BIOLOGY

Page 1 of 76

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Biology as a field of study ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------2

2. Living things around us ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------7
3. Plant diversity -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------11
4. Animals structures and functions ----------------------------------------------------------------------15
5. Human nutrition -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------24
6. Digestion in animals ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------30
7. Human circulatory system -------------------------------------------------------------------------------35
8. Worm infestation -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------43
 Page 2 of 76
BIOLOGY AS A FIELD OF STUDY
Biology is the study of living things and
their environment
Living things include animals and plants.
Biology
Biology is derived from two Greek words,
that is, bios which means life and logos or
logia which means study or knowledge.
So biology can be defined as a branch of
science which deals with the study of life.
The term biology can also be defined as a
branch of science which deals with the
study of living things or organisms.
Biologist
A person specialized in the study of
biology
Life
Life means being alive or existing.
Something is alive or existing if it
possesses life processes. The life processes
are growth, movement or locomotion,
respiration, excretion, reproduction,
sensitivity and nutrition.
Organism
Organism is anything which has life. It is
the other name of a living thing.
Organisms are made up of cells.
Importance of studying biology
 To understand our bodies better by
studying parts of the body.
 To identify living things that can cause
diseases.
 To learn how to take care of living
things important to our lives.
 To manage and care for our
environment better.
 It helps to acquire knowledge that can
be applied in personal hygiene, food
preservation, proper nutrition and to
carry out First Aid.
 To teach us how to improve
agricultural techniques
 To study other science related such as
agriculture, medicine, veterinary,
pharmacy and forestry.
 To get into careers such medicine
The Biology Laboratory
A biology laboratory is a room or
building specially designed for carrying
out biological experiments.
Qualities of a good biology laboratory
1. Large windows and big space to allow
enough air and light for better
ventilation and visibility respectively.
2. Shelves – for keeping chemicals,
specimens, apparatus and models.
3. Supply of gas, electricity and water
4. Working benches
5. An emergence door in case of danger
occurs.
6. Preparation room
Using glassware safely
Glassware needs proper and careful
handling as they are breakable. Glassware
includes test tubes, beakers, pipettes,
measuring cylinders and volumetric
flasks.
Rules for safe use of glassware in a
laboratory
1. They must not be used for food or
drink
2. Do not use them for holding for
holding hot substances
3. They should be well fastened to racks,
ring stands or retort/clamp to prevent
them from falling and breaking.
4. They should not be stored together
with metals where they scratch and
break
5. Do not hold a hot beaker by the rim,
instead use beaker tongs to remove
hot beaker from heat.
 Page 3 of 76

6. Whenever possible, support round

bottom flasks with cork rings and 5. Corrosive
stopper openings to prevent them
from rolling over.
7. Provide enough space between
glassware during storage to prevent
them from vibrating and breaking
each other. Meaning: Handle material with care
8. During movement, place cushioning as it can cause corrosion or burn the
material between them. skin.
9. When heating substances, use
glassware that are specifically made 6. Radioactive
for heating, avoid using any other
glassware because the heat may break
them.

Safety signs in the laboratory

Meaning: the material can emit
1. No smoking radiations or rays which are
dangerous.

7. Laser radiation

Meaning: do not smoke.

2. Electric shock
Meaning: Beware of radiation waves.

8. Harmful or irritant substance

Meaning: can cause electric shock.

3. Flammable

Meaning: the material can

9. Dangerous substance

Meaning: it can catch fire easily.

4. Explosive

Meaning: the material can cause

death.

Meaning: the material can explode

easily.
 Page 4 of 76

Symbols on containers holding lab tools 9. Bunsen burners

and chemical 10. Test tubes
1. The box should be kept upright. 11. Specimen bottles
12. Ovens
13. A pair of scissors
14. Chemical balance
15. Funnel
16. Test tube racks
17. Test tube holders
2. The box should not be held using 18. Beakers
hooks. 19. Forceps
20. Surgical blades
21. Microscope slides
22. Droppers
23. Spatula
24. Corks
3. The box should be kept away from 25. Glass straws
rain or moisture. 26. Fridge/refrigerator
27. Mounted needle
28. Beam balances
29. Glass rods
30. Scalpels

4. The box contains glassware or items

Thermometer
that can easily break that is, they are
 For measuring temperature of
fragile.
different liquid.

The Common Apparatus and Equipment

of Biology Laboratory
Beam balance
Some apparatus and equipment used in  For weighing objects
the biology laboratory.
1. Microscopes
2. Hand lenses
3. Thermometers
4. Dissecting kits
5. Mortar and pestle
6. Dissecting trays
7. Delivery tubes
8. Measuring cylinders
 Page 5 of 76

Hand lens  For filtering substances and filling in

 To make objects looking bigger (to liquid.
magnify object)

Glass straws
Measuring cylinder  It is used for sucking fluids and other
 For measuring liquid objects.

Dropper
 For pouring chemicals and liquids
drop by drop.

Delivery tube

Funnel
 Page 6 of 76

Bunsen burner Specimen bottles

 It is used for burning things during an For storing and preserving collected
experiment. animals.

Pair of scissors
 It is used for cutting objects
Dissecting kit
 It is of metal tools

Spatula
 For scooping chemicals

Dissecting tray
 It is used for holding metal tools

Cork

Mortar and pestle

 For grinding simple chemicals. Mounted needle

Glass rod
 It is for stirring
 Page 7 of 76

Scalpels  Avoid carrying out any other

 For cutting specimens in laboratory experiments other than the one given
by the teacher.
 Turn off water, gas and electricity
outlets when not in use.
Some common chemicals used in the
 Keep flame and flammable solutions
biology laboratory
apart.
 Benedict‟s solution
 Keep electrical equipment away from
 Lime water (calcium hydroxide)
water and keep areas around electrical
 Sodium hydroxide (slaked lime)
equipment dry.
 Cobalt chloride
 Always clean glassware before using
 Hydrochloric acid
them.
 Copper (II) sulphate
 Always work in a well-ventilated area.
 Sudan III
 Keep hands away from face, eyes,
 Alcohol
mouth and body while using
 Stains e.g. carmine red, methylene
chemicals or laboratory equipment.
blue
 Work areas should be kept clean.
 Sodium bicarbonate
 When first entering a laboratory, do
 Potassium permanganate
not touch any equipment or other
 Iodine solution
materials in the laboratory until you
are instructed to do so.
Safety measures in a laboratory
 Do not drink, taste nor eat anything in
the laboratory. Any chemical is never
tasted in the laboratory but can be
tested
 Handle all materials in the laboratory
carefully.
 Glassware must be held with both
hands.
 Never run or play in the laboratory.
 Wear protective materials such as lab
coat, an apron, and safety goggles.
 Never work in the laboratory
barefooted.
 Avoid disturbing or pushing a
colleague who is busy working in the 1. What risk would student X have?
laboratory. 2. Give the reason for your answer
 Clean all equipment and workplaces 3. Student Z is working close to a gas
after each laboratory period. burner. What two pieces of advice
 Tie up long hair and avoid wearing would be given in relation to her job?
loose clothing which could be caught
in equipment. Using microscope
 Follow experimental procedures and Microscope is an instrument that is used
do not take short cuts. in the laboratory to magnify and observe
organisms that are too tiny to be seen
using unaided eyes.
 Page 8 of 76

Types of microscope 2. Electron microscope

1. Light microscope
It uses light to illuminate the objects
and glass lenses to magnify the object.
A light microscope is commonly found
in school laboratory. It is used to
magnify small organisms such as plant
cells, microorganisms in pond water,
etc.
An electron microscope is found in
special hospitals. It is used to magnify
the smallest microorganism that
cannot be seen using a light
microscope such as bacteria and
viruses.

