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    Dsl The Autonomy = Approach Language learning in the classroom and beyond Brian N DELTA TEACHER DEVELOPMENT SERIES DT DSi DELTA TEACHER DEVELOPMENT SERIES Series editors Mike Burghall and Lindsay Clandfield The Autonomy Approach Language learning in the classroom and beyond Brian Morrison and Diego Navarro Published by DELTA PUBLISHING Quince Cottage Hoe Lane Peaslake Surrey GUS 95W England swwvedeltapublishing.co.uke © Delta Publishing 2014 ISBN 978-1-909783-05-8 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, secording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publishers. Edited by Mike Burghall Designed by Christine Cox Cover photo © mycola/Shutterstock.com Printed in Greece by Bakis AEBE Dedications Bob would like to dedicate this book to Chie and Stanley. Diego would like to dedicate this book to Yumiko, Aral and Nico. Acknowledgements ‘We both owea massive debt of gratitude to everyone from our intial teacher trainers to colleagues who aye mentored, shared and given us feedback along the way, afd to our wider ‘communities of practice’ who have informed us through their writing, presentations and discussions. “These people have shaped our ideas by sharing theirs ~and ‘encouraging us to confront our assumptions, which has influenced our journey in the field of education. We particularly acknowledge the part thatthe learning advisors ~ past and present ~ at Kanda University of International Studies in Japan have played in our application ‘of the concepts and activities in this book. Each and every one of them has developed our skills and understanding through their perceptions, creativity, ‘questions and challenges. ‘This book owes much to the talents of Mike Burghall and Christine Cox, for their collaboration and dedication to patter, form and function, Thank you for the magic. From the authors ‘any years, we kept hearing about learner autonomy individualised learning — approaches to language cation designed to foster student responsibility ~ srough various grapevines, from academic literature to schers’ conferences and newsletters ‘we both still had very little idea of how to apply these concepts to our contexts. Statements like ‘Allow your students take control over their learning’ ox ‘Help your students devel a greater sense of ownership over their studies’ sounded good on paper but we simply didn't know how to zo about doing this. ‘How could we give our students more control? ow could we ensure that this control would havea postive effect on their learning? ‘We both shared similar thoughts, in spite of our diverse experiences in different continents teaching ina variety of tutions (language schools, colleges, government sninstries and universities). We both experimented with vities to encourage more earner-Led learning, and hough we made steady but slow progress as we developed piloted new ideas we sil felt there was alot missing. Working alongside our colleagues both in the public and rate sector —as teachers, directors of studies and teacher tcainers—we did our best to come up with activities to ate individualised learning into our classrooms and tutorials, However, looking back at much of what we did ‘hen, we can see that, as well-intentioned as our top-down, sproach was it was directive: and although it was cdent-centred it was almost all teacher-led, Much of what we did then, we would not do now —now that we have a ‘ner understanding of how personalised learning can be fectively implemented. te breakthrough came when we both started work in 2009 Kanda University of International Studies (KUIS), Japan. A KUIS, we were employed specifically to work with groups 3 individual university students on their self-directed language learning, We met during our orientation and agreed «this was exactly the opportunity we needed. We set off We were eager and excited in our roles as learning advisors: + role that promised to show us a new way of doing what ‘we had been trying to do for so long. + Arole that would introduce us to an effective approach to second language acquisition that could teach us how to facilitate the act of learning rather than direct it. + Arole that could provide us with the techniques to help us ‘transfer control of the earning process to our learners. ‘But then something happened — we stumbled and fell. It became clear at this stage of our careers that, in academia, ‘much was written on the many facets of learner autonomy and learner control, but the lack of resource books in this area made it very difficult for teachers and advisors like us to access activities rather than ideas, In other words, there was really nothing out therein terms of materials or plans that could help us figure out how to do what we had been hearing about and wanting to do. Weset off again. We searched for resources and ideas: we debated and discussed: we read whatever we could get our hands on, to explain to usin a clear way how to do what we were hired to do, We were trained as advisors, but we were also asked to create class-based courses in self-directed learning, first for English and then for other languages. In our search for practical ideas, we came across the field of Adult Education {and the closely-related theory of adult earning: Andragogy) ~ more specifically the concept of self-directed learning within this fil. In our exploration of the literature of self-directed learning: © We were able to find concrete ideas and examples of. activities that helped us, through a process of trial and error to bridge the gap between the theory and practice of effective learner contro ‘© We were able to take many interesting ideas from this field and adapt them to our language learning context. We were on our way Since this discovery, we have experimented with many activities and materials inside and outside the classroom environment, with groups and individual lamers, revising and cultivating our approach and developing a bank of resources that provides a range of activities for teachers to select from ~ depending on their context —to either supplement their classes or to develop an entire syllabus. ‘We have been focused on our own continuous professional ‘development and been involved with the training of others. ‘Our aim with The Autonomy Approach isto provide, for the first time, resources and activities for professional development for those professional language educators ‘who are looking for new and innovative ways to guide and support thei students as they direct their own learning. Our hope is that you will find the ideas and the activities in this book practical and flexible enough to implement in your wn particular context and in your own particular way. Ea Day From the authors Chapter One Starting with expectations What do I need to know? ‘What do you expect? Let's negotiate Believe me when Isay .. ‘My language learning beliefs ‘Are you ready? ‘Are you prepared? ast motivations Ongoing motivations Comfort zones ‘Skills and feelings ‘Were all inthis together A question of confidence Chapter Two Goal-setting and diagnostics want to be able to... really want to beable to... My future self Future situations Evaluating speaking Contents Page 3 Page? Page 25 Page 27 Page 28 Page 30 Page 31 Page 32 Page 34 Page 35 Page 36 Page 38, Page 38 Page 39 Page 40 Page 41 Page 42 Page 43 Page 44 Page 45 Page 46 Page 47 Page 48 Evaluating listening, Evaluating reading Evaluating writing Bvaluating exam performance Keeping records Chapter Three Choosing and using resources ‘Treasure hunt Site search Working with others ‘Choosing then using All change! Collecting and sharing Is not what you do ... Time is of the essence Resource appraisal Lifestyles and learning spaces Chapter Four Spotlighting strategies What's the difference? Break it down! ‘To read or not to read? ‘Tolisten or not to listen? Getting ready to write Getting ready to speak Reading in action Page 50 Page 