The powder metallurgy process

The entire powder metallurgy process mainly consists of following basic

stages:
1. Production of metal powder
2. Mixing or blending of the metal powders in required proportions.
3. Pressing and compacting the powders into desired shaped and
sizes.
4. Pre-sintering (if required)
5. Sintering the compacted parts in a controlled furnace atmosphere.
6. Subjecting the sintered parts to secondary processing, if required.
PRODUCTION OF METAL POWDERS
Processes commonly used for producing
these powders

•Atomisation
•Reduction Process
•Electrolysis or Electrolytic process
•Milling and Grinding or Mechanical
Pulverization
•Shotting
•Machining
Some ways of atomisation
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ldP1sQnjWcc (water atomization
process, play)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bQnQvCk9x6E (water
atomization process, play)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oZAAxEpETMA (rotating
electrode, play)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ww6OFUei5po (Centrifugal,
play)
Reduction Process
Electrolysis or Electrolytic process
Mechanical pulverization is a process used to produce metal powders through the use of
mechanical forces. The process involves grinding, milling, or crushing solid metal materials
into smaller particles, producing metal powders that have a wide range of applications in
various industries.
In metal powder production, mechanical pulverization methods can include ball milling, jet
milling, hammer milling, and roll milling. The choice of method will depend on the type of
metal being processed, the desired particle size and shape, and the production rate.
Metal powders produced through mechanical pulverization are used in various
applications, such as powder metallurgy, metal injection molding, 3D printing, and welding.
In powder metallurgy, metal powders are compressed and then heated to form solid metal
parts. Metal injection molding uses metal powders as the raw material to produce metal
parts through the use of injection molding. In 3D printing, metal powders are used as the
feedstock material to produce parts layer by layer. In welding, metal powders can be used
as filler materials to join two metal parts together.
The benefits of mechanical pulverization for metal powder production include its cost-
effectiveness, high production rates, and the ability to produce powders with a wide range
of particle sizes and shapes.
MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF METAL POWDERS
• Particle Shape: Flat, angular, spherical etc. It effects compactness, porosity and
strength.
• Particle Size and Distribution: Effects compressibility, density, porosity, shrinkage
during sintering etc. Similar size particles increases porosity and dissimilar sizes
decreases it. Coarse grains reduces density.
• Apparent Density: It is the specific gravity of powder. Should be maintain
constant so same quantity of powder is required for each part
• Flow Rate or Flowability: Governs the time required to fill a mould and rate of
production.
• Compressibility: Its is the ratio of initial volume to final volume. Governed by
shape and particle size distribution of the powder.
• Purity: Presence of impurities adversely affects the process.
• Sintering Ability: Should be high.
• Chemical Composition
PROCESSING OF POWDER
Primary processes
• Production of powders (already discussed
above)
• Blending or Mixing
• Compacting or Briquetting
• Pre-sintering
• Sintering
Blending or mixing
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VoW_a8OEfrY
Briquetting or Compacting
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4zXkn9iyC0c
Pre-sintering
Sintering
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GrieyY_I4yk
The main objectives of sintering are:
• Improve strength
• Achieve good bonding of powdered particles
• Production of dense and compact structure
• Producing parts free of oxides
• Causing metallurgical diffusion and facilitate alloying of
constituent materials.
• Obtaining desired structure and improved mechanical
properties
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=azG
g68B-Glk

Watch it…..
 Secondary Processes
Many of the products can be used in the ‘as sintered’ state, but where
close tolerances and better surface finish are desired, further
processing is necessary. The operations performed for this purpose
are the following:
• Sizing
• Coining
• Machining
• Infiltration
• Impregnation
• Plating
• Heat Treatment
• Repressing
This can also be achieved by dipping into low melting temperature alloy liquid
secondary processes
Finishing operations
-These are also secondary processes. Some have already been covered
above
Future reading for secondary processes.