Functions of microscope parts

Part Description Uses/functions
1. Eyepiece Uppermost part of  Magnifies or enlarges the object under
microscope. observation.
It is made up of lenses
fixed in a test tube like
structure.
2. Body tube Holds the eye-piece on the  It enables up and down movement,
(Barrel) upper side and nose-piece lifting or lowering the lenses towards
on the lower side. the object.
3. Coarse Rotating knob on the side of  Used in lowering or raising the body
adjustment the arm. tube. The movement of the tube gives a
 Page 9 of 76

knob clear view of the image.

4. Fine Knob below or near the
adjustment coarse adjustment knob.
knob
5. Nose-piece Rotating part attached on
the underside of the body
tube.
6. Objective lens Lenses attached to
revolving nose-piece. Are of
three types: low, medium
and high power lenses.
 Used to bring the object into sharp
focus.
 Used to select the objective lenses by
placing the object lens in line with the
eye-piece and the object on stage.
 Magnify the object. Low power lens
magnifies the object 4-5 times, medium
power lens 10 times and high power
lens 60 or more times.

7. Stage Flat surface below the  Holds specimens on the side.

objective lens where the  Allows light from the condenser to pass
specimens are placed. to the object.
Have small holes at the  Holds sides in place.
Centre to allow light from
the condenser to pass to the
object.
Have clips to hold the ides.

8. Condenser Made of lenses placed  It receives light from the source or

(light below the stage. mirror then concentrates the light to the
director) specimen on stage.
9. Diaphragm Made of many small holes  It controls the amount of light passing
of different sizes. from the light source to the condenser.
10. Base Flat surface on which the  It supports the microscope and all its
microscope rests. other parts.
11. Arm It is the curved part of the  It is used for holding the microscope
microscope. when using or carrying it

Points to be observe when using the 4. To avoid eyestrain, learn to keep

microscope
1. Keep the lenses clean by carefully
wiping them with special lens tissue.
Do not use water or tissue paper. Do
not touch the lenses with your
fingers or allow them to get wet.
2. Never focus downwards when your
eyes are looking through the eye
piece lens. You could break slides
and damage the objective lens.
3. Hold the microscope with two
hands, one holding its arm and the
other the base when moving it from
one place to other.
both eyes open when looking down
the microscope.
5. Always cover the specimen with a
cover slip and make sure the slides
and cover slips are clean.
6. Avoid tilting the microscope. If you
have a wet preparation on the slide,
it could run off.
7. Always keep the stage of the
microscope clean and dry.
How to care for a microscope
 Never oil any part of the microscope
 Avoid finger marks on the lens
 Page 10 of 76
 Do not force adjustments beyond end
movements
 Keep the stage clean and dry
 Always carry using both hands( one
hand holding the arm while the other
under the stand)
 Never unscrew the lens components
How to calculate the magnification of an
object on a microscope
 Check the magnification number on
eye piece and objective lens.
 Multiply the two magnification
E.g. if the eye piece magnification
number is X4 and the objective lens is
X10 then the total magnification of an
object is 4 x 10 = X40 or 40 times.
Magnification =
Example 1
A student picked a leaf which was 15 cm
long and drew it on paper. After
measuring the diagram he found that it
was 5 cm long. Find the magnification.
Solution:
Magnification =
= cleaned using a microscope.
=X
Example 2
The magnification of a specimen which is
0.85cm is X4. Find the size of the drawing.
Solution:
Magnification =
X4 =
0.85 cm X 4 = Size of the specimen
3.40cm = Size of specimen
Size of the specimen = 3.4 cm
Example 3
Given that a drawing of a bee which is 6
cm long on paper has a magnification of
X3. Find the size of the specimen.
Solution:
Magnification =
3=
3 X Size of specimen = 6 cm
Size of the specimen = 2 cm
Proper handling of microscope
The following rules should be observed
when handling the microscope:
 Always use both hands when carrying
the microscope. One hand should hold
the base to provide support while the
other hand holds the limb.
 Never place the microscope too close
to the edge of the working bench or
table.
 Do not touch the mirror or the lenses
with your fingers.
 Dirty lenses should be cleaned using a
special soft lens tissue paper or tissue
paper moistened with ethanol. The
other parts of the microscope may be
 Do not wet any part of the microscope.
 Make sure the low power objective
lens clicks into position in line with the
eye piece before and after use.
 After use, always clean and store the
microscope in a safe place, free from
moisture and dust.
How to use the Microscope
 Place the microscope on the bench
with the stage facing away from you.
 Turn the low power objective lens
until it clicks into position.
 Ensure that the diaphragm is fully
open.
 Page 11 of 76
 Look through the eye-piece with one
eye; meanwhile adjust the mirror
under the stage to ensure that
maximum light can pass through.
 The circular area seen is referred to as
the field of view.
 Again look through the eyepiece while
adjusting the mirror under the stage to
ensure that sufficient light is passing
through the specimen.
 Use the coarse adjustment knob to
bring the low power objective lens to
the lowest point.
 Viewing through the eye-piece, turn
the coarse adjustment knob gently
until the specimen comes into focus.
 Use the fine adjustment knob to bring
the image into sharp focus. Make a
drawing of what you observe.
 For higher magnifications, turn the
medium power objective lens into
position and adjust the focus using the
coarse adjustment knob.
 For sharper images, use the fine
adjustment knob. If finer details are
required, turn the high power
objective lens into position; now use
only the fine adjustment knob to bring
the details into sharper focus.
Storing the microscope
1. Rotate the nosepiece to have the
microscope under low power
objective. Never store the microscope
under high power objective lens.
2. Raise the body tube (or lower the
stage) with the coarse adjustment
knob so that the lenses cannot strike
the stage accidentally.
3. Clean the oil immersion lens with
xylene.
4. Clean all lenses with lens paper.
5. Turn off the light if using an electric
microscope.
6. Cover the microscope with its cover. If
there is no cover, improvise one to
prevent accumulation of dust.
7. Pick up the microscope by its arm with
one hand, support it under the base
with other hand, and return it its
storage box or cabinet.
There are other tools that are usually used
together with the microscope. They
include:
 Microscope slides
 Cover slips
 Lens paper
Microscope slides
 They are rectangular pieces of glass on
which the specimen is placed.
 It is usually cleaned with water and
dried using a lens tissue.
Cove slip
This is a small, extremely thin and delicate
piece of glass. It is used to cover the
specimen placed on the slide.
Cell Structures as seen under the Light
Microscope
The structures within the cell are referred
to as organelles. Some of the cell
organelles that can be observed under the
light microscope include the cell wall, cell
membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, vacuole
and chloroplasts.
 Page 12 of 76

These cell organelles perform specific functions within the cell.