51 Page 52 Page 54 Page 56 Page 58 Page 59 Page 60 Page 61 Page 62 Page 62 Page 63 Page 64 Page 6 Page 67 Page 68 Page 69 Page 70 Page 71 Page 72 Page 74 age 76 Page 78 Page 80 Listening in action ‘Weiting inaction Spesking in action Post reading strategies Postistening strategies os-writing strategies Post-speaking strategies Select, note and memorise! ‘Chapter Five Developing a learning plan Killing two birds ‘Week by week Month by month PURE plans SMART targets Individual development plans Time wel spent? Evaluating the experience (Chapter Six ‘Tracking learning “ake note! ‘Check out the chunks ‘Weekly logging Daily loging Skills journals Contents Page 82 Page 84 Page 86 Page 88 Page 90 Page 2 Page 94 Page 96 Page 98 Page 99 Page 101 Page 102 Page 103 Page 104 Page 106 Page 108 Page 110 Page 111 Page 112 Page 114 Page 115 Page 116 Page 118, ‘Chapter Seven, Evaluating progress Let’ see where we are How are we doing? Are you receiving met Are we geting there? ‘Am Ton the right track? ‘Am I doing it right? Did I hear you right? Reading digest Chapter Eight Measuring development IME analysis 1 IME analysis I Rethinking ... and reacting Researching ... and reacting Reaching out ... and reacting From the editors From the publisher Page 120 Page 121 Page 122 Page 123 Page 124 Page 126 Page 128 Page 129 Page 130 Page 131 Page 132 Page 134 Page 137, Page 139 Page 146 Page 153 Page 159 Page 160 | really believed that | was ‘on the right track, but that did not mean that | would necessarily reach my goal. Sir Andrew John Wiles Bish mathematician (1959-) Leamers set their own janguage leaming goals, and reach these goals in ways which interest them and co-exist with their ifestyle, not just their learning style | | | The Autonomy Approach ‘The concept of self-directed learning and the rationale behind the development of learner autonomy has been with us, and widely accepted, for over three decades. «© Ithas risen to increasing prominence as a result ofthe political wll to widen participation in post-compulsory education, particularly in further and higher education. ‘ Ithas gained even more acceptance within life-long learning and continuous professional development, concepts which are common both in the field of education and in the workplace. ‘This increase in interest has been accompanied by an increase in academic publications, to the point where not only do academic journals frequently publish articles om self-directed learning and autonomy development, but new journals now exist which deal exclusively with such content. Nevertheless in spite ofthe academic interest, only afew books exis for a more general teacher readership, and these tend to focus on teacher-led study skis In contrast, there is a need to approach, and concentrate on, the process of language learning and student-generated study skills: conscious move from student-centred to student-led language learning activities. In other words, where students would set their own language learning goals and would be supported — through the selection of resources and activites ~ to reach these goals in ways which are effective, which ae of real interest to them and which «an co-exist with each learners lifsyle, not just their learning tpl: ‘* They would prepare inthe classroom to focus on content and language skills oftheir own choosing outside the classroom. ‘© They would satisfy their enthusiasm for learning particular content, filling gaps in knowledge and skills which will facilitate the falllment of their potential. With The Autonomy Approach, much of the language learning that takes place is designed to take place away from teacher control and beyorud the classroom. Our purpose isto provide practical activities that can be used by teachers and learning advisors to support our learners to help themsehes, while also supporting educators like ourselves through professional development activites. Finally although this book refers to English as the target language, we have used the Autonomy Approach to help students think about their Portuguese, Thai, Spanish and Indonesian language learning, amongst others. We di this without knowledge ofthe target language of intially, of the resources available, yt the results were equally valid: ‘© The students took on more responsibility, both for themselves and for their fellow learners. ‘© They exercised their own judgement. And the leamers became the experts of their own language learning. Selt-directed language learning is en eclectic combination: the result of taking the best elements of the distinct catagories of learning. Approaching autonomy “The challenge for [adult] educators is to assist people to reach their full potential, to ‘maximize their opportunities, and to accomplish individual goals. However, all this must ‘be achieved within a social context. Whether at the level of the individual, the group, the ‘community, the society, or humankind general, learning in its fullest sense is @ social activity, and the attainment of full personal autonomy ~ both in learning and outside it~ ‘must recognize this interdependence.” Philp ©. Candy Activites which fll under the umbrella of learner autonomy have been given a variety of labels, including ‘individualised learning, self-directed learning’ and ‘study skills: These practices recognise differences amongst learners, and practitioners cater for and encourage this diversity. Such practices tend to be placed on a continuum of choice although, because of this emphasis on choice, these terms are sometimes used synonymously with each other or are simply labelled as learner autonomy’ in spite of being created to refer to specific types of teaching and learning, For example, teaching study skills for language learning’ is often done to provide learners with the ability to then go on to cope with the target language directly and learn effectively with minimum support from a teacher, and so is also considered by some teachers ~and publishers —as developing learner autonomy. ‘While some kind of learner training isan important aspect of course aiming for outcomes that include greater learner autonomy, focus on study skis likely to require supplementing with other activities to support and guide learners through the trial-and-error experimentation that is alla part ofthe learning process By cherry-picking the best elements of the distinct categories of learning listed belovs it is possible to end up with an eclectic combination that we shall refer to throughout ‘The Autonomy Approach as‘self-directed language learning. Within the types of earning we describe that are often associated with learner autonomy, both a range of freedom and a range of teacher support are possible, The following explanations are but brief summaries, to give an idea of how each term is commonly applied. Differentiated learning ‘One of the interesting developments in ID (individual differences) research is to move from regarding influences, such as aptitude (motivation; learner strategies; learner styles), 4s invariant and unidirectional in influence and instead seeing how instruction can be adapted to take account of the characteristics of learners, and thereby become more: cfficiont.” Peter Skehan® This isan approach originating inthe feld of Cognitive Linguistic that recognises the difference in learners ability indifferent skills areas. A vast amount of esearch has been conclucted on individual differences, and itis most commonly associated with terms such as ‘Tearer styles’ and ‘cognitive spe. In practice the teacher ofien produces several versions of either a task ora text ~a range of levels to cater for the range of proficiences inthe lasstoom. This often teacher-led in terms ofthe materials used, but the classes are both student-centred~ in the way the tasks ate implemented ~ and student-led to a degre, if the students are allowed to choose which Jevel they want to work at on any particular day. This concept of