https://www.horizontechnology.biz/blog/secondary-operations-in-
powder-metallurgy
Advantages and disadvantages
of powder metallurgy
Manufacturing of plastic components
INTRODUCTION
Elastomers are a type of polymers that are known for their elastic properties. They can stretch, compress, and
bend without breaking and return to their original shape after being subjected to a force. Elastomers are widely
used in various applications, including seals, gaskets, adhesives, and rubber products. There are several types of
elastomers, including natural rubber, synthetic rubber etc. There are other types of polymers like biodegradable
polymers, synthetic fibers, copolymers and block copolymers
 Types of plastics
Plastics are broadly classified into two types:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m7tEtvSJcs0
(Important – must hear this)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lNS7TwWmlrg
POLYMER ADDITIONS

• Catalysts or Accelerators
• Fillers
• Modifiers
• Plasticisers
• Stabilizers
• Initiators
• Dyes and Pigments
POLYMER ADDITIONS
Common useful properties of plastics
Type of Thermosetting plastics/Thermosets
• Phenol Formaldehyde/Phenolics
• Urea Formaldehyde/Amino Resin
• Phenol Furfural
• Melamine Formaldehyde
• Epoxides or Epoxy Resins
• Silicones
• Polyesters
• Alkyds
• Polyurethanes
Types of THERMOPLASTICS
Characteristics of the forming and shaping processes
Each of the forming and shaping processes for plastics has its own unique characteristics, including:
1.Injection molding: Injection molding is a fast and efficient process that is capable of producing large numbers of identical parts. It is often used to produce
parts with complex geometries and intricate details. One of the key advantages of injection molding is the ability to control the material properties of the final part
through the use of different types of plastic and additives.
2.Blow molding: Blow molding is a process that is well suited for producing hollow parts with uniform wall thickness. This process is often used to produce
containers, such as bottles and drums, and can be used with a wide range of materials, including polyethylene, polypropylene, and polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
4.Rotational molding: Rotational molding is a process that is well suited for producing large, hollow parts with uniform wall thickness. This process is often
used to produce tanks and playground equipment, and can be used with a wide range of materials, including linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) and
polyethylene terephthalate (PET).
5.Blown Film Extrusion (Film Blowing): Is a continuous process that produces thin and flexible plastic films. It can produce films with uniform
thickness and surface quality and can be used with a variety of thermoplastics. The process is cost-effective and well-suited for producing large quantities of film for
applications such as food packaging and industrial films.
6. Thermoforming: Thermoforming is a fast and efficient process that is well suited for producing shallow parts with simple shapes. This process is often
used to produce food packaging and clamshells, and can be used with a wide range of materials, including polyethylene, polypropylene, and polystyrene. This is
also a types of moulding process.
7. Extrusion/Extrusion moulding: Extrusion is a continuous process that is well suited for producing long, thin parts with uniform cross sections. This
process is often used to produce pipes and profiles, and can be used with a wide range of materials, including polyethylene, polypropylene, and PVC.
8. Compression molding: Compression molding is a process that is well suited for producing large, flat parts with uniform thickness. This process is often
used to produce laminates and composite panels, and can be used with a wide range of materials, including phenolic resins and melamine resins.
9. Transfer moulding: Transfer molding is a plastic molding process that uses a closed mold to produce precise and intricate shapes with improved
material utilization. The process is known for its consistent and repeatable results due to controlled pressure and temperature conditions, leading to improved
dimensional accuracy and surface finish in the molded part.
Each of these processes has its own unique strengths and limitations, and the choice of process will depend on the specific requirements of the application, including
the type of plastic being used, the size and shape of the part being produced, and the desired production rate.
Broadly speaking all of thein either involve moulding or extrusion or both. All the above will be explained below
Moulding of Thermoplastics
Plastic moulding is the process of pouring liquid
plastic into a certain container or mould so that it
hardens in that customized shape. These plastic
moulds can then be used for a wide range of
purposed.