The cell as seen under the electron
microscope
 The electron microscope is more
powerful than the light microscope. It
uses a beam of electrons to illuminate
the specimen instead of light as in case
of a light microscope.
 The electron microscope
 Can magnify an object up to 500, 000
times.
 It has also a very high resolving
power. Resolving power is the ability
to distinguish between separate things
which are close to each other.
 The high resolving power makes the
electron microscope a very important
tool in microbiology.
 Through the electron microscope, very
fine details of the cell can be observed.
Structure and functions of the cell
organelles
Cell membrane
 The cell membrane, also known as
plasma membrane or cytoplasm
consists of three layers when viewed
under the electron microscope.
 Page 13 of 76
 The three layers are composed of one
layer of phospholipid sandwich
between two protein layers.
 It is flexible and has pores. The cell
membrane is important in that:
 It encloses the cell contents.
 It allows for selective movement
of materials in and out of the cells.
The pores allow materials
particularly of small molecular
size to move in and out of the
cells.
Cytoplasm
 Cytoplasm consists of a fluid medium
in which chemical reactions take place.
It contains organelles and other
inclusions such as starch, glycogen, fat
droplets and many other dissolved
substances.
 Cytoplasm is not static; it undergoes a
movement known as cytoplasmic
streaming.
 It provides a suitable medium for
cellular reactions to take place.
Mitochondrion
 Mitochondrion is a sausage shaped
organelle that provides sites for
respiratory reactions that yield energy
for the cell. Mitochondria is thus,
referred to as the powerhouse of the
cell.
 It is bound by two membranes. The
inner membrane is greatly folded into
cristae to increase surface area for
respiration.
 The arrangement and number of
mitochondria in a cell depends on the
cell energy requirements. Cells that
require large amounts of energy
contain high amount of mitochondria.
Ribosomes
 These are spherical in shape. While
some are bound to the endoplasmic
reticula, some ribosomes are scattered
within the cytoplasm (free ribosomes).
Their largest dimension is 25
nanometres.
 They are synthesised in the nucleolus.
 They form sites for protein synthesis.
Lysosomes
 These are spherical sac-like organelles
bound by a single membrane. They
contain lytic enzymes which break
down large molecules, destroy worn
out organelles or even the entire cells.
 Lysosomes also play crucial role in
digestion in unicellular organisms.
 The lysosomes are also vital in
breakdown of bacteria and other
harmful microbes that might have
been ingested in food. This explains
their high relative abundance in
injured or infected cells.
 The membranes of the lysosomes are
intact.
 This is important because if the
enzymes leak out, they may destroy
the whole cell.
Golgi bodies/Golgi apparatus
These are stacks of membrane bound tube
like sacs. They are found close to the cell
membrane.
Golgi bodies perform the following
functions:
 They package and transport
glycoproteins.
 They are involved in secretion of
synthesized proteins and
carbohydrates.
 They manufacture lysosomes.
Note: Golgi bodies are abundant in cells
that are active in secretion. For instance,
pancreatic cells secrete enzymes and the
nerve cells secrete neurotransmitter
substances.
 Page 14 of 76
Centrioles
These are rod shaped structures located
just outside the nuclear membrane.
They take part in cell division and also in
the formation of cilia and flagella in lower
organisms.
Plant cells lack centrioles.
Chloroplasts
 Chloroplasts are egg-shaped
structures surrounded by two
membranes and contain a gel like
stroma through which runs a system
of membranes that are stacked
together to form grana.
 The granum contains chlorophyll
which traps light energy that is used
during photosynthesis.
 It is in the chloroplasts that
photosynthesis takes place
Procedure of lighting a burner
1. Connect the side tube hose to the table
gas outlet.
2. Clear the table of any flammable
material like hair and clothing.
3. Adjust the barrel so that the air intake
openings are closed and then open the
intake openings
4. Open the gas valve on the table and
light the burner.
5. Turn the barrel so that the flame is
pale blue with a dark blue inner cone.
6. Set up the support sand, ring and wire
screen.
7. Always allow the burner to cool before
handling it after carrying out an
experiment.
Safety measures when using a Bunsen
burner
 Always turn off the gas taps after
doing an experiment.
 Incase you are using other burners like
stoves; make sure they are put off after
an experiment.
Using a pooter
It is an apparatus that is used to suck
small animal from rock surface or barks of
trees.
How to use a pooter to collect small
insects in a specimen bottle
 Put the end of the pooter furthest from
the joint into the mouth.
 Place the other end of the pooter
within a few centimetres of the small
insects being collected from the
specimen bottle.
 Gently suck in so that the small insect
is vacuumed into the straw and up
against the nylon net.
 Place the pooter over a container,
remove your finger from the end and
gently tap the straw to release the
small insects.
Safety when cutting a specimen
Specimen are dead or live organisms used
in a biology laboratory. Below are
procedures for cutting specimens:
 Place finger tips far from the cutting
points.
 Cut the specimen while placing it on a
table and not on the palm.
Handling accidents in a laboratory
 Inform a teacher about accidents as
soon as it has occurred.
 In case of fire in a laboratory, follow
the following:
 Page 15 of 76
1. Do not try to put it off, quietly
move out and help students move
out.
2. Do not scream as you move out
3. Do not block other students as
they move out.
 In case of smell of leaking gas, call the
teacher immediately. Check all gas
taps to ensure they tightly closed.
 During experiments, do follow these:
1. Do not touch blood of the injured
part
2. Wear gloves when assisting
injured person
 In case of acid spills
1. Wash the acids with a lot of water.
Do not touch it with your bare
hands or skin.
2. If it was splashed onto your body,
wash clean water until itching
stops.
 In case of injury by a broken glass,
contact a teacher for assistance. Do not
try to remove it yourself.
 In case of swallowing chemicals, go to
the teacher for assistance.
Using hands lens
 Hold lens with one hand
 Place the specimen on a table
 Put lens over the specimen
 Look down through the lens
 Move the lens up and down slightly
until the image is in focus
 Draw the image of the specimen as
seen through the lens
Using a pitfall trap
This used for trapping small animals such
as insects. A container is placed inside a
pit. A bottle contains preserving agents
like pet safe anti – free or soapy water.
Biological drawing
Qualities of a good biological drawing
 It must be large enough
 It must be detailed
 It must be clear
 It must have a magnification
Drawings in Biology
 A good biological drawing looks
simple and uncomplicated.
 It should be drawn with clear, single
lines
 Do not have several ‘goes’ at a line so
that it ends up being fuzzy
 Use an HB pencil and a good eraser,
so that when you make a mistake
(which you almost certainly will) you
and rub it out completely show the
overall shape, and the proportions of
the different components of the
structure you are drawing, accurately
not include shading or colouring
 Be large, using most of the space
available but not going outside that
space (for example, it should not go
over any of the words printed on the
page).
 You may be asked to label your
drawings.
1. The label lines should be drawn
with a ruler and pencil, and the
end of the line should precisely
touch the part of the diagram you
are labelling.
2. Do not use arrowheads.
3. The label lines should not cross
over one another.
4. The labels themselves should be
written horizontally (no matter
what angle the label line is at), and
should not be written on the
drawing.
Recording measurements
Measurements are taken from the
following variables: temperature, volume,
capacity, height, length and mass.
Measurement of length
 Page 16 of 76

It refers to how long an organism is Thermometer

measured in meters. It is measured using
a meter ruler or a tape measure
Meter is the standard unit for measuring
length but it is too large to measure small
things. Other smaller units are millimetres
and centimetres.
Ruler and tape measure are used for
taking length of an object.
Measuring mass
A scientist or biologist must have a
standard way of measuring mass of a
substance. This can be done by using
beam balance which is a special
instrument for measuring mass of a
substance.

Beam balance

Measuring temperature
Thermometers are used for measuring
Measuring volume
temperature.
 Cubic metre is the standard unit for
measuring volume. Measuring
Temperature refers to how hot or cold
cylinders, burettes and pipettes are
something is. It is measured in degrees
used for measuring volume in a
Celsius by a thermometer.
laboratory.
 Volume of liquids can be measured by
Types of thermometers
using a measuring cylinder
 Ordinary thermometer
 Volume of regular objects can be
 Clinical thermometer
found by multiplying the length,
width and by height.
Differences between clinical and
 Volume of irregular objects can be
ordinary thermometer
found by the difference in liquid rise
when the object is placed in a
measuring cylinder.