producing a variety of tasks aimed at different levels should feed through to material production for self-access centres. The idea of allowing students to choose materials above or below ther‘level isan interesting one ~ catering for different levels and offering choice are therefore a good fit with self-directed language learning, as we shall se. There is no reason for vidualised learning be isolated learning, can often involve Je=ming with others 22 irom others, People wiho take the ritiative in learning learn much more, and learn much better, than those who don't Individualised (or personalised) learning ‘Well-meaning and pupi-centric sentiments such as ‘Personalized Learning’ have beon ‘scrapped because no-one could truly define what it meant or how it could be done.” Richard Gerver? ‘This focuses on the needs and wants of individual learners. Learners are taken through the process of designing, implementing and evaluating an individual learning plan. This particular area of learning allows for a blend of classroom and out-of class activities — such, as online, self-access centre or community interactions. ‘There is more potential freedom than in differentiated learning, however this is by no ‘means guaranteed. Inthe past, both of us ~ along with our colleagues — have ‘personalised’ learning as part of institutional policy (indifferent institutions) in one-to-one tutorials, by prescribing exactly what the student should do. In some schools and universities, individualised learning has been implemented by taking the students en masse to the language lab/computer lab/self-access centre and asking them to choose something to get on with ~ individually, While ‘individualised’ learning is sometimes mistakenly considered as ‘individual learning, there is no reason for this to be isolated learning, Individualised learning often involves learning with others and from others ~ to share ideas and achieve overlapping individualised goals. Individualised learning maintains that all kinds of social interaction, whether in or out of the classroom, play a central role in learners’ mental development and growth. This view reflects the findings of studies conducted in sociocultural theory. Self-directed learning ‘A process in which individuals take the initiative without the help of others in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating goals, dentlying human and material resources, and ‘evaluating learning outcomes.” Malcolm Knowles * Self-directed learning (SDL) occurs when learners learn without recourse toa teacher or learning advisor. It isa key area of research, originally rooted in the field of adult education, and it has traditionally no direct link to language learning, ‘While research on self-directed learning within the field of adult education seemed to be almost ‘exploding’ during the early 1970s and 80s (and toa large extent into the 90s), as can be attested to by the number of journal articles, books, references and conferences devoted {0 it interest has recently begun to wane. This may be because of the il-perceived lack of a ‘theoretical framework, or possibly because novel new terms came along and slowly swept, the idea aside ~ a bit of ‘out with the old, in with the new” However, looking back at what was proposed decades ago, much of what was true then remains just as true and relevant today. ‘Malcolm Knowles puts forward three main reasons for SDL‘: «First, he argues that people who take the initiative in learning (pro-active learners) learn ‘more, and learn better, than passive learners, «© Second, he proposes that SDL is in tune with our natural psychological development as learners, meaning that a key aspect of the maturation process isthe development of the ability to take more responsibility over our lives. «His third reason deals with contemporary developments in education that put more and ‘more responsibility on learners to take more initiative, ‘These ideas have been debated throughout the literature in adult education for years, with particular focus on whether ‘self-direction’ should be viewed asa goa! or a method of learning. (Our own belief reflects Philip Candy's idea * « Self-directed learning embraces dimensions of both process and product. «© Becoming self-directed isa desired pedagogical outcome, « Self-directed learning is an organised system of teachable, learnable skills. It isa dynamic, reciprocal relationship between the two dimensions. With an appropriate range of resources, materials and pedagogic support, self-directed language Fearming can be atts most effective. Beyond the acquisition and application of knowiedge, learners need to understand the process of acquiring and ‘applying that knowledge. 10 Self-access learning "The primary aim of such [el-access study] facilities is to enable learning to take place independently of teaching. Phil Benson” “This isthe learning that takes place ina self-access centre, often stocked with a range of resources and materials in order to entice learners. Since self-access centres vary 10 alarge extent, in the support offered and the pedagogic philosophy behind each centre, itis dificult to generalise about how learners needs are met or their language learning is developed. With an appropriate range of resources, materials and pedagogic support, there isthe potential for this to be self-directed language learning at its most effective. “Although there is still no clear definition of what a self-acces centre is, slf-access learning (GAL) has traditionally been linked with the learner autonomy movement. In fact, much of the erature on sel-access centres/self-acess learning states that a central aim of self-access learning should be to work towards developing more autonomous (language) learners. Other attempts to define se-access learning by practitioners involved in SAL have been. carvied out through the description of principles like the ones put forward by Lucy Cooker 4 Self-access learning should be truly sef-acces, ic itis nota compulsory part ofa course, ‘2 Students should have an integral role in the running of the centre. 8 Learning should be fun. 4 The learning environment is important. Open-access (or distance) learning ‘Arguably, the most visible Impact of the Internet on education to date has been the Open Educational Resources (OER) movement, which has provided free access to a wide range of courses and other educational materials to anyone who wants to use them." John §. Brown and Richard P Adler ® An open-access or distance learning course has the potential to offer lot of freedom and choice tothe course participants, but in reality (and the internet seems to be helping change this realty) many of these courses have the syllabus and course materials planned out with litle choice for students other than when and where they work their way through the course, So, within time and space, there isa flexibility which can allow the students to learn in way that sits their itestyles, but choice over materials and resources may be very much more controlled Students may have access to teacher support during tis type of course, but much of the teacher-student interaction will be around knowledge acquisition and application, rather than the process of acquiring and applying that knowledge and the informed choices required to make these processes more effective. Study skills and strategies ‘Academic competonce is associated with the knowledge and application of effective study skills. Capable students at all grade levels may experience difficulty in school, not because they lack ability, but because they lack good study skills.” Maribeth Gettinger and Jill K. Selbert® Study skills and strategies tend to be taught through a variety of activities focusing on specific sills related to academic study. These are mainly focused on activities related to input for learning ~ such as note-taking during lectures and reading ~and output for assessment, often written