UNIT- 1

Quantum Physics
 Inadequacy of classical mechanics,
 Planck’s theory of black body radiation(qualitative),
 Compton effect,
 de-Broglie concept of matter waves,
 Davisson and Germer Experiment,
 Phase velocity and group velocity,
 Time-dependent and time-independent Schrodinger
 wave equations,
 Physical interpretation of wave function,
 Particle in a one-Dimensional box.

1. Introduction to Quantum Physics

Quantum mechanics describes how the Universe works at the level smaller than atoms. ...
quantum mechanics is the part of physics that describes how the particles that make up atoms work.
quantum mechanics also tells us how electromagnetic waves (like light) work. hat deals with the
mathematical description of the motion and interaction of subatomic particles, incorporating the
concepts of quantization of energy, wave–particle duality, the uncertainty principle, and the
correspondence principle.

Classical Mechanics fail to explain the motion of atomic and subatomic particle like
electron, proton, and elementary particle etc. On the basics of Classical Mechanics, we cannot
explain some phenomenon:
1. Black body radiation
2. Photo Electric effect
3. Theory of atomic structure
4. Compton effect
5. LASER ………. etc.

In our surrounding everything is made of matter. A matter consists of many small

particle(s) e.g., atom(s), molecule(s), ion(s), etc. A particle has mass so it is located at some point
in space, it can move from one place to other by its or applying some external force(s), it gives
energy in the form of heat or other when slow down or stopped by friction or some external force(s).
Thus, a particle can be specified by its mass, velocity, momentum, and energy. The motion of a
particle can be observable either directly or in directly by using instrument(s), e.g. telescope,
microscope etc. To understand the motion of a particle or an object we apply

1.1 BLACK BODY RADIATION (Absorbed all type of radiations)

Black-body radiation is the thermal electromagnetic radiation within or surrounding a body in
thermodynamic equilibrium with its environment, emitted by a black body (an idealized opaque, non-
reflective body). It has a specific spectrum of wavelengths, inversely related to intensity that depend only
on the body's temperature, which is assumed for the sake of calculations and theory to be uniform and
constant.
A black body is one that absorbs all the EM radiation (light...) that strikes it. To stay in thermal
equilibrium, it must emit radiation at the same rate as it absorbs it so a black body also radiates well

Fig no 1: Black body radiation thermionic emission by sun

Radiation spectrum
A blackbody is an object that absorbs all radiation (visible light, infrared light, ultraviolet light,
etc.) that falls on it. At higher frequencies classical physics predicted that more and more energy would be
radiated from the body until the energy became infinite.
The spectral distribution of the thermal energy radiated by a blackbody (i.e. the pattern of the
intensity of the radiation over a range of wavelengths or frequencies) depends only on its temperature. ...
Conversely, as the temperature of the body increases, the wavelength at the emission peak decreases

Fig no 2: Energy distribution of black body radiations

Figure no 2-graphic representation of spectral distribution of blackbody radiation at different
temperatures. The Stefan-Boltzmann’s Law is observed as the increase in the emission amplitude with
increasing temperature and the Wien’s Displacement Law is observed as the shift to smaller wavelength
with increasing temperature.
1.2 The Stefan-Boltzmann Law
The first quantitative based on experimental observations was the Stefan-Boltzmann Law (1879)
which states the total power (i.e., integrated over all emitting frequencies in figure) radiated from one square
meter of black surface goes as the fourth power of the absolute temperature:
P= σ T4
Where
P is the total amount of radiation emitted by an object per square meter (Wattsm−2)
σ is a constant called the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67×10−8 Watts m−2 K−4)
T is the absolute temperature of the object (in K)

The Stefan-Boltzmann Law is easily observed by comparing the integrated value (i.e., under the
curves) of the experimental black-body radiation distribution in Figure at different temperatures. In 1884,
Boltzmann derived this T4 behavior from theory by applying classical thermodynamic reasoning to a box
filled with electromagnetic radiation, using Maxwell’s equations to relate pressure to energy density. That
is, the tiny amount of energy coming out of the hole Figure would of course have the same temperature
dependence as the radiation intensity inside.

Fig no 3:
figure no 3: that; of a function of total emitted energy of a blackbody proportional to the fourth power of
its thermodynamic temperature T according to the Stefan–Boltzmann law.

1.3 Wien’s Displacement Law

The second phenomenological observation from experiment was Wien’s Displacement Law.
Wien's law identifies the dominant (peak) wavelength, or color, of light coming from a body at a given
temperature. As the oven temperature varies, so does the frequency at which the emitted radiation is most
intense (Figure). In fact, that frequency is directly proportional to the absolute temperature:

νmax ∝ T
where the proportionality constant is 5.879×1010 Hz/K.
 Wien himself deduced this law theoretically in 1893, following Boltzmann’s thermodynamic
reasoning. It had previously been observed, at least semi-quantitatively, by an American
astronomer, Langley. This upward shift in νmax with T is familiar to everyone-when an iron is heated in a
fire (Figure), the first visible radiation (at around 900 K) is deep red, the lowest frequency visible light.
Further increase in T causes the color to change to orange then yellow, and finally blue at very high
temperatures (10,000 K or more) for which the peak in radiation intensity has moved beyond the visible
into the ultraviolet. Another representation of Wien's Law (Equation in terms of the peak wavelength of
light is

λ max =b T

where T is the absolute temperature in kelvin and b is a constant of proportionality called Wien's
displacement constant, equal to 2.89×10−3 mK, or more conveniently to obtain wavelength in
micrometers, b≈2900μm K. This is an inverse relationship between wavelength and temperature. So, the
higher the temperature, the shorter or smaller the wavelength of the thermal radiation. The lower the
temperature, the longer or larger the wavelength of the thermal radiation. For visible radiation, hot objects
emit bluer light than cool objects.

1.4 The Rayleigh-Jeans Law

Lord Rayleigh and J. H. Jeans developed an equation which explained blackbody radiation at low
frequencies. The equation which seemed to express blackbody radiation was built upon all the known
assumptions of physics at the time. The big assumption which Rayleigh and Jean implied was that
infinitesimal amounts of energy were continuously added to the system when the frequency was increased.

Classical physics assumed that energy emitted by atomic oscillations could have any continuous
value. This was true for anything that had been studied up until that point, including things like acceleration,
position, or energy. Their resulting Rayleigh-Jeans Law was

dρ(ν, T) =ρν (T) dν

=8π kBT ν2 dν /c3

Experimental data performed on the black box showed slightly different results than what was
expected by the Rayleigh-Jeans law (Figure).The law had been studied and widely accepted by many
physicists of the day, but the experimental results did not lie, something was different between what was
theorized and what actually happens. The experimental results showed a bell type of curve, but according
to the Rayleigh-Jeans law the frequency diverged as it neared the ultraviolet region (Equation).

It is important to emphasizing that Equation is a classical result: the only inputs are classical
dynamics and Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory. The charge e of the oscillator does not appear: the result
is independent of the coupling strength between the oscillator and the radiation, the coupling only must be
strong enough to ensure thermal equilibrium. The derivation of the law can be found here.
 Fig no 4:

Figure no 4 shown that Relationship between the temperature of an object and the spectrum of
blackbody radiation it emits. At relatively low temperatures, most radiation is emitted at wavelengths longer
than 700 nm, which is in the infrared portion of the spectrum. The dull red glow of the hot metalwork in
Figure is due to the small amount of radiation emitted at wavelengths less than 700 nm, which the eye can
detect. As the temperature of the object increases, the maximum intensity shifts to shorter wavelengths,
successively resulting in orange, yellow, and finally white light. A high temperature, all wavelengths of
visible light are emitted with approximately equal intensities.

2. Planck’s quantum hypothesis and quantized Energy

Max Planck explained this phenomenon by proposing that energy exists only as discrete units; that
is, the energy that is associated with the oscillations of charges within atoms and molecules is quantized -
it can only take on whole number multiples of some minimum value. The minimum energy of any
oscillation can be determined by taking the product of Planck's constant and the frequency of oscillation.
This theory became known as Planck's Quantum Hypothesis.