1. Area
It is calculated by multiplying the
length and the width of the object if it
is rectangular
How to calculate the area of a leaf
 Page 17 of 76

Step 1: Trace the leaf margin on a Getting information from reading a

squared paper
Step 2: Count how many full squares
are found in the leaf
Step 3: Count all the halves and more
than halves squares and divide by 2
Step 4: Add the total squares with
those found in step 3
passage
You need to summarize information in
different ways
a) If a passage describes an object you
label the diagram
b) If a passage describe several factors
you summarize by making a table
c) If a passage describes a process you
summarize by making a flow diagram

Other ways of summarizing information

 Making short notes using your
own words
 Write questions from the passage
and try to answer them later

1. Judging statements
Statements can be assumptions,
opinions or facts

Assumption or opinion
Full squares = 12
Is statements taken for granted to be
Halves & above = 11 divide by 2
true
Total area = 21
E.g. I will eat a lot tomorrow
He will be sick again
Measurement of time
Second is the standard unit for measuring
Facts
time. Digital watch and a stopwatch are
A fact is a statement that can be
used for measuring time.
proved true
E.g. Malaria is caused by plasmodium
Study skills in learning biology
If you drink a lot of water you urinate
Study is a careful examination of
frequently
something with an aim of understanding
the information that is being
Opinion
communicated. It includes all techniques
An opinion is a statement that cannot be
or ways to carry out effective study with
proved true
an aim of understanding information
E.g. When it is hot, rains will fall
being studied.
Assertions
The following are some of the study skills:
Assertions are statements that can be
a. Getting information from reading a
either facts or opinions
passage
b. Judging statements
c. Making biological drawing Assertion Reason
The laboratory Because Fire can start any
should be well time if ventilation
ventilated is poor
 Page 18 of 76

2. How to judge predictions

Predictions are based on relationship
between events
E.g. If you eat too much you will be
constipated.
If you drink a lot of water you will
produce a lot of urine.
 In the first prediction, condition lies on
eating too much while the second has
a condition based on the amount of
water drunk. Relationship:
Which of the following is true?  As time increases the height also
The assertion is true but the reason is a increases.
false statement  Variables investigated in the graph
above are height and time.
Fair testing
Example 2
Variables Effects of DDT chemical on the population
Variables are things that change between of grasshoppers
organismsto the other.

Plants may differ in the following

 Height
 Hardness
 Size
 Thickness
 Shape
 Number of leaves
 Number of flowers As time increased the population of
grasshoppers decreased.
A connection between variables is called a When you have a straight line graph, it is
relationship. A relationship can be found easy to predict the future events.
by using a graph. E.g. relationship E.g. on population of goats in a country
between the time and height of a plant

Growth of a plant

TIME (Days) HEIGHT (cm)

0 1.0
2 1.5
4 3.0
6 4.5
8 5.2
10 6.0
 Page 19 of 76
From the graph you may predict the
population of goats in 7th year time.
FAIR TESTING
It is the testing that involves keeping all
other variables constant (the same) and
changing only one variable at a time.
When looking for a relationship or testing
an idea or explanation we must work with
at least two variables
a. Input variable
b. Output variable
Example 1
Does the amount of urine produced depend
on the amount of water drunk?
There are two variables to be considered
 Amount of water
 Urine production
We can change or control one of the
variables at will to observe the effect on
the other. The variable that we choose to
change is called the input variable
(amount of water drunk).the variable that
we want to observe (urine output) is
called an outcome variable.
Example 2
John wanted to find out which soap of the
same volume weighed heavier. He took
Lifebuoy soap and Sunlight soap and
weighed each on a triple beam balance.
Input variable…….. Type of soap
Output variable….. Mass
Writing a biological report
At the end of the investigation a report
should be written. It should include the
following:
 What was investigated
 What variables were changed
 What variables were
measured(outcome)
 What variables were kept constant
 A table of results (if appropriate)
 A conclusion
Investigative techniques and skills
An investigation is an activity of finding
out through experimentation about
something.
Activities involved in an investigation
 Making observation
 Recording data
 Analyzing data
 Making conclusions
 Writing reports
 Page 20 of 76

LIVING THINGS AROUND US

1. List the characteristics of living things

2. Classify living things
3. Identify living things using keys, hierarchy and scientific names
4. Construct food chains and food webs
5. Identify feeding structures in animals

Living things are classified into plants and
animals
Characteristics of living things
1. Growth
It is an increase in the size of an organism.
All living things grow from young to adult.
E.g. blinking an eye when a fly passes close
the eye
6. Excretion
It is the removal of metabolic wastes from
an organism, E.g. Urination, sweating
7. Reproduction
This is a process where new organisms
arise from the already existing ones either
by sexual or asexual means.

A cell of an organism
 A cell is a unit of life
 It is a building block of an organism
 A cell is called a unit of life because all
organisms are made up of cells
 A group of cells form a tissue
 A group of tissues foe an organ
 A group of organs form an organism

Plant cell

2. Feeding
It is the taking in of food into the body for
growth and energy.
3. Respiration
It is the process in which energy is released
from food in the body of an organism.
Both plants and animals respire.
4. Locomotion
It is the movement of the whole organism Animal cell
from one place to the other.
Animals move in search for food mates
and escape from danger.
5. Irritability or sensitivity
It is the ability to respond to changes in the Functions of cell parts
environment. 1. Nucleus
Irritability helps an organism to escape  It controls all activities of a cell. E.g.
from danger that may interfere with its life.  Respiration
 Cell division
 Page 21 of 76

 Excretion carbohydrates in excess

2. Cell membrane the form of starch carbohydrates in
It controls the movement of substances in in starch granules the form of starch
and out of the cell in starch granules
3. Chloroplasts  It is usually larger  It is usually
 It is where photosynthesis takes place. in size. smaller in size.
 Chloroplasts have a green pigment
called chlorophyll which absorbs  Have definite  Have no definite
sunlight. shape shape
4. Vacuole  Have cell wall  Have no cell wall
Vacuole stores food substances for the cell.
Vacuole is filled with a fluid called cell sap. Classification of living things
Cell sap contains salts, sugars and other Classification is the process of grouping of
sub nutrients. organisms according to similarities and
5. Cell wall differences.
It protects the cell from external pressure
The cell is made up of cellulose.
Importance of classification of organisms
Similarities between a plant cell and an  Classification systems improve our ability
animal cell to explain relationships among things.
 Both cells have nucleus  Classification helps in identifying living
 Both cells have cytoplasm organisms into their correct groups for
 Both have cell membranes reference.
 Both have mitochondria  Classification helps in avoiding chaos and
 Both have golgi bodies confusion when dealing with animals as it
 Both have ribosomes arranges the information on organisms in
an orderly manner.
Differences between plant and animal cells  Classification brings together living
Plant cell Animal cell organisms with similar characteristics
 Has cell wall  Do not have cell together but separate those with different
wall features.
 Has fixed shape  Do not have fixed  Taxonomic systems provide relatively
shape stable, unique, and unequivocal names for
 Has chloroplasts  Do not have organisms
that contain chloroplasts that  It makes the study of such a wide variety
chlorophyll contain of organisms easy.
chlorophyll  It projects before us a good picture of all
 It makes its own  It does not make life forms at a glance.
food through its own food  It helps us understand the interrelationship
photosynthesis. through among different groups of organisms.
photosynthesis.  It serves as a base for the development of
 Has large  Do not have large other biological sciences such as
centralized centralized biogeography etc.
vacuole which is vacuole which is  Various fields of applied biology such as
filled with cell sap filled with cell sap agriculture, public health and
 Does not have  Have centrioles. environmental biology depend on
centrioles. classification of pests, disease vectors,
 Stores excess  Does not store
 Page 22 of 76

pathogens and components of an Classes of consumers

ecosystem. 1. Herbivores
 These are animals that feed directly on
Things to consider when classifying plants
 Method of feeding  They have a longer alimentary canal
 Movement than other animals
 Chlorophyll presence  Examples include sheep and cattle.
 Sensitivity  Goats, sheep and giraffe have two
 Cellulose on cells feeding habits such as grazing and
browsing. Browsing is the feeding on
Grouping living organisms according to leaves of trees.
similarities 2. Carnivores
 Similarities can be in terms of wings,  These are animals that feed on other
feathers mammary glands, body animals E.g.
appearance and beak.  Leopard
 Crocodile
Grouping living organisms according to  Eagle
differences  They have sharp pointed canines for
 Similarities can be in terms of wings, tearing the flesh especially mammals
feathers mammary glands, body and reptiles such as crocodiles.
appearance and beak  Carnivorous birds have sharp curved
beaks and strong claws for catching
Grouping living organisms according to their the prey
habitats  Snakes like python have loose jaws to
 Habitats of organisms include land or soil, enable them swallow another animal
fresh water, salty water and trees. bigger than its head.
3. Omnivores
Grouping living organisms according to their  These are animals that feed on both
feeding methods plants and animals
 Examples include monkeys and humans