work including essays and dissertations, Other common themes include managing time, organising study notes, revising for exams, and coping with anxiety. ‘There are several widely-available publications dedicated to study skills and, although we touch on study skills and strategies in Pat B, this book has a language learning focus rather than a learning focus or a language focus. For example: ‘The activities associated with study skills and strategies that we introduce are not designed Leamers are encouraged so become more aware wnat they are doing wen they learn and use target language. =mphasis is placed on interaction, support 24 collaboration, ‘25 well as systematic setection. © =pecectly possible = aaide learners to make ered choices that will sexs more effective secceoe learning. to teach strategies fora study skill such as reading and note-taking but, rather, to raise the learners’ understanding of the study skills and strategies they currently use. ‘© They are designed to encourage them to share these with other students and to guide them to find out more about possible skills and strategies that are relevant to their language learning goals and contexts. ‘This may even lead them to investigate sty skills resources for themselves. ‘Therefore, in terms of language skills, The Autonomy Approach is much more concerned with learners becoming aware of what they are doing when they learn and use their target Janguage, and the strategies they implement when applying these skil to develop and deal with the language they encounter. Approaching self-directed language learning ‘Where yesterday is an unreliable guide to tomorrow, and where socioties are in complex, heterogeneous flux, we must look to the future, and to the best of current theory, to help us reappraise the means and ends of education. Gordon Wells and Guy Claxton " “Self directed language earning’ (SDLL) isthe tem that we shall be using throughout ‘The Autonomy Approach, as said earlier. We have borrowed from all the different types of approaches to learning we have discussed above: © From differentiated learning, we understand the value of offering materials at a variety of levels, and in Part B we make suggestions as to how this can be done with a variety of, activities. Alowing students to choose the evel they want to work at also transfers control from the teacher to the students. ‘© Much of what we advocate is similar to individualised (or personalised) learning However, we strongly recommend that the language tasks come from the learner, rather than from the teacher '* We borrow extensively from the field of self-directed learning, but modi language learning. For example, where Malcolm Knowles believes tha sl learning is learning done without the support of others, we place strong emphasis on interaction, support and collaboration. Also, we have foregrounded the idea of reflection con learning and systematised this stage, as we believe it to be an essential act~in spite of the complexity it contains. ‘Self-directed language learning’ has at times been used interchangeably with other terms such as selfregulated learning oF learner autonomy, resulting in ambiguous understanding, Our use of self-directed language learning’ comes directly from the field of self-directed. learning in adult education, where it originated. ‘© Self-access learning also plays its part, through access to an appropriate range of resources, materials and pedagogic support, although we also suggest possible alternatives to self-access centres. '* Open-access (or distance) learning raises the issue of lifestyle and choosing where and ‘when to learn. © Last but not least, study skills and strategies are essential for language learning, even ‘when the language learning is not associated with academic study, and if students are actively gathering, sharing and evaluating these, more may emerge than a teacher could present ~ and these are likely to have greater authenti ‘Therefore, by selectively pulling together the best parts of all ofthese variations presented as “Tearner autonomy, itis possible to arrive ata way of guiding learning that has the potential for encouraging the learner to consider many aspects of learning and make informed choices that will lead to more effective language learning, Bringing sel-cirected language learning into the classroom opens up the ‘world of language learning outside the classroom. ‘The classroom stops being place for over language teaching and learning and, instead, becomes a place to share ideas and make plans for out-of-class learning ‘A clearer understanding ofthe learning process allows learners to adjust language learning activities 1 their goals. 2 Adopting self-directed language learning “Teachers are increasingly being called upon to adopt new and often unfamiliar roles to ‘encourage autonomous learning in their students. The process of teacher development ‘involved in this change is one of re-evaluating practice, reconsidering established beliefs about language learning and language teaching, and acquiring new skils.” Christoph Hafner and Jean Young * [thas been argued for years that keeping students in lock-step all working on the same ‘material at the same speed with the same goals, isnot particulary effective. Differentiated learning goes some way to dealing with the variety of levels that may be together in one class, yet with the range of wants, interests and needs that exist in one student group — itis Aifcut wo addres all ofthese atthe same time. Coursebooks attempt to tackle this by selecting topics that are likely to appeal, but with varying suecess. Increasing numbers of teachers are moving away from coursebooks, to create their own material or become practitioners of ‘teaching unplugged While there are merits to selecting coursebooks wisely, using materials designed for a particular class and teaching unplugged, bringing self-directed language learning into the classroom opens up the world of language learning outside the classroom. Devising bespoke syllabuses led by students and guided by teachers for use outside the classroom can be incredibly fruitful: «© The students develop their target language while pursuing thei interests often interacting with others as they implement their language learning plans. ‘© The teacher continues to be an expert, working with students to encourage them to think ‘more deeply about their learning ‘© The classroom is still relevant as a place to share ideas, discuss challenges and consider solutions. Itis possible for the classroom to stop being a place for overt language teaching and learning, and, instead, become a place to share ideas and make plans for out-of-class learning. However, there isno reason why self-directed language learning outside of class cannot co-exist with language teaching during clas, as long as there are opportunities for disseminating ideas, receiving feedback and offering guidance around the out-of-lass experience. Activating self-directed language learning ‘Presenting learners with problems that have no ready-made answers forces them to activate their problem-solving capacity and to work out solutions for themselves. In so doing, students learn ‘how to cope with problems which do not have a ready-made formulaic solution’ (Henry Widdowson *) and develop independent thinking. Autonomy in this approach therefore is not an end in itsolf but a corollary of efficient target language use." Eva ies * ‘While there is value in all of the above, nevertheless the aim of the The Autonomy Approach is to empower students to become more aware oftheir language learning and the ‘consequences oftheir choices, through guiding them to a clearer understanding of what the learning process entails. As authors, we have specifically avoided terms such as evelopment of learner autonomy’ as a principle aim: ‘* We cannot always be certain thet learner autonomy has developed —to the point where all our students