Planck’s “quantum hypothesis”: maybe when a body emits or absorbs light of frequency f, it can’t
emit any old amount of energy it likes, because there is some “special energy”: it emits energy in “steps”
of E=hf.
Energy per frequency: Planck’s constant: h = 6.6 × 10-34 J s [ or J / Hz, since Hz = 1/s]
 Fig no 5:

Interestingly, Planck has also concluded that these were only an aspect of the processes of
absorption and emission of radiation.
They had nothing to do with the physical reality of the radiation itself. Later in the year 1905,
famous German physicist, Albert Einstein also reinterpreted Planck’s theory to further explain photoelectric
effect. He believed if some source of light was focused on certain materials, they can eject electrons from
the material. Basically, Planck’s work led Einstein in determining that light exists in discrete quanta of
energy, or photons.

Max Planck’s law of radiation (derivations)

The explanation of complete black- body spectrum was explained by Max Planck in 1900 based on
quantization of energy. He assumed that a radiation chamber of a black- body, besides radiations is filled
with simple harmonic oscillators or resonators of molecular dimensions which can oscillate with all possible
frequencies. Here, the total number of oscillators per unit volume having frequencies between 𝜈 and 𝜈  +
 𝑑𝜈 is .

According to Planck’s idea of quantization of energy, an oscillator cannot radiate or absorb energy
continuously but it does this in term of𝑛ℎ𝜈, where 𝑛  =  0,  1,  2,  3. . . . .. is an integer. Now according to
Maxwell- Boltzmann distribution law, the number of molecules 𝑁 , 𝑁 , 𝑁 , 𝑁 . . . . . . .. exchanging
energies 0, ℎ𝜈, 2ℎ𝜈, 3ℎ𝜈……., respectively inside the black- body at temperature ‘T’. Then, the total
number ‘𝑁’ of the oscillators having fundamental frequency 𝜈 is given as:
 
𝑁  =   𝑁   +  𝑁   +   𝑁  + 𝑁  +. . . . . . . . . . (∴   𝑁   =   𝑁  𝑒 )

  =   𝑁   +  𝑁 𝑒   +  𝑁 𝑒  + 𝑁 𝑒  +. . . . . . . . . .

=   𝑁 (1  +   𝑒   +  𝑒  + 𝑒  +. . . . . . . . )

  =   𝑁 (1  −   𝑒 ) . . . . . . . . . (1)

The total energy ‘𝐸’ of the oscillators having fundamental frequency 𝜈 is given as:
 𝐸  =  0  × 𝑁   +  ℎ𝜈  × 𝑁   +  2ℎ𝜈  × 𝑁   +  3ℎ𝜈  × 𝑁  +. . . . . . . . . .

   =  ℎ𝜈 𝑁 𝑒   +  2ℎ𝜈𝑁 𝑒   +  3ℎ𝜈𝑁 𝑒  +. . . . . . . . . . 

=  ℎ𝜈 𝑁 𝑒 (1  +  2𝑒   +  3𝑒  +. . . . . . . . . . )

   =  ℎ𝜈 𝑁 𝑒 (1  −  2𝑒 ) . . . . . . . . . (2)

Therefore, the average energy 𝐸 of the oscillators having fundamental frequency𝜈 is given as:

𝐸 ℎ𝜈 𝑁 𝑒 (1  −  2𝑒 ) ℎ𝜈 

𝐸  =   =   =  . . . . . . . . . (3)
𝑁
𝑁 (1  −   𝑒 ) 𝑒   −  1
The energy density of the oscillators having fundamental frequencies in a narrow range between 𝜈 and 𝜈 +
𝛻𝜈 is given by:

𝐼 𝑑𝜈  =   (Number of oscillators per unit volume in the frequency range between)   ×   𝐸

8𝜋𝜈 𝑑𝜈 ℎ𝜈  8𝜋ℎ𝜈

 =   ×  = 
𝑐
𝑒   −  1 𝑐 (𝑒   −  1)

8 𝜋ℎ𝜈
𝑢   =   𝐼  𝑑𝜈  =    𝑑𝜈 … … … . . (4𝑎)
𝑐 𝑒   −  1

(𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒌’𝒔 𝒍𝒂𝒘 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒃𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒌 − 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏)

𝑐𝑑𝜆
Putting the value of 𝑐  =  𝜈 𝜆  and |𝑑𝜈|   =   − in the above equation, we get:
𝜆
8 𝜋ℎ𝑐
𝑜𝑟, 𝑢   =   𝐼  𝑑𝜆  =    𝑑𝜆 . . . . . . . (4𝑏)
𝜆 𝑒   −  1

Case 1- For low wavelength, 𝑒   >>  1, we have: 

8 𝜋ℎ𝑐 𝑒 −ℎ𝑐
𝐼  𝑑𝜆  ≈    𝑑𝜆  =   𝑐  𝜆  𝑒  𝑑𝜆where 𝑐 (=  8 𝜋ℎ𝑐 ) and 𝑐 =    are constants
𝜆 𝑘

Case2-For large wavelength, 𝑒   <<  1, from Planck’s law of radiation we have: 
 
𝑢   =   𝐼  𝑑𝜆  =   𝑑𝜆 ( Applying binomials theorem.)
           
 On neglecting second and higher orders, we get:

 
𝐼  𝑑𝜆  ≈    𝑑𝜆
Thus, we can say that Wiens’s law and Rayleigh- Jeans’ are special cases of Planck’s law of radiation.

Example 1: The wavelength of maximum intensity of the Sun’s radiation is observed to be near 5000
Å. Assume the Sun to be a black- body, calculate:
(a) The Sun’s surface temperature.
(b) The power emitted per unit area from the Sun’s surface.
(c) The energy received by the Earth each day from the Sun’s radiation.

(Given: The radius of the Sun is R  6.96  10 m , the radius of the Earth is R  6.37  10 m and
8 6

the mean Earth-Sun radius R  1.49  10 m .)

11

Sol.: - Given: max  5000  10

10
m, R  6.96  108 m , R  6.37  106 m and R  1.49  1011 m .

(a) From Wien’s displacement law, we have:

 max T  2.898  10  3 m K

or , 5000  10  10 T  2.898  10  3

T  5796 K

(b) From Stefan’s law, we have:

E   T 4  5.67  10 8  (5796) 4  6.399  10 7 W / m 2

(c)
T h e su rfa ce are a o f th e S u n 4  R  2
 4  3 .1 4  (6 .9 6  1 0 8 ) 2  6 .0 8 4  1 0 1 8 m 2

Thus, the total power emitted by the Sun’s surface

P  E  4  R 2  6.399  107  6.084  1018  3.893  1026 W

The fraction ‘F’ of the Sun’s radiation received by the Earth is given by the fraction of the total area over
which the radiation is spread.

 R 2 R 2
F 
4  R 2 4 R  2

R  is mean Earth  Sun radius.

 (6.37  106 )2
or , F   4.569  1010
4  (1.49  1011 )2

The radiation received by the Earth from the Sun is

P (Received)  F  P  4.569  10 10  3.893  10 26  1.778  1017 W

The energy received by the Earth each day

U   P (Received)  one day  1.778  1017  24  60  60  1.54  10 22 J

3. Bohr’s Quantization Rule:

All possible circular orbits allowed by the classical theory, the electrons are permitted to circulate
only in those orbits in which the angular momentum of an electron is an integral multiple of 2πh, where h is
Plank's constant. Therefore, for any permitted orbit,

L= mvr = 2πnh
Where n=1,2,3, ........