Some material for online reading

https://www.activeplastics.co.nz/types-of-plastic-
moulding#:~:text=Plastic%20moulding%20is%20the%20proces
s,most%20effective%20and%20most%20popular.
Although all the methods list above slides (namely, Injection molding,
Blow molding, Rotational molding, Blown Film Extrusion (Film
Blowing), Thermoforming, Extrusion/Extrusion Moulding, Compression
molding and Transfer moulding) and many more can be used for
thermoplastics, of these Compression Moulding and Transfer moulding
are primarily used for thermosetting plastics/Thermosets. Hence we
have explained (1) Injection molding, (2) Blow molding, (3) Rotational
molding, (4) Blown Film Extrusion (Film Blowing), (5)
Thermoforming and (6) Extrusion/Extrusion Moulding under
thermoplastics and Compression Moulding and Transfer moulding
under thermosets. Also, injection moulding and many others can be used
for thermosets. The methods of thermosets are listed separately.
(1) Injection moulding
 Watch following for proper understanding

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b1U9W4iNDiQ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EkjjeS2TATg
In injection moulding the melted plastic is injected directly into a custom mould.
The injection is under high pressure so that the mould is filled and a solid part is
made. As with the other methods, after the mould is filled, the plastic is cooled
as to keep its new shape and then the mould is opened.

When it comes to the pricing the moulds can be very expensive because they
need to be steel or aluminium for higher strength and durability. Luckily, as with
most methods, the cost per unit drops drastically depending on your production
volume.

Most polymers may be injection moulded, including thermosplastics, fibre

reinforced thermoplastics, thermosetting plastics and elastomers
Thermoplastics or thermosets for injection moulding

• Injection molding is used primarily for thermoplastics, although some thermosets

can also be injection molded. Injection molding is a manufacturing process where
melted plastic is injected into a mold, where it cools and solidifies to form a final
product. Thermoplastics can be melted and re-melted, allowing for easy recycling
and processing, while thermosets have a chemical change during curing and
cannot be melted again.
• Thermoplastics are the most commonly used materials in injection molding due
to their ability to be melted, molded, and re-melted, making them ideal for high-
volume production runs. Some thermosets can also be injection molded,
although this is less common, as thermosets have a chemical change during
curing and cannot be melted and re-melted like thermoplastics. Injection molding
is widely used to produce a wide range of products, including toys, automotive
parts, electronics, and medical devices.
(2) Blow Moulding
Types of Blow Moulding
Extrusion Blow moulding
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=236PlbUf2HQ

Injection blow moulding

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pN-MWbcE_vM

Stretch Blow moulding

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QHQPpvezXLA
Extrusion Blow Moulding
Injection Blow Moulding
Stretch Blow Moulding
(3) Rotational Moulding
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P3j8KPf-6yM (play)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JftSV3ug0fk (play)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LFotncQPF3A
Rotational molding, also known as rotomolding, is a thermoplastic molding process best suited for large,
one-piece hollow parts and double-walled open containers such as tanks, kayaks, and coolers. It’s most
cost-effective for production volumes of less than 3,000 annually, making it ideal for inventors, start-ups,
and small businesses.

Rotomolding is often used for parts that require high-quality finishes, uniform wall thicknesses, and high
stability. Features such as inserts and spin weld attachments can be incorporated directly into the
rotomold and foaming can be used to create thermal insulation and stiffness. Unlike competitive
processes such as blow molding and thermoforming, rotomolding produces no pinch-off seams or weld
lines, resulting in a finished product without the use of secondary processes.

The moulds themselves are generally made from cast aluminium, CNC machined aluminium, or
steel, and can be relatively cheap when compared to moulds used in other methods such as
injection or blow moulding.
 Rotational moulding process
The rotational molding process is quite simple:

1. A hollow mold is filled with powdered plastic resin.

2. The mold begins rotating bi-axially and is transferred into an oven.
3. The mold continues to rotate as the resin melts and coats the walls of the mold.
4. The mold is cooled until the resin hardens into the desired shape.
5. The rotation is stopped, and the mold is opened to remove the finished part.