are ready to take full responsibility for their learning, ‘* We cannot always be certain that it was our guidance that led to greater autonomy—even when it happens. ‘We have definitely seen all our students become more effective language earners, in that they have all become mach more adept at planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluating their language learning activities with respect to their language learning goals. ‘And in doing so, they have encountered and overcome challenges through reflective practice and feedback from peers and educators. ‘The philosophy of the Autonomy Approach, is simple enough, bout implementing it is more difficult. ‘The Autonomy Approach ‘needs to be adopted ‘as a conscious decision by educators who believe that leamers benefit from taking ownership of their own learning. ‘The Autonomy Approach does not replace existing ‘methodologies or ‘approaches, but can work in Conjunction with other methods and approaches. Both of us agree that ‘allowing the learner to choose’ atthe core of what we term the Autonomy Approach. As learners take informed decisions about their learning, autonomy ‘may emerge ~ but we both see this s a positive development, if it happens, rather than a primary aim, Adopting self-directed language teaching ‘Clearly, we must attempt to provide the specialized educational resource (adult leamers ‘Seok when they choose to use an adult educator, but our professional perspective needs to be unequivocal: we must respond to the learner's educational need in a way which will improve the quality of his or her self-directedness as a learner: Jack Mezirow * ‘The philosophy underlying the Autonomy Approach is simple enough, but implementing this approach can be more difficult. The sills needed to guide students within a class or in ‘one-to-one sessions involve some of those learned on teacher training courses ~ and these are developed through classroom teaching ~ yt there are further skils teachers require in order to become more comfortable with this approach. Therefore, this book includes « third part, Part C, dedicated to teacher traning and farther professional development. ‘We have endeavoured to make the book accessible to educators at all stages of their professional development, for use with teenage and adult learners at all eves oftheir target language, and the activities we describe are as relevant for general English as they are for any type of specialist English such as ESP, EAP and exam English. However, both of us also acknowledge that just following the activities will nat necessarily lead to the Autonomy Approach being implemented. The Autonomy Approach needs to be adopted as a conscious decision by educators who believe that earners will fare better in their language learning by being involved in decision making and taking ownership of, and responsibility for, their own learning, As teachers, we do not abdicate responsibilty but, rather, our responsibilities shift to «empowering our learners and encouraging them to make informed decisions about all aspects of their own learning within and beyond the classroom, Activating self-directed language teaching ‘Self-directed programmes]... should involve cyclic diagnosis of learners’ beliefs about language learning, preferred styles, learning needs and objectives in order to endow the leamers with criteria for choosing optimum strategies, resources and activities for their individualized programmes." Mia Victori and Walter Lockhart * How far each teacher chooses to implement the Autonomy Approach will depend on various factors. Some of these factors will be external (institution; culture) and some internal (experience; teaching belief). For example, teachers will need to consider any institutional constraints surrounding their classroom practic: «© Are the teachers expected to adhere toa set syllabus? ‘© What kind of flexibility does this syllabus allow for? ‘© What isthe perception — from management; from learners ~ toward more learner control within the institution? Also teachers adopting these kinds of learner-led activities forthe first time may want to ease into the process and pethaps try a few out frst, to see how they work in their context ~ before adopting « wider range. The Autonomy Approach is not an approach whichis absolute, nor sit to replace existing methodologies or approaches. Rather, it can be adopted gradually over time in a way which can maintain the comfort of all stakeholders, and work in conjunction with other methods and approaches, Metacognition is important in the process of shifting responsiblity from ‘teachers to leamers. Metacognitive knowledge is the particular beliefs, learners have acqulred about language learning and which influence their peformance, Metacognitive knowledge isa central component of self-directed language learning, and traditionally breaks down into three main types: Person knowiedge, Task knowledge and Strategy knowledge. “ ‘As teachers become more comfortable with the activities including the rationales and aims as well a their implementation ~ there willbe greater opportunity for personalisation and modification. This increased familiarity and comfort should also lead to greater success success which wil be reflected in the learning, the teaching, and the institutional image. Although concepts like personalisation and flexibility ae stressed inthe philosophy behind the Autonomy Approach (both for learners and the professionals reading this book), there are certain elements which we believe are integral to successful practice, One of these is the concept of ‘metacognition; and the need to recognise the significant role it plays in learning (and to large extent, teaching). Below we describe how we see metacognition (metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive strategies) operating within the Autonomy Approach. This description is meant to both, clarify what we mean by the term, as well as illustrating how important its in the process of shifting responsibility away from you ~ the teacher —to your learners, and the development of their self-awareness. Accessing metacognitive knowledge “Metacognitive knowledge, le Learner Beliefs, has been classified according to whether it focuses on the leamer (Person), the learning task (Task) or the process of learning (Strategy) ‘Anita Wenden Investigating and describing metacognitive knowledge — the beliefs or knowledge that learners and teachers hold about language learning ~is an important component of the Autonomy Approach. Studies on beliefs about language learning, spanning over three decades, have been instrumental in centralising the role ofthis construct in the field of second language acquisition. By gaining a clearer understanding of the beliefs earners hold about language learning, \we are offered a window into the varied experiences of our earners and the critical determinants which influence and motivate their behaviour. In other words, if we taise awareness of what learners (and teachers) believe about language learning, then we can develop a more nuanced appreciation of individuals learning performances ~ and work towards providing more personalised and effective guidance. “Metacognitive knowledge is a central component of self-directed language learning, affording us not only the knowledge base (theory) for effective individualised learning but also the day-to-day skills needed (practice). Because the influence ofthis knowledge (belies) plays such an integral role its important to clavfy what exactly it is we ae talking about. Traditionally, metacogoitive knowledge breaks down into three main types: Person knowledge, Task knowledge and Strategy knowledge. (See Flavell 1979 ® and Wenden 1998 fora thorough description.) Person knowledge ‘More inclusive, discriminating, permeable and integrative perspectives are superior perspectives that adult flearers] choose i they can because they are motivated