Where L, m, and v are the angular momentum, mass, and the speed of the electron respectively. r is
the radius of the permitted orbit and n is positive integer called principal quantum number. The above
equation is Bohr's famous quantum condition. When an electron of mass m is confined to move on a line
of length l with velocity v, the de-Broglie wavelength λ associated with electron is:

λ =h/mv=h/p Where P is Linear momentum

P=λ/h=h/2l/n =nh/2l

When electron revolves in a circular orbit of radius r then 2l=2πr

Therefore,
P=nh/2πr or P × r =nh/2π

Fig no 6: Bohr quantization representations

4, Wave-Particle Duality

The behaviors of the electron do not allow for it to be observable as a particle and as a wave. The
two-sided nature of the electron is known as the Wave-Particle Duality: The property of particles behaving
as waves and the property of waves behaving as particles as well as waves. Although the duality is not very
effective in large matter. The wave characteristic of the electron implicates many of the electron's particle
behaviors.

Planck's Hypothesis of the Quantum Theory states that energy is emitted in quanta, little packets
of energy, instead of a continuous emission. He stated that energy emitted is related to the frequency of the
light emitted. Planck's hypothesis states that a quantum of energy was related to the frequency by his
equation

E=hν

Fig no 7: Wave particle duality

5. de- Broglie Wavelength

In 1923, Louis de Broglie, a French physicist, proposed a hypothesis to explain the theory of the atomic
structure. By using a series of substitution de Broglie hypothesizes particles to hold properties of waves.
Within a few years, de Broglie's hypothesis was tested by scientists shooting electrons and rays of lights
through slits. What scientists discovered was the electron stream acted the same was as light proving de
Broglie correct. De Broglie derived his equation using well established theories through the following series
of substitutions: de Broglie first used Einstein's famous equation relating matter and energy:

E=mc2

With E = energy, m = mass, c = speed of light

Using Planck's theory which states every quantum of a wave has a discrete amount of energy given by
Planck's equation:

E=h ν

Since de Broglie believed particles and wave have the same traits, he hypothesized that the two energies
would be equal:
 mc2= h ν

Because real particles do not travel at the speed of light, De Broglie submitted velocity (v) for the speed of
light (c).

mv2=h ν

Through the equation λ de Broglie substituted v/λ for ν and arrived at the final expression that relates
wavelength and particle with speed.

mv2=h c/ λ
λ=h ν/mv2=h/mv

λ= h/mv

There are three symbols in this equation:

a) λ stands for the wavelength of the particle
b) h stands for Planck's Constant
c) p stands for the momentum of the particle

Just above, we developed that p = √(2Em). We can now substitute that into the de Broglie equation:

λ = h/√(2Em)

Other useful expression for de- Broglie wavelength.

1. Non -relativistic (v << c) case
λ=
√ .
2. Acc – Potential (if the particle of mass m and charge q is accn through a potential difference V,
n

.
λ= =
√ √

3. Relativistic (v ≤ c) λ=
√ ( )

6. Matter waves:

Matter waves are a central part of the theory of quantum mechanics, being an example of wave–
particle duality. All matter exhibits wave-like behavior. For example, a beam of electrons can be
diffracted just like a beam of light or a water wave.

Characteristics of Matter Waves:

According to de-Broglie a moving material particle sometimes acts as a wave and sometimes as a
particle. The wave associated with moving particle is called matter wave or de-Broglie wave and it
propagates in the form of wave packets with group velocity.
1) Matter wave represents the probability of finding a particle in space.
2) Matter waves are not electromagnetic in nature.
3) de-Broglie or matter wave is independent of the charge on the material particle. It means, matter wave
of de-Broglie wave is associated with every moving particle (whether charged or uncharged).
4) Practical observation of matter waves is possible only when the de-Broglie wavelength is of the order of
the size of the particles.
5) Electron microscope works based on de-Broglie waves.
6) The phase velocity of the matter waves can be greater than the speed of the light.
7) Matter waves can propagate in vacuum; hence they are not mechanical waves.
8) The number of de-Broglie waves associated with nth orbital electron is n.
9) Only those circular orbits around the nucleus are stable whose circumference is integral multiple of de-
Broglie wavelength associated with the orbital electron.

Example
Problem #1: What is the wavelength of an electron (mass = 9.11 x 10¯31 kg) traveling at 5.31 x 106
m/s?
Solutions:

KE = (1/2) mv2
x = (1/2) (9.11 x 10¯31 kg) (5.31 x 106 m/s)2
x = 1.28433 x 10¯17 kg m2 s¯2
λ = h/p
λ = h/√(2Em)
λ = 6.626 x 10¯34 J s / √ [(2) (1.28433 x 10¯17 J) (9.11 x 10¯31 kg)]
λ = 1.37 x 10¯10 m

Problem #2: What is the wavelength in meters of a proton traveling at 255,000,000 m/s (which is 85%
of the speed of light)? (Assume the mass of the proton to be 1.673 x 10¯27 kg.)

1) Calculate the kinetic energy of the proton:

KE = (1/2) mv2
x = (1/2) (1.673 x 10¯27 kg) (2.55 x 108 m/s)2
x = 5.43934 x 10¯11 J
2) Use the de Broglie equation:
λ = h/p
λ = h/√(2Em)
λ = 6.626 x 10¯34 J s / √ [(2) (5.43934 x 10¯11 J) (1.673 x 10¯27 kg)]
λ = 1.55 x 10¯15 m

Problem #3: Calculate the wavelength (in nanometers) of a H atom (mass = 1.674 x 10-27 kg) moving
at 698 cm/s.
1) Convert cm/s to m/s:
698 cm/s = 6.98 m/s
2) Calculate the kinetic energy of the proton:
KE = (1/2) mv2
x = (1/2) (1.674 x 10¯27 kg) (6.98 m/s)2
x = 5.84226 x 10¯27 J
3) Use the de Broglie equation:
λ = h/p
λ = h/√(2Em)
λ = 6.626 x 10¯34 J s / √[(2) (5.84226 x 10¯27 J) (1.674 x 10¯27 kg)]
λ = 1.50 x 10¯7 m

Problem #4: What is the wavelength of a 5.00 bounce baseball traveling at 100.0 miles per hour? (5.00
oz = 0.14175 kg and 100 mph = 44.70 m/s)
1) Calculate the kinetic energy of the baseball:
KE = (1/2) mv2
x = (1/2) (0.14175 kg) (44.70 m/s)2
x = 141.6146 J (as always, some guard digits)
2) Use the de Broglie equation:
λ = h/p
λ = h/√(2Em)
λ = 6.626 x 10¯34 J s / √ [(2) (141.6146 J) (0.14175 kg)]
λ = 1.046 x 10¯34 m

Problem #5: An atom of helium has a de Broglie wavelength of 4.30 x 10¯12 meter. What is its
velocity?
Solution:

1) Use the de Broglie equation to determine the energy (not momentum) of the atom [note the appearence
of the mass (in kg) of a He atom]:
λ = h/p
λ = h/√(2Em)
4.30 x 10¯12 m = 6.626 x 10¯34 J s / √ [(2) (x) (6.646632348 x 10¯27 kg)]
I dropped the units.

4.30 x 10¯12 times √[(2) (x) (6.646632348 x 10¯27) = 6.626 x 10¯34]

√[(2) (x) (6.646632348 x 10¯27)] = 6.626 x 10¯34 / 4.30 x 10¯12

I divided the right side and then squared both sides.