Given the low-pressure, high-heat nature of the process, rotomold tooling is usually made from a soft
metal such as aluminum and the majority of the resin used is polyethylene due to its low chemical
degradation when exposed to high heat. Inserts, ribs, kiss-offs, undercuts, and foam reinforcements are
often incorporated into the part in-mold or by means of secondary processing.
Disadvantages
• High cycle times: at eight rotations per minute, rotomolding can take up to three
hours to complete one part
• Limited material options: raw material used in rotomolding must be readily
converted from granules to a fine powder and must have high thermal stability,
limiting material selection to poly-based resins
• High cost of raw material: material costs are high due to high thermal stability
requirements, the cost of required additives, and the cost of grinding the material
into a powder
• Low repeatability: the soft metal used in rotomold tooling must be refurbished or
replaced after 3,000 cycles, inducing quality issues due to a lack of repeatability
• High labor costs: mechanization and automation have not yet been realized for
rotomolding, requiring greater labor intensity than comparable manufacturing
processes
Advantages
• Low-cost tooling: low operating pressures allow rotomold tooling to be crafted from low-
cost metals such as aluminum
• Consistent wall thickness: the constant rotation of the mold coats the walls evenly during
both the heating and cooling processes
• Double-wall construction: complex double-walled open containers can be produced
without secondary processing
• High durability: parts are molded as one solid piece, eliminating the need for joining
techniques such as welding and joint fabrication which creates weak spots
• High stability: the molding material isn’t exposed to external pressure, increasing its
stability and reducing the risk of defects in the finished part
• High strength: rotomolding creates thicker corners, reducing the risk of failure in these
stress-concentration points
• Appearance: the soft metal used for the rotomold tooling easily accommodates surface
finishes such as fine-detail textures, logos, symbols, and lettering
(4) Blown Film Extrusion (Film Blowing)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SzdUoAi9SXk

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JMFsX8GPjt0
• Blown film extrusion is a multi-step process that involves heating and melting polymer
pellets or granules in an extruder, and then forcing the melted material through a circular
die to form a continuous tube. The tube is then inflated using air, causing it to expand
and become thinner. The tube is then cooled by passing it through a series of cooling
rolls and air passed for cooling through air ring, which also help to control its thickness.
• Once the film has cooled and solidified, it can be wound onto a roll for storage or further
processing. The properties of the final film, such as its thickness, strength, and clarity,
can be controlled by adjusting the temperature and pressure of the polymer during
extrusion, as well as the speed of the cooling rolls.
• Blown film extrusion is widely used in the packaging industry, where it is used to produce
films for bags, pouches, and wraps, among other products. It is also used in the
manufacture of agricultural films, such as greenhouse coverings and mulch films, as well
as in the production of consumer goods, such as toys and household items.
• Overall, blown film extrusion is a versatile and cost-effective method for producing high-
quality plastic films in large quantities.
• Blow film molding is used specifically for thermoplastics, which
are plastics that can be melted and molded multiple times.
Thermoplastics are used in blow film molding because they can
be melted and then extruded in a continuous tube. This tube is
then inflated like a balloon and cooled to form a hollow plastic
film. This process is repeated continuously, producing a long roll
of plastic film.
• Blow film molding is not typically used for thermosets, which are
plastics that cannot be melted and molded multiple times. Once
a thermoset plastic is molded, it retains its shape and cannot be
melted and molded again.
 (5) Extrusion or Extrusion Moulding
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vet1OmYy2gk
With extrusion moulding, hot melted plastic is pressed through a shaped hole to create a
lengthy shaped plastic part. This customizable shape that the liquid plastic gets pressed
through is called a die. This die is custom made for the particular outcome that is desired.
It is almost like pressing dough through a press to make shaped cookies.
The other forms of plastic moulding also use extrusion so get the raw liquid into the
moulds, the difference here is that other methods use the moulds to make the desired
shape and here the extrusion itself is making the shape with the use of the die’s shape.
When using this method your outcome product will continuously have
the same shape along the length of it. These can be things like straws
or PVC pipes. These types of parts can be made at very high volumes
because it can just keep producing the same shape without end.
In comparison, this type of moulding is low cost because the
equipment is fairly simple and can have high productivity. The
downside to this method is that you are very boxed in when it comes to
the variety of parts you can make.
More explanation on Extrusion of plastics
There are number of extrusion methods used in industry
Example of Co-extrusion
(6) Thermoforming