to better understand the meaning oftheir experience... these] perspectives permit us to deal with a broader range of experience, to be more discriminating, to be more open to other perspectives, and to better integrate our experiences." Jack Mezirow Person knowledge is made up of: beliefs about both human and cognitive factors that influence either the promotion or prevention of learning (factors such as aptitude, anxiety, cognitive style and motivation); beliefs about proficiency levels in specific skills areas, such as reading, speaking or pronunciation (often based on 2 history of formal assessments); beliefs about effectiveness as learners (an intuitive understanding of particular strengths and Mestacogntive knowledge can be seen In action uring the learning processes of planning, =rpiementing, monitoring = evaluating. weaknesses); and beliefs about one’s capacity to reach specific language learning goals: «© Astatement that may be used to determine a language learning belief about language aptitude may say: ‘Tbelieve that some people are born with «special ability to learn languages? «© A statement that may be used to determine a language learning belief about proficiency may say: “Tneed to improve my speaking and listening more than my reading and writing? ‘© A statement that may be used to determine a language learning belief about self-efficacy ‘Tam confident in selecting materials useful for my learning? Task knowledge “Task knowledge includes information about a task's demands, le how to learn in general, how to go about doing a particular task, and the knowiedge and skills needed to do so." ‘vita Wenden = ‘Task knowledge is made up of belies about the nature of specific learning tasks; beliefs about how different tasks fit in with learning needs; and beliefs about how to accomplish specific learning tasks (basically, the ‘what why’ and how’ of learning tasks): «© Astatement that may be used to determine a language learning belief about the nature of a specific learning task may say: “To improve my reading fluency, [need to read difficult texts? «© A statement that may be used to determine a language learning belief about how to accomplish a specific learning task may say: “You cannot speak English fluently unless you first memorise a lot of vocabulary? Strategy knowledge “In learning transfer, metacognitive knowledge facilitates the appropriate choice of previously learned stratagies to achieve learning goals and/or to deal with problems encountered during the learning.” ‘Asita Wenden % Beliefs about learning strategies are beliefs about when and how to use learning strategies. Although strategy knowledge is very similar to task knowledge (and actually considered by some people to bea subset of task knowledge) itis differentiated by the specific role it plays, in the implementation and processing of a learning plan or objective (Wenden *): ‘© A statement that may be used to determine a language learning belief about what a learning strategy is may say: “Tthink that writing about my learning activities (reflecting) is a wseful way to improve my language learning? © A statement that may be used to determine language learning beliefs about how to use a learning strategy may say: “To become a good listener, Inced tobe able to guess the meaning of words sometimes” Here are some examples of metacognitive knowledge in action during the learning process: «© During the planning process, task knowledge (facilitating the analysis of particular tasks) will assist learers in organising what information they are supposed to learn from 2 task (and judge if this information is congruent with what they want to learn). It also helps break down the task into smaller part, highlighting what learners have to do and ‘what potential problems the task presents, Person knowledge can play a role in helping learners identify what kinds of things they are interested in (activities they enjoy or don’t enjoy) or what they know and what they don't know about a topic or language skill. © During the implementing process, strategy knowledge is evident inthe actual execution lor use of strategies that dal directly with the challenges of a learning plan ora specific task, Also, strategy knowledge can help leamers assess the appropriateness of adopting particular learning strategies for particular tasks. = In self-directed language learning, the differences between metacognitive knowledge and ‘metacognitive strategies need to be made clear Metacognitve strategies are practical, applicable skis and strategies that learners employ to structure thelr se-directed language learning. We have introduced the Idea of implementation Into Planning, Monitoring and Evaluating, to clarity how to actually camry out these activites. 16 ‘© The monitoring process is perhaps the most complex of them all. During this stage inthe learning, all tree aspects of metacognitive knowledge should be coming into play. For «example, if an activity involving academic reading is proving to be too difficult, the learner ‘may recall that they have never been ‘good at reading academic articles: Her, referring back toa belief about one’s ability (person knowledge) may be a way of making sense of why they are experiencing a problem. Task knowledge will playa role when the learner is {internally} assessing how succesful they have been in completing the task. Finally, strategy knowledge, lke task knowledge, also plays a role during the internal assessment ofa task; however, the difference is that strategy knowledge is assessing the task as itis happening (in fll swing, so to speak) rather than a retrospective assessment of the outcome. ‘© During the evaluating process, task knowledge will also be useful in helping learners to develop a diagnostic activity relevant to their goal and their current situation. AS| teachers, we can help students at this tage and encourage them to use it, as appropriate: for example at the onset ofthe self-directed learning cycle, and at the end of the cycle, to ensure that learners have concrete evidence of progress and issues that may have constrained progress. Equally significant willbe the role task knowledge plays in the «analysis of the diagnostic activity. The deeper and more specific the analysis, the richer and more specific the understanding will be of one’s ability and development. Finally, when talking about self directed language learning, the differences beween metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive strategies need to be made clea. Anita Wenden provides clarity when she states: ‘Metacognitve knowledge refers to information leamers acquire about ther learning while metacognitive strategies, e planning, monitoring and evaluating, are general sills through which learners manage, direct, regulate and guide their earning? * Applying metacognitive strategies ‘Metacognitive experiences are especially fly to occur in situations that stimulate a lot of ‘careful, highly conscious thinking: ina job or schoo! task that expressly demands that kind ‘of thinking; in novel roles or situations, where every major step you take requires planning beforehand and evaluation afterwards; whore decisions and actions are at once weighty and risky: whore high affective arousal or other inhibitors of reflective thinking are absent.” John H, Flavell Unlike metacognitive knowledge, which is, as we have discussed above, the particular beliefs Tearners have acquired about language learning generally or their earning specifically (retained information), metacognitive strategies are practical, applicable skills and strategies that learners use to structure their self-directed language learning. The understanding, utilisation and development of these strategies in language learning are what essentially ‘make up the ‘nuts and bolts’of self-directed language learning. We have broken down these strategies into Planning, Implementing, Monitoring and Evaluating (PIME), PIME ‘Wenden *, borrowing from the fields of Cognitive Psychology and Adult Education, was one ofthe first to break down metacognitive strategies into planning, monitoring and evaluating in an applied linguistics context. Although this process hasbeen described in academic publications, there has been litle carty until now about how to actually carry out these activities. In addition, we have introduced the idea of implementation ~ after noticing that none of the research talks about how SDL can actually be put into practice beyond planning, monitoring and evaluating, “Implementation’ describes the post-planning stage, which is essentially the learning activities (including the resources used and the time spent) that learners carry ou. The implementation ofa learner's plan also makes up the lion's share of what the learner reflects on ~ after all most ofthe monitoring s about the implementation, As faras we can tell, there is no mention in the research (let alone a step-by-step description) of how to implement the kind of learning we are talking about in the context of second language acquisition, Implementation describes the post-planning stage, which is essentially the learning activities (including the resources cused and the time spent) The implementation of a learner's pian constitutes the principal share of ‘what gets reflected on — most of the monitoring is about implementation. ‘The PIME model - combined ‘withthe practical activities in The Autonomy Approach ~ rors the four principles of the approach. Planning ‘This phase includes a systematic WIN (Wants, Interests and Needs) analysis diagnostic activities; task analysis; strategy analysis; material and resources selection and managements and daiy/weeldy language-specitfic target setting, Selecting the kinds of goal-oriented activities that students will engage in for an allotted period of time is important, but ‘equally important is that these targets are what are refered to as SMART targets — Specific, Measurable, Attsinable, Relevant and Timely. ‘SMART goals’is aterm used in the field of Project and Performance Management. More recently in the field of education, professionals are using SMART to evaluate instructional processes and curricula, Implementing ‘This phase deals with finding an appropriate balance of ‘prepare, use and review activities taken from the PURE model: «# Prepare encourages students to activate existing input and notice new target language. It can also include controlled or supported practice (eg for goals of listening or spoken pronunciation, this could involve using a script or subtitles) «Use is considered unsupported interaction with, or production of, the target language. If «activities in ‘use’ are recorded, they could then form the basi of further ‘prepare’ (ie by considering and prioritising weak areas ofthe target sil). «© Review often refers to checking what has been learned or activated in the prepare’ stage at a later date, but also includes revisiting notes or re-using previous resources and activities. «© For Evaluate, sce the Evaluating’ section below (and page 98 for more on PURE). ‘Monitoring ‘This breaks down into noticing strengths and weaknesses, adjusting, modifying, continuing, ‘wansferring and halting specifi learning activities (and the use of resources and materials) 2 the language is being used The monitoring process can happen during almost any part of the learning, once its underway. Ithas shown to be particularly successful when learners talk or write about thir learning activities in light oftheir goals and weekly objectives. This is why monitoring and reflection are so intricately connected. Monitoring is similar to noticing, bt it goes beyond ‘being aware’ and requires further steps: ‘© When monitoring, itis not enough to notice what is being done well ot what needs to change (this just the first step). «© The act of monitoring implies taking some kind of practical action when change is required. This action is then reflected in subsequent planning and implementation, Evaluating Thisis an analysis of two parts: language learning progress language learning process «His the learner improved their language performance? # Have the activities and resources contributed optimally, or are changes required? Obviously, this evaluation needs to be done regularly throughout the course ~ not only to allow for modifications to be made to learning plans, but also for learners to realise that what they are doing (or not doing!) impacts on their progress. In addition, if students can notice that they are becoming more proficient and perhaps even reaching their goals, this can really boost motivation and develop pride in sef- progress. ‘Wealso recommend that students evaluate at the end of a whole course of self-directed language learning ~ to get a more holistic view of their progress and the whole process. ‘The degree of specificity we are able to offer in The Autonomy Approach comes after years ‘of trying to make sense of complementary theories, while piloting activities and resources. ‘We re confident that this model of PIME (as outlined above), combined with the practical activites in Part B reflects our four principles of the Autonomy Approach (student-led, ‘guided, focused and collaborative) in language learning, as we shall now se. For the learner, outcomes, involve language Skil, language learning sklls and Understanding and using available resources to meet language learning goals. ‘Leamers make decisions about their own learning, ‘consider the consequences, focus on what to learn and interact with each other Where possible. 18 The Autonomy Approach in language learning ‘One problem with .. models [of learner autonomy s their assumption thatthe relationship between the development of autonomy and language proficiency is unproblematic.” Phil Benson *” “Autonomy in language learning has been notoriously difficult to define and, while academies continue to disagree about the concept and refine the various definitions, teachers have interpreted it in different ways. As a result, it seems that although there are some amazing practitioners doing inspirational work by handing control over to students, there ae also many teachers who are sil not quite sure what autonomy in language learning is all about. Infact, regardless of the definition used, no causal ink has yet been established between Jeamer autonomy and lenguage development. Nevertheless, by taking what is considered important inthe field of autonomous language learning and using this as a way of approaching effective self-directed language learning, rather than a way of developing autonomy, there ca bea focus on self-directed language learning, target-language development and the empowerment of learners to make informed decisions about their on learning, The outcomes for learners, revolve around language skills language learning skills and their understanding of available resources and ways of using these to meet their language learning goals. (ur four principles ofthe Autonomy Approach are: «cis student-led: Students make the decisions about their own learning. If students ‘make decisions about their own learning, they take ownership, Some decisions may be taken by the group of participants when it affects the whole group, but most will be for individual students to make. Afterall, they are deciding about what they will do outside the classroom, Personal decisions are much more likely tobe followed through than those {imposed by others, and even the ac of making these decisions known to others reinforces the likelihood thatthe actions will be carried through. «@ Itis guided: Through activities and discussions, students are guided through a systematic cycle of planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation (PIME), where linguistic progress is genuinely relevant to each learner's wants, interests and needs (WIN)— rather than a teacher's perception of these. When