DICHOTOMOUS KEY
A dichotomous key is a tool used by biologists to identify organisms in a group through a process of
answering yes or no questions about the organism. Dichotomous means ‘divided into two parts’, as
each question about an organism has two choices.
There are dichotomous keys to identify animals, insects, plants and many other things. When a
question is answered, then two more choices are presented until there are no more choices to be
made and you have identified the organism.

Example
Use the key to identify the three unknown trees whose leaves are shown below.
1. Leaves alternate ........................................................................................................... 2
Leaves opposite or whorled ...................................................................................... 7
2. Leaves simple ..............................................................................................................3
Leaves compound....................................................................................................... 6
3. Leaves fan-shaped with notch at tip ........................................................................gingko
Leaves not fan-shaped, lacking notch at tip .......................................................... 4
 Page 23 of 76

4. Leaves entire ............................................................................................................ magnolias

Leaves lobed or toothed ........................................................................................... 5
5. Leaveslobed .............................................................................................................. oaks
Leaves toothed.......................................................................................................... elms
6. Leaflets small............................................................................................................. honey locust
Leaflets large ............................................................................................................. yellow wood
7. Leaves whorled ........................................................................................................ catalpa
Leaves opposite........................................................................................................ 8
8. Leaves simple..............................................................................…………………...9
Leaves compound ........................:.......................................................................... 10
9. Leaves palmately lobed........................................................................................... maples
Leaves entire............................................................................................................. dogwoods
10. Leaves palmately compound ................................................................................ buckeyes
Leaves pinnately compound.................................................................................ashes
 Page 24 of 76
Historical background of Classification
 Carolus Linnaeus, a Sweddish biologist is
largely credited for his significant
contribution to the development of the
modern classification system.
Taxonomic Units of Classification
Taxonomic units of classification refer to the
groups or taxa into which organisms are
All living organisms are classified into five
major kingdoms:
a. Kingdom Monera
This is composed of microscopic
unicellular organisms mainly bacteria e.g
amoeba.
b. Kingdom Protoctista
This kingdom is comprised of members
who are microscopic. Though, some are
large enough to be seen with the naked
eyes. Members of this kingdom include
algae and protozoa.
c. Kingdom Fungi- Members of this kingdom
comprises the mushrooms, toadstools,
moulds and yeast.
d. Kingdom Plantae
This kingdom comprises the moss plant,
ferns, maize plants, hibiscus, meru oak tree
etc.
e. Kingdom Animalia
Members of this kingdom include the
tapeworms, hydra, fishes, human beings,
lizards, earthworms etc.
In hierarchy of classification, a kingdom is
further divided into several phyla (plural of
phylum) or divisions (in plants). Within the
phyla or divisions, organisms are further
sorted out into groups known as classes based
on their similarities and mode of life. Each
class is further subdivided into small groups
called orders based on structural similarities.
Orders subdivide into families which
subdivide into genera (plural for genus).
Genera are then subdivided into smaller units
of classification called the species.
Species is the smallest unit of classification
whose members share many similarities and
can freely interbreed to give rise to fertile or
viable offsprings. Members of a particular
species can, however, exhibit various
differences e.g. differences in skin colour or
body forms.
Within the species, organisms can further be
classified based on the differences in colour or
forms.
In humans, this gives the races, in animals the
term used is breed while in plants, variety is
preferred. In bacteria, the term strain is used to
describe the variant forms.
Members of different but very closely related
species can breed but the resulting offspring
will be sterile (infertile). In particular, a mule is
a sterile offspring between a horse and a
donkey. Moving from kingdom to species, it is
important to note that the number of
organisms in each taxon decreases. The
similarities, however, increase as one move
from kingdom to species.
Scientific Naming of Living Organisms
 Scientific naming involves assigning an
organism two names in Latin language.
The naming system was developed by
Carolus Linnaeus in the 18th century.
 Organisms always have common names
and scientific names. Common names are
local names by which the organisms are
known in the vernacular languages. In
particular, a cat is an English name, mbura
is a luo name, paka is a Swahili name,
mphaka is a Chewa name etc. these names
differ across cultures and cannot be used
by scientists to communicate across the
world. This makes sharing scientific
knowledge on organisms very difficult.
There was need for a common language
and this led to development of scientific
language in Latin.
 Page 25 of 76
 Latin was the preferred language since it
was the first language of civilization that
was widely spoken at that time. Similarly,
Latin language is a dead language hence
not subjected to a lot of changes. The
scientific names are, therefore, static.
 Scientific names are the valid names by
which organisms are known all over the
world.
 In scientific naming, an organism is
assigned a specific name that is unique.
The specific name adopts two names. This
implies that the specific scientific name of
an organism has two names. This double
naming system is known as binomial
nomenclature.
 In binomial nomenclature, an organism is
assigned its genus name and species name.
 Assigning of scientific names to living
organisms is governed by a definite set of
rules which are internationally recognized
and referred to as binomial nomenclature
which literally means the rule of double
naming system.
Rules of Binomial Nomenclature
Binomial nomenclature requires that:
1. The first part of the scientific name is that
of the genus name which should begin
with a capital letter. The second name is
that of species. The species name should be
written in small letters e.g.
a. Maize- Zea mays
b. Lion - Panthera leo
c. Leopard - Panthera pardus
d. Domestic dog - Canis familiaris
e. Human being - Homo sapiens
Food chains
A food chain is a single link showing an
organism feeding to obtain energy stored in
another organism. Food chain begins with
producers. E.g.
This shows that grass is eaten by grasshopper
and the grasshopper is eaten by praying
mantis. The arrow shows a process taking
place (eaten by).
Food web
A food web is a multi-link of organisms
feeding relationship.
A single step or link in food chain or food web
is called a trophic level
Energy transfer in the food chain
 Green plants make their own food through
a process called photosynthesis. After food
has been made the plant uses some for
growth and other functions.
 When herbivores which are also called
primary consumers eat them, they are used
in the body. Some are stored for future use.
 Secondary consumers (carnivores) eat
herbivores to obtain the stored food and
use them for body growth.
 This shows that the energy from the
producers move from one energy level to
the other.
 When organisms die, energy form changes.
 They may decompose to coal and used in
homes as a source of energy (fuel).
Food pyramids
A food pyramid is a relationship showing the
number or mass of organisms in the food chain
There are two types of food pyramids namely
a. Pyramid of numbers
b. Pyramid of biomass
 Page 26 of 76
Pyramid of numbers
This one shows the number of organisms at
each level.
 As you move from the bottom to the top
the number of organism at each level. This
is because some energy is lost at each
trophic level because not all grass is eaten
as roots remain in the soil.
 Not all the grasshoppers are digested and
assimilated, since undigested food is
passed out as feaces.
 Some energy is lost through urine. This
trend continues up to the last energy level.
Pyramid of biomass
It is a total dry mass of organism at each
trophic level.
The organisms are killed, dried and weighted
to obtain a constant mass then recorded.
The pyramid of biomass shows a better
pyramid than pyramid of numbers because in
certain situation the pyramid can be
ambiguous as shown below.
The disadvantage of pyramid of numbers is
that organisms in the ecosystems are not
disturbed since they are not killed.
Interactions between organisms and physical
world
The physical world is composed of air.
 Air
 Soil
 Light
 Temperature
 Minerals
How water affects living organisms
 It is habitat for living organisms
 Some animals which live on land stay close
to water to capture other organisms as they
drink water e.g. Crocodile.
 Many plants grow where there is a lot of
water.
 Plants wilt because there is no water.
How soil affects living organisms
 Soil is home of living organisms.
 Soil contains nutrients that help the plants
to grow healthy.
 The nature of soil affects the distribution of
organisms. For example top soil has a lot of
organic substances.
 Most insects, plants and decomposers are
found in this part of the soil.
How light affects living organisms
 Light is important for the process of
photosynthesis.
 Light affects mobility of some animals.
Some animals cannot see in the dark while
other see well in the dark.
 Light affects egg production in birds. Much
light is harmful to organisms because it
damages the cells.
How temperature affects the living
organisms
 Cells of plants and animals do not work
well when it is too cold or too hot. As a
result of this plants and animals die.
 Temperature also affects germination of
seeds.
 Temperature affects how active an
organism will be. For example; cold
blooded animals hibernate when it is cold
and become active when it is warm
Feeding structures of mammals
 Mammals have teeth. Tooth is used for
biting and chewing food.
 The outer part and white part of a tooth is
called enamel. It protects the inner parts of
a tooth.
 Page 27 of 76
Types of teeth
1. Incisors
 They are found in front of jaws.
 They have wedge or chisel shape
 They used for cutting and biting food.
2. Canines
 They are located on the left or right of
the incisors
 They are pointed, used for piercing and
holding food.
 They are poorly developed and rarely
used.
3. Premolars
 They are found after the canines
towards the back of the jaw.
 They have broad top surfaces usually
with two projections called cusps.
 They used for crushing and grinding
food.
4. Molars
 They located at the back of a jaw.
 They have more than three cusps.
 They used for crushing and grinding
food.
The structure of mammalian tooth
External parts of a tooth
There are three main regions of a tooth such
as:
a. Crown projects above the gum.
b. Root is fixed in a socket of a jaw bone.
c. Neck is a narrow part that lies between a
crown and root as illustrated in the figure
below.
Internal parts of a tooth
a. Enamel
It is the outer part of a tooth which is very
hard to provide protection to internal
parts. It is made up of dead tissues.
 Page 28 of 76