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BrcWVD0mwo4
 Types of thermoforming
There are several types of thermoforming processes that can be used to form thermoplastics, including:
1. Vacuum forming: Involves heating a sheet of plastic material until it is soft and pliable, then placing it
over a mold and creating a vacuum to draw the material onto the mold and conform to its shape.
2. Pressure forming: Similar to vacuum forming, but involves applying pressure and vacuum to the back
side of the plastic sheet to force it against the mold.
3. Drape forming: Involves heating a sheet of plastic material until it is soft and pliable, then draping it
over a mold and applying pressure differential to conform the material to the shape of the mold.
4. Twin-sheet forming: Involves forming a part by sandwiching a layer of plastic material between two
molds and applying pressure to force the material to conform to the shape of the molds.
5. Stretch forming: Involves heating a sheet of plastic material until it is soft and pliable, then stretching
the material over a mold by pulling it from both ends.
The choice of thermoforming process will depend on several factors, including the size, shape, and
material of the part being produced, as well as the production volume, desired level of precision, and
cost considerations. Each process has its own advantages and disadvantages, and the best choice will
depend on the specific requirements of the part being produced.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QQjn9zSQADg
In the above two processes i.e Vacuum
and Pressure thermoforming
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xNR0Q-D3nH0
 Moulding of thermosets
There are several types of molding processes used for thermosets, including:
1) Compression molding: In this process, a pre-measured amount of thermoset material is placed into a heated mold and
compressed under high pressure to form the desired shape.
2) Transfer molding: This process is similar to compression molding, but the material is first placed into a pre-heated pot,
then transferred into the mold and compressed to form the final shape.
3) Injection molding: Injection molding can also be used for thermosets, although it is more commonly used for
thermoplastics. In this process, the thermoset material is injected into a mold cavity under high pressure to form the
desired shape. (already covered under thermosets)
4) Resin transfer molding (RTM): RTM is a closed-mold process that uses high pressure to inject liquid thermoset
material into a mold. The material then cures to form the final shape.
5) Vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding (VARTM): VARTM is a variation of RTM that uses a vacuum to draw the liquid
thermoset material into the mold, resulting in improved fiber wetting and reduced porosity.

These are some of the common molding processes used for thermosets. The choice of molding process depends on the
specific requirements of the application, including the type of material being used, the size and complexity of the part,
and the desired production volume.
(1) Compression moulding
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lyve4mKZwVk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pOGpXZ-UMfo
Detailed Explanation of Compression moulding
(2) Transfer Moulding
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NO5su6dN1PA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2DUB9DoIoi8&t=6s
Further Explanation of Transfer Moulding
 Bonding/Joining of Thermoplastics
Thermoplastics can be bonded using several methods, including:
1. Welding: This is the most common method of bonding thermoplastics. Welding can be achieved
using a variety of techniques such as ultrasonic welding, hot plate welding, and infrared welding.
2. Adhesive bonding: Adhesives are used to bond thermoplastics by applying an adhesive layer
between two parts, which then cures and forms a strong bond.
3. Solvent bonding: Solvents are used to dissolve the surface of the thermoplastic, creating a strong
bond when the solvent evaporates.
4. Heat bonding: This method uses heat to soften the thermoplastic, allowing the two parts to be
joined and forming a bond as the material cools.
5. Mechanical fastening: Mechanical fasteners such as screws, nails, and clips can be used to bond
thermoplastics, although this method is not as strong as the other methods.