learners are short of ideas, choices can be ‘introduced’ but they remain genuine choices, and the teacher can ask more about theit selections so that informed choice becomes integral. It is important to encourage students atall times to make principled decisions about their own learning and to think through the consequences ofthese. «tis focused: Through WIN analysis, diagnostic and other focus activities it becomes ‘much easier for students to consider their own strengths and weaknesses, prioritise from ‘these and clearly identify relevant language and resources. As a result, students can choose wnat to learn and, pechaps more importantly, whatnot to learn, This isa more efficient ‘way of language learning than allotting time to learning language which may not be relevant to an individuals goals. The use of targets can also focus learning further and lead to motivation derived from achievement and perceptions of competence ~as targets ate met and goals become closer. «© Itis collaborative: Where possible students are encouraged to work with each other inside the classroom, and to learn with classmates or others ouside, too, Establishing a dynamic whereby individuals cooperate to exchange information and succeed through interaction moves the onus away from teachers and advisors to provide the answers, and guides learners to look to the wider community and the resources at their own disposal to develop their language and their language learning, This reinforcement of ‘communi for the sharing of ideas and experience related to language learning also provides a social context for learning and critical thinking, highlighting and balancing the social aspect of learning with the individualised aspect of personal learning goals. The Autonomy Approach in language teaching ‘My understanding of language learner autonomy ... entails that the teacher is never redundant. She is responsible for mediating the demands of the official curriculurt to her learners; she manages the work cycle of the classroom; and she scaffolds her learners” attempts to communicate in the target language. In other words, she creates the immediate context of leaming, a procedural frame within which her leamers can exercise and further develop their capacity for autonomy as leamers and users ofthe target language.” David Little *° Teachers need to explain ‘The changes in language education that have been happening over the years ~ asking the y tis they are asking learners to become more active participants in thei learning ~ require a shift in both teacher seers to take more control and learner roles: shift in all our perceptions and expectations, as well asin how we prepare learning ~ and to and apply these new ways of teaching and learning, So them how to dot. ‘ ‘This may seem like an obvious statement but, alot of the time, the types of changes that take place in classrooms and educational institutions around the worl are put into action ‘without the consent of the learners. Language learners are not always made aware of why they are being asked to reconsider how they participate in their learning and, even when attempts are made at raising awareness of wiy it might be a good idea to take more control, learners are rarely shown how to It is potentially rather confrontational for students, after years of being ina classroom thinking they know what is going on, feeling comfortable with their roles, having their ‘expectations met ~all of a sudden being asked to try a new way of doing things: especially ‘when the ‘things they are used to doing have seemingly been working fine. ‘The same could be said for teachers, of course! For new approaches to take root and blossom, they need to be shown to work, and work well, Guidance “There needs to be guidance, and space for experimentation and exploration, Teachers need to create the sort of environment where opportunities for success are maximised, and when things don’t go exactly according to plan (as things rarely do, initially there still remains 2 variety of opportunities for learning and development: ‘Step changes in learning and development often involve plans shifting. © Reconceptualisation requires effort, and the reward is improved ability and skis, Guidance can uncover new possibilities, support transitions, and promote responsibility for learning. The reason for encouraging more student accountability for language learning is straightforward — teachers can teach and encourage learning, but only students can actively ‘engage with the language and develop their skis. Expertise However far from negating the role ofthe teacher, the Autonomy Approach focuses directly ‘on the role ofthe teacher as an expert in learning who understands the cyclical nature of Teachers still have a learning, who is essential for ensuring the dynamic ofthe learning community, and who =x. ole to playin ‘an guide through input and feedback. The teacher is crucial to help students think through ing their learners in their language learning decisions, so that what they choose to do i effective in the pursuit of ursuit oftheir goats theie goals. "Teacher guidance using the Autonomy Approach is fundamental: « Itheips students to reflect on their actions and the consequences. « Ithelps them realign their language learning with their goals. ‘The teacher-expert therefore help learners make informed choices that lea to more effective Janguage learning that takes into account styles, lifestyles, wants, interests and needs Mediation The type of mediated’ guidance we envision in applying the Autonomy Approach will work towards creating a space for interaction — sometimes between teachers and students, other Leamers need to be given the time and space to ‘experiment and make the right choices, before they are able to become independent learners 20 times between students, and also between teachers themselves (reflecting on activities, resources used, progress made, etc). Interaction plays an essential role in learner development: ‘© Helping them to remain motivated, ‘© Helping them to co-construct and perceive the relevance of what they are doing and thinking in light oftheir learning goals. ‘Through interaction, ideas get externalised — put out into the air so that they become clearer and more concrete — and this externalisation (usually in the form of dialogue) is how a lot of ideas get modified, refined and, consequently, converted into appropriate action. Experience We have found that many students are motivated to develop their language learning skills, bbut do not always have the knowledge initaly, to be effective. Consequently, they may invest time and energy in language learning activities that will not yield the results they are looking for or at least, not without alot of wasted time: ‘¢ We have worked with students who want to improve test scores and plan to work their way ‘through a pile of past exam papers, without considering their strengths and weaknesses as they plough through the tests. It may make a difference to their test results eventually, but we have found it much more effective to ask students to reflect on their strengths and ‘weaknesses, prioritise the focus of their learning by considering the time ‘cost and the score benefit of strengthening each area, and then develop a plan of action. ‘© We have had other students who have been taught to manipulate grammar at a high level, but are false beginners’ when speaking or listening. Many ofthese students choose oral skills as.a goal, but then revert to learning activities that helped them to become so nowledgeable about grammar. ‘The self-directed language learning activities we use in The Autonomy Approach hinge on siving learners enough time and space to try out different ideas — we believe that with experience comes development. ‘Change ‘However, when the mediated guidance and the experience come together in a way that relates

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