Functions of Periodontal membrane

 It contains cells that secret cement
 It allows the tooth to move slightly to
avoid breaking during chewing.

Care for teeth

 Brushing teeth after every meals to prevent
tooth decay
Functions of enamel  Do not sugary food such as sweets and
 It protects internal parts of a tooth from soda between meals.
infection  Eating hard foods like sugarcane and
 It protects internal parts of a tooth from carrots in order to strengthen teeth
mechanical damage  Eating diet rich in calcium, phosphate and
 It provides hard biting surface for chewing vitamins A, C and D.
food.  Teeth should be used for their correct
purpose.
Dentine  Regularly visit the dentist if necessary.
It is found immediately after enamel. It is
made up of living cells. Tooth diseases
a. Dental Carries
Functions of dentine b. Periodontal Diseases
 It forms the bulky of a tooth  It is aused by lack of vitamins A and
 It replaces worn out enamel C, lack of massage of the gums and
 It prevents tooth from decaying imperfect cleaning of gums.
 The gums become flabby and soft so
Pulp cavity they do not support the teeth.
It is located at the centre of a tooth which  It is common in adults than children.
contains numerous blood capillaries and  There are of two types:
sensory nerves. 1. Gingivitis
It is characterized by reddening of
gums, bleeding and pus in the
gums.
Functions of pulp cavity 2. Pyorrhea
 The blood capillaries supply nutrients and The teeth become loose due to
oxygen to the cells of the pulp cavity. infection of the fibres holding the
 The sensory nerve fibres have nerve teeth in the sockets.
endings that make the tooth sensitive to
the temperature and pain. Teeth for dogs (carnivore)
 Special cells in the pulp cavity produce
dentine which forms the bulk of the tooth.

Cement
It is similar to a bone structure. It holds the
tooth in its socket in the jaw bone.

Periodontal membrane
It is located between the cement and the jaw
bone in the socket of the tooth.
 Page 29 of 76

 When chewing, powerful cheek muscles

 They have large, long and pointed
canines for capturing, piercing and
killing prey.
 They have all the four types of teeth
 They have modified molars with
pointed edges so as for breaking and
grinding food.
 Dogs have large carnassial in the upper
jaw have sharp cutting edges.
 The upper jaw and lower jaw carnassial
teeth pass against each other during the
up and down jaw movement. They act
like shears or scissors.
move jaws up and down and from side to
side allowing the ridges of the upper jaw
molars to fit closely into those of the lower
jaw as they grind the grass.
Feeding in birds
Beaks of birds
Feeding in birds is determined on the type and
shape of beaks as illustrated below.
1. Hawk

Teeth of herbivorous animals (goats or

sheep)
 Sheep and goats have no upper incisors
 Beak is short, thick, curved and
and canines. Instead they have horny pad
pointed.
 There are large canines and incisors on a
 It is used for tearing meat.
lower jaw.
 The beak is found in all carvorous
 During grazing, the lower incisors and
birds.
canines press and cut the grass against the
horny pad.
2. Wood pecker
 Premolars and molars are large in size and
similar in shape.

 The beak is strong and pointed which

acts as a chisel and crowbar for
removing barks of trees and finding
insects.

3. Chicken
 There is a large gap, called diastema
between the front teeth and the molars of
lower jaw. Diastema creates a space for the
tongue to move in such a way that the
chewed grass is separated from the
recently ingested grass.
 Cusps increase the surface area of molars
for grinding grass.  Beak is pointed.
 It is used for picking insects
 Page 30 of 76

8. Swift
4. Stork

 Beak is designed for feeding on seeds.

 The beak is long for small aquatic
9. Duck
animals such as fish and frogs.

5. Hornbill

 Beak is wide for searching food in mud.

Feet of birds
 The beak is strong for eating fruits.
Feeding in birds is also determined on the type
and shape of their claws. Different types of feet
6. Parrot
of birds are adapted to their mode of feeding
as illustrated below.

1. Hawk

It has strong hooked beak used for cracking

nuts.

7. Sunbird

 Feet have sharp and curved claws

called talons with rough bumps on
their toes for holding on to slippery
fish.
 Their feet are used for catching and
killing prey.
 They are good hunters. They feed in
 The beak is long and sharp for sucking
chicks, fish, rats and other small
nectar from flowers.
animals.
 Page 31 of 76

2. Woodpecker 5. Water – duck

 They have two toes up front and two

toes in the back.
 This gives them a powerful grip for
clinging on the sides of trees.
 Woodpeckers feed on insects on the
side of a tree.
 There are three front toes connected by
a web of skin which help them to move
on/in water and walk on mud.

3. Chicken 6. Pigeon

 Chicken feet have short claws at the tip.

 Feet are sued for scratching food like  There are four toes for hopping and
insects and seeds. clinging tree branches.