(2) (x) (6.646632348 x 10¯27) = 2.374466 x 10¯44

x = 1.786217333 x 10¯18 J
2) Use the kinetic energy equation to get the velocity:
KE = (1/2) mv2
1.786217333 x 10¯18 = (1/2) (6.646632348 x 10¯27) v2
v2 = 5.3748 x 108
v = 2.32 x 104 m/s
Problem #6: Calculate the velocity of an electron (mass = 9.10939 x 10¯31 kg) having a de Broglie
wavelength of 269.7 pm

Solution:
1) Convert pm to m:
269.7 pm = 269.7 x 10-12 m = 2.697 x 10-10 m
2) Use the de Broglie equation to determine the energy (not momentum) of the atom:
λ = h/p
λ = h/√(2Em)
2.697 x 10¯10 m = 6.626 x 10¯34 J s / √ [(2) (x) (9.10939 x 10¯31 kg)]
2.697 x 10¯10 times √ [(2) (x) (9.10939 x 10¯31) = 6.626 x 10¯34]
√ [(2) (x) (9.10939 x 10¯31)] = 6.626 x 10¯34 / 2.697 x 10¯10
I divided the right side and then squared both sides.
(2) (x) (9.10939 x 10¯31) = 6.035885 x 10¯48

x = 3.313 x 10¯18 J
3) Use the kinetic energy equation to get the velocity:
KE = (1/2) mv2
3.313 x 10¯18 = (1/2) (9.10939 x 10¯31) v2
v2 = 7.2738 x 1012
v = 2.697 x 106 m/s

Problem #7 : What is the de Broglie wavelength (in nm) of a molecule of buckminsterfullerene (C60),
moving at a speed of 100.0 m/s?

Solution:
1) We need the mass of one C-60 molecule in kilograms:
a) calculate molar mass:
60 x 12.011 = 720.66 g/mol
b) calculate mass of one molecule:
720.66 g/mol divided by 6.022 x 1023 molecules/mol = 1.1967 x 10¯21 g/molecule
c) convert to kilograms:
1.1967 x 10¯21 g/molecule divided by 1000 g/kg = 1.1967 x 10¯24 kg
2) Solve for the kinetic energy:
K.E. = (1/2) (1.1967 x 10¯24 kg) (100.0 m/s)2
K.E. = 5.9835 x 10¯21 J
3) Use λ = h/p:
λ = h/√(2Em)
λ = 6.626 x 10¯34 J s / √[(2) (5.9835 x 10¯21 J) (1.1967 x 10¯24 kg)]
λ = 5.5369 x 10¯12 m
4) Convert to nm:
5.5369 x 10¯12 m times 109 nm / m = 5.537 x 10¯3 nm (to four sig figs)

7. Wave function
 𝝍(𝒓⃗, 𝒕) - In water waves, the quantity that varies periodically is the height of the water surface. In
case of sound waves, it is pressure. In of case of electromagnetic waves, it is electric and magnetic fields.
Similarly, in case of matter waves, the quantity that varies is wave function.
Wave function is a complex quantity (containing real and imaginary parts, i.e. 𝜓  =  𝐴  +
 𝑖𝐵 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒  𝑖  = √−1 ) which depends upon the spatial coordinate 𝑟⃗ (𝑜𝑟, 𝑥⃗, 𝑦⃗, 𝑧⃗) and time ‘𝑡’. The
value of a wave function has no physical significance but a wave function 𝜓 with its complex conjugate
 𝜓 ∗ gives probability ‘P’ of the particle in the interval between  (𝑥,  𝑦,  𝑧) and (𝑥  +  𝑑𝑥,  𝑦  +  𝑑𝑦,  𝑧  +
 𝑑𝑧)at a given time is given as:

𝑃(𝑥,  𝑦,  𝑧) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧  =  𝜓𝜓 ∗ 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧    ⇒   𝑃  =  𝜓𝜓 ∗  

𝑜𝑟, 𝑃  = (𝐴  +  𝑖𝐵)(𝐴  −  𝑖𝐵)   =   𝐴   +  𝐵
The value of probability lies between 0 and 1. Let an intermediate probability is 0.2 means there is
20% chance of finding the particle there. Although the value of a wave function at any time or space may
be positive or negative but its probability can never be negative.
Type of wave functions: The nature of wave functions is two types.
(i) Even wave function- In a wave function𝜓(𝑟⃗, 𝑡), if we replace 𝑟⃗   →   −𝑟⃗ and the function
remains same. The wave function is known as an even wave function. 𝑜𝑟,   𝜓(−𝑟⃗, 𝑡)   =
 𝜓(𝑟⃗, 𝑡).
(ii) Odd wave function- In a wave function𝜓(𝑟⃗, 𝑡), if we replace 𝑟⃗   →   −𝑟⃗ and the function does
not remain same. The wave function is known as an odd wave function. 𝑜𝑟,   𝜓(−𝑟⃗, 𝑡)   =
 −𝜓(𝑟⃗, 𝑡).
Properties of wave functions: These are as follows.
(i) The wave function ‘𝜓’ is finite, single valued and continuous.

(ii) Its first partial derivative of space 𝑖. 𝑒.  ,  ,  is finite, single valued and continuous.

(iii) The wave function must be normalized, i.e. 𝜓 must go to zero as 𝑥  →   ± ∞,  𝑦  →
 ± ∞,   𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧  →   ± ∞ in order that
, ,
|𝜓|  𝑑𝑣  =  𝐶 ( finite constant. )
, ,

It implies that wave function is not normalized. It can be normalized if it is divided by √𝐶.

, ,
|𝜓|  𝑑𝑣  =  1 (𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
, ,
, ,
|𝜓|  𝑑𝑣  =  0 (𝑂𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
, ,

(iv) The wave function must be a solution of Schrödinger’s wave equation.

In 1926, Max Born (German Theoretical Physicist, one of the founder members of Quantum
Mechanics ‘QM’) first introduced the concept of probability of a wave function. In 1954, he got Nobel
Prize for statistical interpretation of the wave function. In QM it is impossible to specify with certainty the
location of the particle, but it is possible to assign probabilities for observing it at any given position.
QM is a dynamical theory like Newtonian mechanics. Both mechanics describe how the state of a
particle changes w.r.t. time when forces acting on the particle.

S.No Quantum Mechanics Newtonian Mechanics

1 In Quantum Mechanics, the state of a particle
at t = 0 requires complete wave function
𝜓(𝑟⃗, 0), i.e. infinite set of numbers
corresponding to the wave function at every
point.
In Newtonian Mechanics the state of a particle
at t = 0 is specified by giving its initial position
𝑟⃗(0) and velocity𝑣⃗(0), i.e. two set of numbers
are required.

2 Here, 𝜓(𝑟⃗, 𝑡) must be calculated from Here, 𝑟⃗(𝑡) and 𝑣⃗(𝑡) are calculated by Newton’s
Schrödinger’s wave equation. II- law of motion.

( ⃗, )
Expectation or average value: The wave equation 𝛻 𝜓(𝑟⃗, 𝑡)   = determines the value
of the physical observable quantities (e.g. position, linear momentum, angular momentum and energy). In
QM we use wave function 𝜓(𝑟⃗, 𝑡) to calculate expected result of the average of many measurements of a
given quantity. The wave function of a given problem in QM contains all the information (e.g. position,
momentum, energy etc.) about the particle that is permitted by the uncertainty principle. The expectation
value of a physical observable quantity must be real because the experimental results of the quantity are
real.

8. Schrödinger’s Wave equations

Quantum (or Wave) Mechanics was developed from 1925 to 1926 by Erwin Schrödinger, Werner
Heisenberg and others make it possible to understand a host of phenomenon involving elementary particles,
atoms, molecules, and solids. In November 1925, Schrödinger gave a talk on de- Broglie’s wave that a
moving particle has a wave character. A colleague remarked him afterward that to deal properly with a
wave one needs a wave equation, Schrödinger took this to his heart. By January of 1926, by treating
the electron as a non- relativistic particle, he introduced his famous equation ‘Schrödinger Wave
Equation’ and obtained the energy value and wave function for hydrogen atom.

Schrödinger’s Wave equation-

Time independent SWE can be derived for a moving particle along one dimension (e.g. x-axis) by
using classical differential wave equation which is derived from second law of motion for mechanical waves
or from Maxwell’s equations for electromagnetic (EM) waves, i.e.,

𝜕 𝜓(𝑥⃗, 𝑡) 1 𝜕 𝜓(𝑥⃗, 𝑡)
 =  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
𝜕𝑥 𝑣 𝜕𝑡
where 𝑣 is the speed of the moving particle or wave, 𝜓(𝑥⃗, 𝑡) is wave function
Let the solution of above equation is given as:
 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡)   =   𝜓  𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡  = 𝜓  𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜋𝜈𝑡 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)
On partially differentiating above equation w.r.t. ‘t’, we get:
𝜕 𝜓(𝑥⃗, 𝑡)
  =   −𝜓 (2𝜋𝜈) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜋𝜈𝑡  = −(2𝜋𝜈) 𝜓 . . . . . . . . . . (3)
𝜕𝑡
( ⃗, )
Substituting the value of from above equation and 𝑣 (= 𝜈𝜆) in equation, we get.

