lost again, and no one was surprised. 

How to conjugate the future tense

The simple future tense describes events that have not happened yet, as in

planning or preparing. It uses the root form, but adds the word will in front. 

will + [ROOT]
 You will study verbs until you understand them. 

Once again, history will repeat itself. 

How to conjugate continuous tenses

The continuous tense—also known as the progressive tense—is used for

mostly ongoing events that are temporary. 

Remember that stative verbs cannot be used in the continuous tense.

Actions about feelings or states of being that happened in the past use the
simple past tense. 

How to conjugate the present continuous tense

The present continuous tense is used often, and has many different uses:

 events happening right now

 ongoing events that are temporary

 plans for the near future

It’s often confused with the present simple; situations which might seem like
the simple present—such as actions happening currently—are actually best
represented by the present continuous. 

Form the present continuous by adding the conjugated simple present form
of be before the present participle of your main verb (the -ing form). 
am / is / are + [PRESENT PARTICIPLE]

Tony is sleeping at the moment. 

Later, we’re seeing the new zombie movie. Everyone is talking about it! 

How to conjugate the past continuous tense

The past continuous tense shows ongoing events that happened in the past,

specifically ones that have a definitive beginning and end. It can also be used
to show a past event that was interrupted by another past event. Note that the
past continuous is only used for events that are completed. 

Form the past continuous by adding the conjugated simple past form
of be before the present participle. Yes, the present participle. 

was/were + [PRESENT PARTICIPLE]

They were eating dinner when the phone rang. 

It was raining all day, but we still had fun indoors. 

How to conjugate the future continuous tense

The future continuous tense describes ongoing events that will happen in the

future, specifically if they have a definitive beginning and end. 

It’s formed by adding the words will be before the present participle. 

will be + [PRESENT PARTICIPLE]

We will be skiing all day Saturday. 

 After I quit, you will be begging me to come back to work. 

How to conjugate the perfect tense

As one of the most confusing tenses in English, the perfect tense takes some
practice. It has very particular usage guidelines—especially the present
perfect—and it’s closely related to the simple past. 

How to conjugate the present perfect tense

The present perfect tense is used for a few special circumstances, mostly

connected to past events that haven’t yet ended: 

 actions started in the past but continue into the present

 repeated actions in the past without mentioning when 

 past actions, for more emphasis or dramatic effect

To form the present perfect tense, add the present conjugation of have before
the verb’s past participle. 

has/have + [PAST PARTICIPLE]

I’ve worked here since the beginning.   

Macbeth has murdered the king! 

(Macbeth murdered the king! is also correct, but the present perfect makes it
sound more dramatic.)
How to conjugate the past perfect tense

When a sentence has two past events, use the past perfect tense, also known
as the pluperfect, to show which one happened first. It’s typically used in
compound or complex sentences with two clauses to show the order in which
they happened. 

For the past perfect tense by adding had before the past participle. 

had + [PAST PARTICIPLE]

I had forgotten about our date until she reminded me.

When our plane finally landed, they had already left the airport.  

How to conjugate the future perfect tense

The future perfect tense refers to an unfinished event from a future when it’s

already completed. Confused? Say you’re riding your bike on Saturday. By
Sunday, you’ll be finished riding your bike. You can say, “My bike ride will
have finished by Sunday.” That’s why the future perfect tense is usually used
with an expression of time, for context. 

It’s formed by adding the words will have before the past participle. You don’t
need to conjugate “have,” because it’s the same no matter what the subject
is. 

will have + [PAST PARTICIPLE]

By the time I can vote, I will have graduated already. 

We will have stayed together for twenty-five years in August. 

How to conjugate the perfect continuous tense

One of the more complicated tenses in English, the perfect continuous tense
combines the perfect and continuous tenses at the same time. It’s largely
used like the perfect tense, but with ongoing or continuous actions.

How to conjugate the present perfect continuous tense

The present perfect continuous tense describes an ongoing action started in

the past that continues to the present. If that sounds familiar, it’s because
that’s one of the situations we use the normal present perfect tense, too. 

So what’s the difference? The present perfect and the present perfect
continuous can often be used interchangeably, but the big difference is
emphasis. The present perfect continuous emphasizes that the event is
ongoing, whereas the present perfect alone emphasizes completion or
achievement. 

To form the present perfect continuous, add the conjugated form of have, the
word been, and the present participle. 

has/have + been + [PRESENT PARTICIPLE]

The town has been mining gold since the 1800s. 

I’ve been locked in my closet for hours! 

How to conjugate the past perfect continuous tense

Like the past perfect, the past perfect continuous tense is used in complex
and compound sentences to show which event happened first. While the past
perfect tense describes an individual action, the past perfect continuous
shows an ongoing action that is already finished. 

Form the past perfect continuous tense by adding the words had been before
the present participle. 

had been + [PRESENT PARTICIPLE]

Until the moment our picnic began, the sun had been shining all day. 

She had been waiting for a sign before she finally asked him out. 

How to conjugate the future perfect continuous tense

The future perfect continuous tense functions just like the future perfect tense,
except with an ongoing action. The major difference is that with the future
perfect tense, the event will have ended, but with the future perfect
continuous, the event would still be happening by that time in the future. Both,
however, are frequently used with expressions of time. 

The future perfect continuous tense is formed by adding the words will have
been before the present participle. 

will have been + [PRESENT PARTICIPLE]

In a few weeks, she will have been studying English for a whole year. 
By 6:00, we will have been stuck in this elevator for four hours. 
MEE 107 – Phonetics

Questions

1. Describe the basic sounds system of the English language.

Answer :

https://calleteach.wordpress.com/2010/01/11/sounds-of-english-introduction/
#:~:text=The%20sound%20system%20of%20English,within%20a%20word
%20(phonology).

2. Various components of phonetics

Answer :

A branch of linguistics that studies all human sounds is called phonetics. It

analyses the production (articulation), transmission (sound), and perception
(hearing) of sounds. The phonetic system of a language represents the way
people use sounds in their speech. A language’s phonology classifies these
sounds into vowels and consonants, long and short sounds, and many other
language-specific parameters.

The English phonetic system comprises the four components: speech

sounds, syllabic word structure, stress, and intonation. To make it simple,
it describes the way we produce and perceive the sounds of speech.

3. What are the branches of phonetics and the organs of the body used in
producing speech?
Three branches of phonetics
Phonetics has three main branches:

 Articulatory phonetics studies the production of speech sounds by the human vocal tract.
 Auditory phonetics studies the perception of speech sounds by the human perceptual system.
 Acoustic phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sounds.
Sound is organised into six levels:

 A phonetic feature is an attribute of sound, such as voicing, place of articulation, tongue height,
etc. We have seen examples of features in Linguistics. They are distinct from but related to
phonological features, which are most often expressed as binary attributes, such as [+fricative]
and [-consonontal].
 A segment is a unit of sound with relatively consistent bundle of features. Features are
sometimes constant over more than one segment (suprasegmentals) or change within a
segment (subsegmentals), but the majority are dependent on the segment. In contrast with the
phonological notion of phoneme, which is more abstract, the phonetic segment is the phone.
 A phonetic syllable is ill-defined in phonetics. Laver did not define it clearly, nor will we here.
 An utterance is the stretch of sound between two adjacent pauses, with no pauses in the
middle.
 A setting is any stretch of sound with a `tendency towards some particular state', such as jaw
position. It can be as long as an utterance or as short as a segment.