4. Heron 7. Sparrow

 Their feet are slender which are

adapted for perching and grasping
 There are long toes suitable for twigs. They feed on seeds.
walking on mud.
 They feed on small animals on
swampy areas.
 Page 32 of 76

FLOWERING AND NON – FLOWERING PLANTS

1. Describe characteristics of flowering and non-flowering plant

2. Describe the external features of flowering and non-flowering plants
3. Describe habitats for different groups of plants

Plants are divided into flowering and non-

flowering plants.

Non flowering plants

They are flowers that do not bear flowers or
seeds. Non – flowering plants are grouped into
the following categories:
 Algae
 Liverworts
 Mosses
 Ferns
 Confers

Characteristics of non–flowering plants

2. LIVERWORTS
1. ALGAE  They grow in shady damp places
 They live mainly in water habitat  It has no stem, no leaves and no roots
 There are two main classes of algae  It has a thallus body
i. Unicellular algae e.g.  Structures that are seen looking like
o Diatoms roots are called rhizoids.
o Volvos  Liverworts reproduce by:
o Euglena o Vegetative
o Unicellular algae are o Spores
microscopic
ii. Multicellular algae e.g. spirogyra
Giant sea weed
Multicellular algae can be seen
with our naked eyes
 Algae have chloroplasts which help
them to make their own food by
photosynthesis
 Multicellular algae have a thallus body
 Algae reproduce
a. Vegetative (asexually)
b. By conjugation (sexually)
 Spirogyra have no roots, no stem and
no leaves
 Page 33 of 76

3. MOSSES

 They grow on tree surfaces, in water

and in shady damp places.
 They have true roots, true stems and
 They grow in damp shady places true leaves.
 E.g. on logs  They have an underground stem
 Sides of the walls called rhizome
 Rocks  They reproduce by spores.
 They have a thallus body
 They have root-like structures called 5. CONFERS
rhizoids  They are evergreen plants
 They reproduce by spores  They have roots, stems and leaves
 Leaves look like needles. E.g. Pine
4. FERNS  The bark of the stem is brown and has
an odour smell of resin when cut.
 They reproduce by sexual reproduction
where seeds are formed in cones. Pollen
moves by wind from male to female
cones.
 Confers grow on mountains or upland
places.

A summary of non- flowering plants

 Page 34 of 76

Flowering plants
They are plants that bear flowers such as
beans, maize and mangoes.

There are two types of flowering plants

 Monocots
 Dicots

1. Monocots
Monocots are plants whose seeds have
only one cotyledon
STEMS
Examples
There are four types of stems
 Maize
1. Erect stem
 Millet
2. Creeping stem
 Sorghum
3. Climbing stem
 Wheat
4. Underground stem
Characteristics of monocots
 Seeds have only one cotyledon
 Leaves have parallel venation
 Flowers are wind pollinated
 Roots have fibrous system
 When seeds germinate it is buried in the
soil

2. Dicots
Dicots are plants whose seeds have two
cotyledons
Examples
 Beans
 Ground nuts
 Pumpkins
 Mangoes

Characteristics of dicots
 Seeds have two cotyledons LEAVES
 Leaves have reticulate venation There are two types of leaves
 Flowers are insect pollinated 1. Simple leaf
 Roots have tap root system 2. Compound leaf
 When seed germinates the shoot takes with
it out of the soil
A Simple leaf
Root systems It is a leaf that has only one leaflet joined to the
stem by petiole
 Page 35 of 76

Leaf arrangement
a. Alternate arrangement Compound leaf
It is a leaf that has many leaflets attached to
the stem by a petiole
Types of compound leaves
There are four types of compound leaves

1. Pinnate

2. Bipinnate

b. Opposite leaf arrangement

3. Trifoliate

c. Whorled leaf arrangement

4. Digitate
 Page 36 of 76

Leaf venation Characteristics of wind pollinated flowers

Venation refers to the arrangement of veins in
a leaf.
There are two types of leaf venations
 Anthers are large and outside the flower
 Stigma is large and outside the flower
 They have tiny colourless petals
 Pollen made in huge quantities
 No nectary

Insect pollinated flowers

Parallel venation reticulate
venation

Monocots have parallel venation while dicots

have reticulate venation
FLOWERS
Flower is a reproductive part of a flowering
plant

Parts of a flower Characteristics of insect pollinated flowers

 Stigma  Anthers are small and inside the flower
 Anther  Stigma is small and inside the flower
 Petals  Large colourful petals
 Sepals  Has a nectary
 Ovary
 Ovules Differences between wind pollinated and
 Flower stalk insect pollinated flowers
Insect pollinated Wind pollinated
Types of flowers  Anthers are  Anthers hang
There are two types of flowers firmly loosely
 Wind pollinated flowers attached  Have no
 Insect pollinated flowers  Have nectar nectar
 Little pollen  A lot of pollen
There are two types of flowers is produced is produced
 Wind pollinated flowers  Have scent  Have no scent
They include grass, maize, rice, sorghum  Stigma is  Stigma is
and millet. positioned positioned
above anthers below anthers
 Petals are  Petals are dull
brightly colored
colored

Types of root systems

a. Tap root
b. Adventitious root

ROOTS
1. Tap root or primary root
 Page 37 of 76

which are branched or unbranched, fibrous or

storage, are known as adventitious roots and
constitute fibrous root system. E.g. Monocot
roots

Modified roots and their functions

1. Aerial roots: they absorb moisture from air
2. Prop roots: they are adventitious roots
which grow from the stem down into the
soil.
3. Buttress roots: they provide additional in
tall trees to provide strong anchorage for
the thick and tall tree trunks.
It develops from radicle and made up of one
main branch and other sub branches. The
primary roots and its branches constitute tap
root system, e.g. dicot roots.

2. Adventitious roots

4. Climbing roots: they are adventitious

roots which hold plants to a solid support.
5. Breathing roots: they absorb gases from
the air, e.g. Pneumatophore roots of
mangrove tree.

Functions of roots
 They anchor the plants firmly into the soil
 They absorb water and mineral salts from
the soil to be used by plants
 Some roots store and food substances for
the plant.

In some plants, after sometime of the growth

of tap root which arises from radicle, stops and
then roots, develop from other part of plant,
 Page 38 of 76

ANIMAL STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS

1. Describe characteristics of invertebrates

2. Describe characteristics of vertebrates

Animals are divided into vertebrate and Buterflies and moths

invertebrate animals. Vertebrates are animals
that have a back bone while invertebrate
animals have no back bone.
Groups of invertebrates
A butterfly and a moth are similar in structure
but differ in many ways.
Butterflies and moths feed on nectar using a
long mouth called proboscis. The larva of
butterflies and moths are called caterpillars

1. INSECTS
The body is divided into three parts:
 Head
 Thorax
Butterfly Moth
 Abdomen
 It moves during  It moves during
the day the night
The body is covered with an exo-skeleton
 Antennae have  Antennae are
made up of chitin
knobs(clubbed) pointed at tips
at the tips  When it rests the
The head has
 When it rests wings lie
a. Pair of antennae
wings are folded horizontally
b. Pair of compound eyes
vertically
c. Three parts of jaws
1. Mandibles
2. Two maxillae

The thorax has three segments. On each

segment there is a pair of jointed legs
Examples of insects
1. Beetles Butterfly Moth
2. Mosquitoes
3. Houseflies Flies and mosquitoes
4. Butterflies They have a very sharp mouth parts called
proboscis for piercing
Grasshoppers They are vectors because they transmit
They are insects with sharp chewing mouth diseases
parts e.g. locusts
They can be controlled by spraying chemicals
Locusts belong to the group of grasshoppers

They are very dangerous at destroying crops

 Page 39 of 76

Social insects
Vector Disease These are insects that live in community e.g.
Housefly Cholera,  Wasps
dysentery,  Bees
diarrhea  Termites
Tsetse fly Sleeping  Ants
sickness
They depend on one another for:
Anopheles Malaria
 Food
mosquito
 Shelter
Culex mosquito Elephantiasis
 Protection
 Reproduction
They can be controlled by
 Spraying chemicals
They have a division of labour
 Good sanitation
Some insects are specialized for working,
others for defense while others for
Beetles
reproduction.