𝜕 𝜓(𝑥⃗, 𝑡) −1
 =  (2𝜋𝜈)
𝜕𝑥 (𝜈𝜆)
𝜕 𝜓(𝑥⃗, 𝑡) 4𝜋
𝑜𝑟    +  𝜓  =  0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (4)
𝜕𝑥 𝜆
ℎ
From de Broglie concept, we have 𝜆  = then above equation becomes as:

𝜕 𝜓(𝑥⃗, 𝑡) 4𝜋 𝑝
 +  𝜓  =  0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (5)
𝜕𝑥 ℎ
In Non-relativistic case
total energy of the particle is the sum of kinetic energy (K.E.) plus potential energy (P.E. or U) given as:
𝑝
𝐸  =  𝐾. 𝐸. + 𝑃. 𝐸. =     +  𝑈(𝑥, 𝑡) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (6)
2𝑚
On substituting the value of 𝑝 from above equation in equation (2.205b), we get:
( ⃗, ) (     )
 +  𝜓  =  0 It is one dimensional time independent SWE.
ℏ

ℎ
where ℏ  =  

By replacing →  𝛻  = 𝚤̂  + 𝚥̂   + 𝑘 and 𝑥⃗   →   𝑟⃗then above equation becomes as:

(     )
 𝛻 𝜓 +   𝜓  =  0 It is 3- D time independent SWE.
ℏ

We can derive Schrödinger’s time dependent wave equation from its time independent wave equation by
eliminating E from it.
Schrödinger considered wave function 𝜓(𝑥⃗, 𝑡) as a complex function of space and time which was
given as:

𝜓(𝑥⃗, 𝑡)   =   𝜓 (𝑥) 𝑒 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)

On partially differentiating above equation w.r.t.‘t’, we get:
𝜕𝜓(𝑥⃗, 𝑡)
  =   𝜓 (𝑥)(−𝑖𝜔)𝑒 = −𝑖𝜔 𝜓(𝑥⃗, 𝑡)
𝜕𝑡
( ⃗, )
𝑜𝑟   = −𝑖  𝜓(𝑥⃗, 𝑡) … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (2) ∵
ℏ
 𝐸
𝜔  =  
ℏ
Substituting the value of 𝐸𝜓(𝑥⃗, 𝑡) from above equation in time independent SWE, we get:
𝜕𝜓
𝜕 𝜓(𝑥⃗, 𝑡) 2𝑚 −𝑖ℏ −  𝑈
𝜕𝑡
 +  𝜓  =  0
𝜕𝑥 ℏ
𝜕𝜓(𝑥⃗, 𝑡) ℏ 𝜕 𝜓(𝑥⃗, 𝑡)
𝑜𝑟 𝑖ℏ  = −   +  𝑈𝜓(𝑥⃗, 𝑡)
𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥
It is Schrödinger’s time dependent wave equation in one dimensional motion of the particle. It can be given
in three dimensional motion of the particle by replacing →  𝛻  = 𝚤̂   + 𝚥̂   + 𝑘 and 𝑥⃗   →   𝑟⃗then
above equation becomes as:

( ⃗, ) ℏ
 𝑖ℏ  = − 𝛻 𝜓(𝑟⃗, 𝑡)  +  𝑈(𝑟⃗, 𝑡)𝜓(𝑟⃗, 𝑡) It is 3- D time dependent SWE.

For a free particle U = 0.

Then the above equation reduces to

𝜕𝜓(𝑟⃗, 𝑡) ℏ
𝑖ℏ  = − 𝛻 𝜓(𝑟⃗, 𝑡) 
𝜕𝑡 2𝑚
Physical significance of Schrödinger’s wave equation:

9. Particle in an infinitely deep potential well

Particle in an infinitely deep potential well; Particle in a finitely deep potential well; Particle in a
box (i.e., three dimensional infinite deep potential well); Tunneling of a particle through a barrier; A
harmonic oscillator; Alpha particle decay, etc.
Here, a particle is restricted to move only in one dimension (e.g. x-axis) between the two potential
barriers. The height of the potential barriers goes to infinite at𝑥 = 0 and x = 𝑎. Here, the one-dimensional
region (−∞  <  𝑥  < ∞ ) can be divided into three regions (Fig.).

Fig no 8: Particle in one dimensional box

 𝑰𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔: 𝑈(𝑥)   =  ∞ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥  ≤  0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎 . . . . . . . .. … (1)

𝑈(𝑥)   =  0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0  < 𝑥  <  𝑎 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . (2)

𝑩𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔: 𝜓(𝑥)   =  0 𝑎𝑡 𝑥  =  0  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3)

𝜓(𝑥)   =  0  𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥  =  0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (4)

In regions I and III the time independent SWE is given as:

 +  (𝐸 − 𝑈)𝜓  =  0 … … … … … … … … … … … … (5) (∵ 𝑈  =  ∞)

ℏ

Here, 𝑈  →  ∞; 𝜓  →  0. Therefore, LHS of eq. (2.3A01) becomes zero so the above equation is ignored
because it is both sides become zero.
Boundary conditions show that outside the potential well the probability density is zero, i.e., the
particle is confined in region II. Thus, we have Schrödinger’s time independent equation in this region as:

𝑑 𝜓 2𝑚
 +  (𝐸 − 𝑈)𝜓  =  0 (∵ 𝑈  =  0)
𝑑𝑥 ℏ
𝑑 𝜓 2𝑚
𝑜𝑟,   +  𝐸𝜓  =  0
𝑑𝑥 ℏ
𝑜𝑟,
𝑑 𝜓
  +   𝑘 𝜓  =  0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (6)
𝑑𝑥
2𝑚
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘  =   𝐸  is wave number.
ℏ
It is convenient to write the solution of the above equation as a sum of sine and cosine rather than
as a sum of exponentials, i.e.
𝜓 (𝑥)   =  𝐴  𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘 𝑥  +  𝐵  𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘 𝑥 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (7)
Now, applying boundary condition at x = 0, we get:
𝜓 (0)   =  𝐴 0  +  𝐵
𝑜𝑟, 0  =  𝐵
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝜓 (𝑎)   =  𝐴  𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘 𝑎 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (8)
𝑂𝑛  applying boundary condition at x = a, we get:
𝑜𝑟,   0 = 𝐴  𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘 𝑎 ⇒  𝐴  ≠  0
∵ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘 𝑎 =  0  =   𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛 𝜋 where n = 1, 2, 3, … .   𝑏𝑢𝑡   ∗ 𝑛  ≠  0
𝑛𝜋
𝑘  =   … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (9)
𝑎
2𝑚
∵ 𝑘 =  𝐸
ℏ
 On equating the above two expressions of k, we get:
𝑛𝜋 2𝑚
  =      𝐸
𝑎 ℏ
( ℏ)
𝑜𝑟,  𝐸   =   … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (10) (𝐸𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)

It is clear from above expression, the spacing between the two consecutive energy levels increases non-
uniformly. Now equation becomes as:
𝑛𝜋
𝜓 (𝑥)   =  𝐴  𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (11)
𝑎
To calculate the value of arbitrary constant ‘A’, we normalized the wave function, i.e.