The choice of bonding method will depend on the specific requirements of the application,
including the type of thermoplastic being used, the size and complexity of the parts being bonded,
and the desired strength of the bond.
Adhesive bonding is a common method used to join thermoplastics. In this method, an adhesive is applied to
one or both of the surfaces being joined, and the parts are then brought together and allowed to cure.
Adhesives can be used to bond a wide range of thermoplastics, including polyethylene, polypropylene, and
polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
• There are several types of adhesives that can be used for bonding thermoplastics, including:
1. Cyanoacrylates: These are fast-curing, single-component adhesives that bond quickly and strongly.
2. Epoxies: Epoxy adhesives are two-component systems that provide high strength and durability, but they
take longer to cure than cyanoacrylates.
3. Polyurethanes: Polyurethane adhesives are flexible, strong, and resistant to impact, making them ideal for
bonding thermoplastics.
4. Acrylic adhesives: Acrylic adhesives are fast-curing, strong, and versatile, making them suitable for bonding a
wide range of thermoplastics.
The choice of adhesive will depend on the specific requirements of the application, including the type of
thermoplastic being used, the size and complexity of the parts being joined, and the desired strength of the
bond. It is important to select an adhesive that is compatible with the thermoplastic being used, to ensure a
strong and durable bond.
Some Thermoplastic Plastics like acrylics, polystyrenes, cellulosics and
few vinyls can be joined by cement with solvent. This cementing can be
also classified under adhesive bonding
Solvent bonding is a process used to join thermoplastics together using a solvent to soften and dissolve the
surfaces to be bonded, allowing the materials to meld together and form a strong bond when the solvent
evaporates.
There are several types of solvent bonding commonly used for thermoplastics, including:
• Acetone bonding: This type of bonding uses acetone as the solvent and is commonly used for bonding PVC
(polyvinyl chloride) and ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) plastics.
• MEK (methyl ethyl ketone) bonding: MEK is a commonly used solvent for bonding polycarbonate and other
thermoplastics.
• IPA (isopropyl alcohol) bonding: IPA is a solvent that can be used for bonding a variety of thermoplastics,
including polycarbonate, PVC, and ABS.
• Acrylic solvent bonding: This type of bonding uses a specialized solvent formulated specifically for bonding
acrylic plastics.
• Hot-air welding: This process uses hot air to soften the plastic surfaces to be bonded, allowing them to fuse
together. Hot-air welding is commonly used for bonding thermoplastics such as PVC and PE (polyethylene).
It is important to note that the type of solvent used for bonding will depend on the specific thermoplastic
being bonded and the desired bond strength and durability.
There are several types of welding methods commonly used for joining thermoplastics, including:
Hot plate welding: In this method, a heated plate is used to melt the plastic surfaces to be joined, which are then pressed
together to form a bond.
Ultrasonic welding: This process uses high-frequency sound waves to generate heat and melt the plastic surfaces to be
joined, which are then pressed together to form a bond.
Hot gas welding: In this method, a stream of hot gas is used to soften the plastic surfaces to be joined, which are then
pressed together to form a bond.
Spin welding: In this method, two plastic parts are held in place and rotated at high speeds, causing friction and heat that
melts the surfaces to be joined. The parts are then brought into contact and allowed to cool and solidify, forming a bond.
Laser welding: This method uses a laser beam to heat and melt the plastic surfaces to be joined, which are then pressed
together to form a bond.
Infrared welding: This method uses infrared radiation to heat the plastic surfaces to be joined, which are then pressed
together to form a bond.
It is important to note that the type of welding method used will depend on the specific thermoplastic being joined, the
desired bond strength and durability, and the size and shape of the parts being joined. Each welding method has its own
advantages and disadvantages, so it is important to carefully consider the requirements of a specific application when
choosing a welding method.
Thank You