  𝜓 ∗ (𝑥)𝜓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 =  |𝜓 (𝑥)| 𝑑𝑥  =  1

𝐴 𝑛𝜋 𝐴 2𝑛𝜋
𝑜𝑟,   1  =  2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥  =   1  −    𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥  𝑑𝑥
2 𝑎 2 𝑎
2𝑛𝜋
𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝐴 𝑎 2𝑛𝜋
𝑜𝑟,  1  =   𝑥  −   𝑎  =  (𝑎  −  0)   − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎  −   𝑠𝑖𝑛 0
2 2𝑛𝜋 2 2𝑛𝜋 𝑎
𝑎
𝑜𝑟

2
 𝐴  = . . . . . . . (12)
𝑎

Therefore, the equation becomes as:

2 𝑛𝜋
𝜓 (𝑥)   =   𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥  . . . . (13)  (𝐸𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝑎 𝑎

The normalized wave functions 𝜓 ,   𝜓 ,   𝜓 ,  . . .. together with the probability densities

|𝜓   | ,   |𝜓   | , |𝜓   | , . . . .. are shown in (Fig.) It is clear from Fig. the wave function 𝜓 (𝑥)  may be
positive or negative whereas  |𝜓 (𝑥)| is always positive. At the boundaries of the well, the value of the
probability density is zero.

For 𝑛 = 0 (𝐸 = 0  is not allowed, i. 𝑒. the particle can never be at rest.), the SWE becomes
as    =  0, whose solution is given by 𝜓 (𝑥)   =  𝐴 𝑥  +  𝐵 . The wave function vanishesat 𝑥 =
0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 𝑎, both A and B arbitrary constants must be zero, leaving 𝜓(𝑥) = 0 everywhere. That is the
particle is nowhere found in this state. The minimum 𝐸 value of energy is called zero-point energy. The
inclusion of −𝑣𝑒 integers (𝑖. 𝑒. ,  𝑛  <  0) produces no new states, because change in the sign of 𝑛 only
changes the sign of wave function, leading to the same probability as for +𝑣𝑒 integers.
 Fig no 9: Wave nature of light

Problem #13 A particle limited to x- axis has the wave function   ax between x  0 and x  1 .
(a) Find the probability that the particle can be found between x  0.45 and x  0.55. (b) Find the
expectation value x of the particle position.

.
.
Sol: (𝑎) The probability 𝑃  =   ∫ 𝜓 ∗ 𝜓 𝑑𝑥   = ∫ . (𝑎𝑥) 𝑑𝑥  =   𝑎
.
=  [(0.55)   −   (0.45) ]   =  0.075𝑎

1
1
 x 4  a2
1

 b  The expectation value x    x dx   a x dx  a    2 3 2

x 0 x 0  4 0 4
Problem #14 Find the probability that a particle trapped in one dimensional box of width ‘a’ can be
found 0.45a and 0.55a for the ground and first excited state.

𝑆𝑜𝑙. − In ground state probability 𝑃 ,

 =  𝜓 ∗ 𝜓 𝑑𝑥 =   |𝜓 | 𝑑𝑥 

. . .
2 𝜋𝑥 2 𝜋𝑥 1 2𝜋𝑥
=  𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑥   =   𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑥   =   1  −  𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑑𝑥  
. 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 . 𝑎 𝑎 . 𝑎
.
2𝜋𝑥
1 𝑠𝑖𝑛
=     𝑥  −   𝑎
𝑎 2𝜋
𝑎 .
 1 𝑎 2𝜋0.55𝑎 2𝜋0.45𝑎
=     (0.55𝑎  −  0.45𝑎)   −   𝑠𝑖𝑛   −   𝑠𝑖𝑛  
𝑎 2𝜋 𝑎 𝑎
1
=  0.1  − (𝑠𝑖𝑛 1 . 1𝜋  − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 0 . 9𝜋)
2𝜋
.
=  0.1  − (− 𝑠𝑖𝑛 1 8   − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 1 8 ) =  0.1  − =  0.1  −   =  0.198  =  19.8%
.

x2 x2

In I- excited state probability P ' x1, x2    2 2 dx    2 dx

2

x1 x1
2
 2
0.55 a
2 x  1
0.55 a
x 1
0.55 a
 4 x 
   sin  dx   2sin 2 dx    1  cos  dx
0.45 a 
a a  a 0.45 a a a 0.45 a 
a 
0.55 a
  4 x 
1  sin a 
 x   
a  4 
  a  0.45 a

1  4 0.55 a 4 0.45 a  
 0.55 a  0.45 a    sin
a 1
   sin    0.1   sin 2.2  sin 1.8 
a  4  a a  4
1 2 sin 36 0 0.5878
 0.1 
4
 sin 36 0  sin 36 0   0.1 
4
 0.1 
6.28
 0.00640  .64%

Problem #15 Find the expectation value of x the position of a particle trapped in cubic box of
dimension ‘L’.
2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑆𝑜𝑙. − ⟨𝑥⟩   =   𝜓 ∗ 𝑥𝜓 𝑑𝑥  =   𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑥 
𝐿 𝐿
1 𝑛𝜋𝑥 1 2𝑛𝜋𝑥
=  𝑥2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑥   =   𝑥 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
2𝑛𝜋𝑥 2𝑛𝜋𝑥
1 𝑥 2𝑛𝜋𝑥 1 𝐿 1 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐿 1. 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝐿 𝑑𝑥
=    −  𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑑𝑥   =     −   − 
𝐿 2 𝐿 𝐿 2 𝐿 2𝑛𝜋𝑥 2𝑛𝜋
𝐿 𝐿
𝐿 1 2𝑛𝜋𝐿 1 𝐿 2𝑛𝜋𝑥
=     −  𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛   −  0   +  𝑐𝑜𝑠  
2 2𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝐿 𝐿 2𝑛𝜋 𝐿
𝐿 𝐿 2𝑛𝜋𝐿
=     −  0  +  𝑐𝑜𝑠   −  1
2 (2𝑛𝜋) 𝐿
𝐿
= 
2
Problem #16 Calculate the probability of finding an electron inside a box of dimension 0 to L/2.

𝑆𝑜𝑙 −  The wave function corresponding to nth state is given by

 2 𝑛𝜋𝑥 4 2𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝜓 (𝑥)   =    𝑠𝑖𝑛  =   𝑠𝑖𝑛 . . . . . . . (1)
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
2 2

4 2𝑛𝜋𝑥 4 2𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑃𝑟 𝑜 𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑃  =    𝑠𝑖𝑛  𝑑𝑥  =   𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿

4𝑛𝜋𝑥
2 4𝑛𝜋𝑥 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐿 2𝐿
= 1  −  𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑑𝑥   =   𝑥  −    =    −  0
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 4𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝐿2
𝐿

=  1

9. Compton effect :(1892-1962, American Physicist)

According to quantum theory the scattered radiations have two frequencies: the original unmodified
frequency 𝜈 (or wavelength ‘𝜆’) and modified frequency 𝜈 (or wavelength ‘𝜆 ’). The original
unmodified frequency v (or wavelength ‘𝜆’) is obtained by scattering of incident photon with bound
electron of the atom whereas the modified frequency 𝜈 (or wavelength ‘𝜆 ’) is obtained by scattering
of incident photon with free (or valance) electron of the atom. These frequencies (𝜈and𝜈 ) or
wavelengths (𝜆 and𝜆 ) are observed simultaneously. It is observed that the difference between
modified and unmodified frequencies 𝜟𝝂(=  𝝂 −   𝝂 ) (or wavelength 𝜟𝝀(= 𝝀 −  𝝀)) increases
(or decreases) with the angle of scattering of the incident radiation but it is independent of the
frequency (or wavelength) of the incident radiation. This is known as Compton Effect.

Fig no 10: Compton effect.

Let an x- ray photon of frequency 𝜈 moving along the x-axis collide with a free electron place at
the origin ‘o’ of the Cartesian co-ordinate system at rest (Fig. 1.4b). Here, some part of energy ℎ𝜈of the
incident photon is utilized to recoil the electron with velocity 𝑣 at an angle 𝜙 and the rest energy comes out
in the form of a scattered photon of energyℎ𝜈 at an angle𝜃. Let the rest mass of the free electron is 𝑚 .
From the concept of variation of mass, we have:
𝑚
𝑚  =   . . . . . . . . (1)
𝑣
1  −  
𝑐

where m is moving mass of the electron and c is speed of light.

By applying the principle of conservation of relativistic energy, we have:

ℎ𝜈  +   𝑚 𝑐   =  ℎ𝜈   +  𝑚𝑐

𝑜𝑟,  𝑚𝑐   =   𝑚 𝑐   +  ℎ(𝜈  −   𝜈 ) . . . . . . . . (2)

By applying the principle of conservation of relativistic momentum along x- axis, we have:
ℎ𝜈 ℎ𝜈
  +  0  =   𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃   +  𝑚𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙
𝑐 𝑐

𝑜𝑟,  𝑐𝑚𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙   =  ℎ(𝜈  − 𝜈 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃) . . . . . . . . (3)

By applying the principle of conservation of relativistic momentum along y- axis, we have:
ℎ𝜈
0  +  0  =   𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃   −  𝑚𝑣 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙
𝑐

𝑜𝑟,  𝑐𝑚𝑣 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙   =  ℎ𝜈 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 . . . . . . . . (4)

On squaring and adding of eq. (1.403) and eq. (1.403), we get:

𝑐 𝑚 𝑣   =   ℎ (𝜈   −  2𝜈𝜈 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃   +   𝜈 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 )   +   ℎ  𝜈 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

𝑜𝑟, 𝑐 𝑚 𝑣   =   ℎ (𝜈   −  2𝜈𝜈 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃   +   𝜈  ) . . . . . . . . (5)

On squaring eq. (1.402), we get:

𝑚 𝑐   =   𝑚 𝑐   +  2𝑚 𝑐  ℎ(𝜈  −   𝜈 )   +   ℎ (𝜈   −  2𝜈𝜈   +   𝜈 ) . . . . . . . . (5)

By subtracting eq. (1.405) from eq. (1.406), we get:

𝑚 𝑐   −  𝑐 𝑚 𝑣  
=   𝑚 𝑐   +  2𝑚 𝑐  ℎ(𝜈  −   𝜈 )  +   ℎ (𝜈   −  2𝜈𝜈   +  𝜈 )
− ℎ (𝜈   −  2𝜈𝜈 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃   +   𝜈  )

𝑣
𝑜𝑟, 𝑚 𝑐 1  − =   𝑚 𝑐   +  2𝑚 𝑐  ℎ(𝜈  −   𝜈 )   +   ℎ [2𝜈𝜈 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃   −  1)]
𝑐
 𝑚 𝑐 𝑣
𝑜𝑟, 1  − =   𝑚 𝑐   +  2𝑚 𝑐  ℎ(𝜈  −   𝜈 )   +   ℎ [2𝜈𝜈 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃   −  1)]
𝑣 𝑐
1  −
𝑐

𝑜𝑟, 2𝑚 𝑐  ℎ(𝜈  −  𝜈 )   =   ℎ [2𝜈𝜈 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 )]

𝜈  −  𝜈 ℎ
𝑜𝑟,  =  (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 )
𝜈 𝜈 𝑚 𝑐

1 1 ℎ
𝑜𝑟,   −    =   (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 ) . . . . . . (6)
𝜈 𝜈 𝑚 𝑐

we known 𝑐  =  𝜈𝜆,  then above equation becomes as:

𝜆   − 𝜆  =   (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 ) . . . . . . . (7)

Eq.7 shows that Compton shift 𝛥𝜆 (= 𝜆   − 𝜆) is depends on the scattering angle 𝜃 but it is independent of
frequency (or wavelength) of incident radiation. 𝜆  (=  ) =  0.02424Å is known as Compton
wavelength. If the incident photon is interacting with the electron of inner shell (i.e. bound electrons), then
the whole atom of mass ‘M’ recoil instead of an electron of mass𝑚 . Therefore, becomes as:
ℎ
𝜆   − 𝜆  =   (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 ) . . . . . . . (8)
𝑀𝑐
For the lightest atom, hydrogen, 𝑀  =  1836 𝑚 .
.02424
(𝛥𝜆) = Å

Case 1- If 𝜃  =   0 , then 𝛥𝜆  =  0 𝑜𝑟, 𝜆   = 𝜆, i.e. no change in wavelength is observed in the direction
of incident radiation.
Case 2- If 𝜃  =  90 , then𝛥𝜆  =   𝜆 .
Case 3- If 𝜃  =  180 , then (𝛥𝜆)𝑐 .

Direction of recoil electron:

On dividing eq. (3) by eq. (4), we get:
𝜈 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙   =   . . . . . . . (9)
𝜈  −   𝜈 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
We have equations
𝜃
1 1 ℎ 1 ℎ𝜈 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
  =   +  (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 )   =     1  + 
𝜈 𝜈 𝑚 𝑐 𝜈 𝑚 𝑐
 𝜈
𝑜𝑟, 𝜈  =  . . . . . . . (10)
𝜃
ℎ𝜈 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛
1  +   2
𝑚 𝑐
we have:
𝜈
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝜃
ℎ𝜈 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛
1  +  2 𝜃 𝜃
𝑚 𝑐 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙   =    =  2 2
𝜈 𝜃
𝜈  −   𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 ℎ𝜈 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝜃 2   −   (1  − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
ℎ𝜈 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 1  +   )
1  +   2 𝑚 𝑐 2
𝑚 𝑐
𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠
  =  2  
𝜃 ℎ𝜈 
𝑠𝑖𝑛 (1  +   )
2 𝑚 𝑐
𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑡
𝑜𝑟, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙   = =   2 . . . . . . . (11)
ℎ𝜈 
1  +  
𝑚 𝑐

Energy of recoil electron:

Kinetic energy ‘K.E.’ of recoil electron is provided by the decrease in energy of the incident photon.
𝜈 𝜆 𝜆   −  𝜆
𝐾. 𝐸. =  ℎ𝜈  −   ℎ𝜈   =   ℎ𝜈 1  −     =   ℎ𝜈 1  −     =   ℎ𝜈 . . . . . . . (12)
𝜈 𝜆 𝜆

Putting the value of from eq. (1.407b) in eq. (1.411), we have:

ℎ ℎ𝜈𝜆
𝛥𝜆 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 ) ℎ𝜈 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 )
𝑚 𝑐 𝑚 𝑐
𝑜𝑟, 𝐾. 𝐸. =  ℎ𝜈   =  ℎ𝜈  = 
𝜆  +  𝛥𝜆 ℎ 𝜆 1  + ℎ𝜈 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 ) 
𝜆  + 𝑚 𝑐 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 )
𝑚 𝑐

ℎ 𝜈
(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 )
𝑚 𝑐
𝑜𝑟, 𝐾. 𝐸. =   . . . . . . . (13)
ℎ𝜈
1  + (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 )
𝑚 𝑐

Case 1- If 𝜃  =   0 , then 𝐾. 𝐸. =  0  ⇒Minimum energy is transferred to the electron by the incident
photon is zero.

Case 2- If 𝜃  =  90 , then 𝐾. 𝐸. =     <  1.

 

Case 3- If 𝜃  =  180 , then 𝐾. 𝐸. =     <  1 ⇒ Maximum energy of the incident photon is
 

transferred to the electron. Thus, we can say that the photons of X- rays are unable to transfer its whole
energy to the free electron of a light atom.
Importance of Compton effect
It gives direct proof for the followings:(i) particle nature of light, (ii) validity of the relativistic mass
formula, (iii) correctness of energy and momentum expression of the radiation, and (iv) the law of
conservation of energy and momentum.

Limitations of Compton’s theory:

The theory justified the presence of X- rays of longer wavelength (𝜆 ) in the scattered beam, but
gave no explanation of the presence of X- rays of the same wavelength (𝜆) as that of the incident x- rays.
The unmodified radiation ℎ𝜈 in the scattered beam occurs due to the collision between a photon and a bound
electron. Since electrons are bounded to atoms due to electrostatic forces of attraction, therefore, a certain
amount of energy is required to detach an electron from an atom. It is obvious from Compton Effect
radiation energy is quantized.
Note: Visible light (𝜆:  4000 − 7800Å) cannot be used to demonstrate Compton effect because its
corresponding energy (𝐸: 2.0 −  3.0 𝑒𝑉) which is very lesser than the binding energy of electron in
hydrogen atom (𝐸 . .   =  13.6 𝑒𝑉). Ultraviolet light of energy (𝐸 ∼  10 𝑒𝑉) cannot show this effect.
Thus, the valance shell’s electrons of a light atom (e.g., hydrogen, carbon etc.) can be treated as free electron
for 𝛾 −  𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠 and 𝑋 −  𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠 but not for visible or U.V.

Problem #12 An X- Ray of wavelength 0.050 nm scattered from a gold target. (a) Can the X- Ray
be Compton scattered from an electron bound by 62,000eV ? (b) What is the target wavelength of
scattered photon that can be observed? (c) What is the kinetic energy of the most energetic recoil
electron and at what angle does it occur?

Sol. Given:   0.050 Å and   62, 000 eV .

hc 6.626  1034  3  108

(a) E    3.98  1015 J  24,875 eV
 0.05  109

The X-Ray does not have sufficient energy to remove the bound electron because it is much smaller than
the given bound electron’s energy ( 62,000 eV ). The X- Ray energy ( 24,875 eV ) can remove the electron
of outer shell (i.e. valance electron).
(b) The target longest wavelength of scattered photon that can be observed is given as:

h
( ) max    (1  cos1800 )  0.050  2  0.002424  0.054848 nm
me c

(c)The energy of the scattered photon is

hc 6.626  1034  3  108

E    3.6242 J  22.651 keV
 0.054848  109

K.E. of recoil electron = E - E = 24.875 - 22.651 = 2.224 keV

The direction of recoil electron is given by:
 cot  2 cot 900
tan       00
h h
1 1
m0 c 2 m0 c 2

This shows that the recoil electron must scattered in the forward direction (i.e.   00 ) when
the scattered photon in the backward direction (i.e.   1800 ) in order to conserve momentum.

Davisson and Germer Experiment:

for the first time, proved the wave nature of electrons and verified the de Broglie equation. de
Broglie argued the dual nature of matter back in 1924, but it was only later that Davisson and
Germer experiment verified the results. The results established the first experimental proof of
quantum mechanics. In this experiment, we will study the scattering of electrons by a Ni crystal.
Let’s find out more.

An electron beam from an electron gun then is fired at the nickel crystal. The
electron gun was a heated tungsten filament. The thermally excited electrons were
then accelerated through an electric potential difference, giving them a certain
amount of kinetic energy, towards the nickel crystal. The experiment was conducted
in a vacuum chamber to avoid collisions of the electrons with other atoms on their
way. To measure the number of electrons that were scattered at different angles, a
faraday cup electron detector was used. The number of reflected electrons varied as
the angle between the detector and the incident electron beam varied. The detector
was designed to accept only elastically scattered electrons with high velocity at
angles between 20 ͦ and 90

When the angle between the incident beam and the scattered beam become 50 ͦ the
detector shows maximum numbers of electron scattering. The maximum numbers of
reflected electrons in the detector indicate that electrons are being diffracted. In such
a case applying Bragg’s law we can write, 2d sin θ = n λ here θ is Glancing angle so
λ = 2x 0.91x sin 65 ͦ for nickel d = 0.91 A ͦ = 1.82x 0.9063 =1.65 A ͦ and for 1st order
n=1 λ = 1.65 A iͦ s the experimental value of wavelength associated with an electron
considering it to be associated with a wave.

Again the wave length associated with an electron, moving under a potential difference of 54 volt is
calculated using de Broglie’s hypothesis as E= 54 eV =54 x1.6x10−19 J Now we know that de Broglie
wavelength λ = ℎ 𝑚𝑣 = ℎ √2𝑚𝐸 = 6.6×10−34 √2×9.1×10−31×54×1.6×10−19 =1.66 A ͦ This shows that the
wavelength of matter wave according to de Broglie hypothesis is very close to the wavelength measured
for electrons classically applying Bragg’s law. This prove that matter also associated with waves. *
Phase velocity and group velocity
What is Group Velocity?
The Group Velocity of a Wave is defined as the Velocity at which an entire envelope of Waves
moves through a medium. A most common Example, in this case, can be that of throwing
stones in a water body which causes multiple Waves on the surface of water.
On throwing the stone, a ripple is created around the point where the stone drops. The ripple is
formed of small Wavelets which propagate away from the dropping point in multiple directions.
Here, a Wavelet having the shortest Wavelength propagates faster than others.
However, to understand what Group Velocity is, you should also have an idea of simple
harmonic motion too. This will help you in understanding the concepts better and in a more
natural way.
What is Phase Velocity?
Considering the fact that a Wave consists of two significant parts crest and trough, its Phase
Velocity is also dependent on the same. Students should have prior knowledge of it to
understand what Phase Velocity is. It is the Velocity at which a specific component of a Wave,
say crest, propagates in space. This feature or Velocity is directly dependent on the time period
and Wavelength. Alongside, you should also be clear about the relation between Phase Velocity
and Group Velocity. For such understanding, knowing the mathematical formula or
representation is highly beneficial.

Relation Between Group Velocity and Phase Velocity Equation

 Wave, in general, refers to the dynamic disturbances propagated into a medium through
another stimulus.
 The packet of waves traverses in space and their velocity is termed as the Group Velocity
or the modulation of waves.
 However, the waves also travel in the phase leading to the calculation of Phase Velocity.
 The Phase Velocity is easily impacted by the other associated elements like the
wavelength, frequency or the time taken for travel.
 Phase Velocity and group velocity are proportional to each other:
o On an increase in group velocity, the phase velocity also increases.
o On an increase in the phase velocity, the group velocity also increases.
NOTE: Previous year university question
1. Discuss the dual nature of matter and waves. (UPTU, B-TECH. I SEM 2001)
2. What do you understand by wave packet? (UPTU, B-TECH. II SEM 2001,2017,2019)
3. What are the salient features of black- body radiation? (UPTU, B-TECH. I SEM 20012,13)
4. Find the de-Broglie wavelength of an electron of energy V eV. (UPTU, B-TECH. I SEM 2002)
5. Deduce an experiment for de Broglie wavelength of helium atom having energy at temperature TK.
(UPTU, B-TECH. I SEM 2004)
6. Derive time dependent Schrödinger equations. (UPTU, B-TECH. II SEM 2004)
7. What is physical significance of wave function. (UPTU, B-TECH. II SEM ,2005,2006,2008,2010)
8. Find an expression for the energy state of particle in one dimensional box. (UPTU, B-TECH. II
SEM 2005,2007,2009,2010,2012,2014,)
9. Derive Compton shift? How does it support the photon nature of light? (UPTU, B-TECH. I and II
SEM 2005,2006,2008,2010,2018,2019)
10. Show than Compton effect is not observed in visible light? (UPTU, B-TECH.I-SEM
20014,2015,2018)

11. Show that A e 

i k x t
is a solution of time dependent Schrödinger wave equation in case of non-
relativistic. (UPTU, B-TECH. I- SEM 2004)
12. Why is x- ray photons used to observe the Compton Effect, rather than visible- light photons?
Calculate the Compton shift for scattering at 900 from graphite, (a)  - rays of wavelength λ =
0.0106 Å from cobalt (b) x- rays of wavelength λ = 0.712 Å from molybdenum and (c) green
light of wavelength λ = 5461 Å from mercury lamp. [Hint: Calculate the fractional change in
wavelength   .] (UPTU, B-TECH. I- SEM 20014,2015,2016)

Important e- link

1. https://nptel.ac.in/
2. https://www.khanacademy.org/
3. https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/quantum-physics