Metamorphosis
It is the development of an insect from young
to adult

Types of metamorphosis
 Complete metamorphosis
 Incomplete metamorphosis

Complete metamorphosis
This is where the eggs hatch into larva which
changes to pupa and finally grow into an adult
Beetles are also insects
(imago).
Examples of beetles
 Weevils
 Blister beetle
 Ladybird

Blister beetles cause blister

Ladybird beetle can be used to control aphids
because they eat aphids

Bugs
These are also insects
They feed on plant and animal juices
Examples of bugs include
 Aphids Life cycle of butterfly
 Bed bugs
Insects that undergo complete metamorphosis
Bed bugs suck blood of animals including include
humans  Wasps
 Flies
 Page 40 of 76

 Ants  Chalk
 Bees pincers
 Beetles  The head has a pair of antennae
 The head and thorax are fused
Incomplete metamorphosis Crab
This is the development where eggs hatch into Crustaceans are carnivores they catch
larva that develops into an adult without pupa other animals using pincers.
stage. Their abdomen has swimmerets for
swimming
Examples include: Crabs, prawns

Life cycle of cockroach

The young insects that just develop from larva

are called nymphs. 4. NEMATODES
They have cylindrical bodies which are not
Insects that undergo incomplete
segmented. Nematodes reproduce
metamorphosis are: sexually. They have pointed bodies at one
 Grasshoppers end. Examples of nematodes include
 Termites Ascaris and hookworms
 Cockroaches
 Bugs

5. ARACHNIDS
 Their bodies are divided into two parts
 Cephalothorax
 Abdomen
3. CRUSTACEANS  They have several simple eyes
 They have an exoskeleton  They have four pairs of legs (8 legs)
 The skeleton is made up of  Their mouth parts are segmented and
 Chitin have pincers
 Page 41 of 76

Examples of mollusks snails, slugs (Cutfish

Examples of arachnids and cuttlefish)
1. Spiders a. Snail

Snails and slugs live on land

A snail uses a shell for protection
The rest of the body which is outside the shell
2. Ticks is called a foot.
A snail is a hermaphrodite animal; they have
both sexes (female and male parts).
7. ANNELIDS
They are segmented worms; they have chaetae
(bristles). They live in soil. They include
earthworms.

3. Scorpions

8. MILLIPEDES
They have long and segmented body with
many legs. Each body segment has two pairs
of legs.

Spiders have spinnerets which produce silk

for web- making.

Ticks can be eradicated by:

 Dipping
 Spraying chemicals

6. MOLLUSCS
They have soft bodies which are enclosed
by a shell with slimy muscular foot.
 Page 42 of 76

9. CENTIPEDES
They have long flat body with legs on either  A fish is a cold blooded animal
side of their bodies, with one pair of legs on  It moves by using fins
each segment.  The body is covered with scales
 It breathes using gills
 It reproduces sexually by external

2. BIRDS
 They are warm blooded animals.
 They move using legs.
 The body is covered with feathers and
legs with scales.
 They breathe using lungs.
 Fertilization is internal (viviparous).
10. COELENTERATES
 They are multicellular animals
 They live in water habitat
 Examples: jelly fish, blue-bottle, corals
and hydra

Hydra
 It lives in flesh water
 It can reproduce :
 Sexually
 Asexually by budding 3. MAMMALS
 They are warm blooded animals
Budding in hydra  They move using four limbs
 The body is covered with hairs
 They breathe using lungs
 Fertilization is internal (viviparous)

Examples: Bats, dogs and goats

GROUPS OF INVERTEBRATES Classes of consumers

1. Herbivores
1. FISH These are animals that feed directly on
plants. They have a longer alimentary
canal than other animals
Examples include: Sheep, cattle, elephant,
rabbit, and zebra
 Page 43 of 76

 Fertilization is by external (oviparous)

2. Carnivores
These are animals that feed on other
animals E.g. Dogs, leopard, crocodile and
eagle.

Frog

3. Omnivores
These are animals that feed on both plants
and animals.
Examples include monkeys and humans

Toad

5. REPTILES
 They are cold blooded animals
 They move using four limbs
 They breathe using lungs
 Fertilization is internal (oviparous or
viviparous)
 Examples: Snakes, tortoise, chameleon and
lizards
4. AMPHIBIANS
 They are cold blooded animals
 Examples:
o frogs
o Toads
 They move using four limbs
 The body is soft and moist
 They breathe using longs and skin
Page 44 of 76

Lizard

 They have front teeth called fangs that

inject poison into a prey to paralyse it.
 Snakes like python have loose jaws to
enable them swallow another animal
bigger than its head. Dog, leopard, etc.
 Page 45 of 76
HUMAN NUTRITION
1. Describe the different food nutrients
2. Test a given food stuff for starch, protein, reducing sugar and lipids
3. Investigate common sources of food nutrients in the communities
4. Plan a balanced diet
5. Describe deficiency diseases
Nutrition is the study of food and peoples’
eating habits.
Importance of food
a. Food provides energy
 Everybody needs energy to do
work. Energy is required for
walking, studying, eating, working
in the house or outside.
 You get this energy from the food
that you eat. You need energy even
when you are resting. Can you tell
why? Different organs inside your
body are always working, for
example, heart is pumping blood,
stomach is digesting food, lungs are
breathing in air, etc.
 All these organs need energy for
their respective functions and food
provides that energy.
b. Food helps in body building
 Our body is already made up of
thousands of small cells. New cells
are added to these to help the body
to grow.
 Food is needed for the formation of
new cells. Cells also die or are
damaged due to injury.
 New cells need to be formed and
this repair work is done with the
help of food.
c. Food regulates body processes and
provides protection against diseases
 Regulatory functions refer to the
role of food in controlling body
processes, for example, our body
temperature is maintained at 98.60F
or 370C.
 Similarly, the heart beats are also
maintained at 72 beats per minute.
 Excretion of waste products from
the body is also regular. If not, the
body suffers from a disease called
constipation which can lead to
further complications.
 All these processes are regulated by
the food that you eat.
 Nutrients are chemical substances
found in the food which affect
growth and development.
Groups of food nutrients
a. Macro elements and micro elements
Macro elements are nutrients that are
needed in large amounts such as
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and
water.
b. Micro nutrients
These are needed in small amounts
They include: mineral salts and
vitamins.
Classes of nutrients
There are six classes of food nutrients
1. Carbohydrates
2. Proteins
 Page 46 of 76

3. Lipids  Improves digestion process

4. Vitamins  Prevents hemorrhoids
5. Mineral salts  Prevents heart diseases
6. Water  Prevents diabetes
 Prevent cancer
CARBOHYDRATES  Helps one to feel satisfied after a
They are nutrients that contain molecules of meal.
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
PROTEINS
There are three types of carbohydrates Proteins are nutrients that are made up of
1. Monosaccharides carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen
2. Disaccharides molecules
3. Polysaccharides The smallest molecules of proteins are
called amino acids
Monosaccharides When amino acids join together form
 They are simplest sugar molecules peptides and peptides form proteins.
 They are the first products of
photosynthesis Functions of proteins
 Examples: glucose, fructose and  For repairing worn out body tissues
galactose  For body building
 Helps in formation of antibodies
Disaccharides
 They are double sugar molecules
 They are formed by condensation LIPIDS
process Lipids are fats and oils.
 Examples include Sucrose (very sweet), They are also made up of carbon
Maltose and Lactose hydrogen and oxygen
Fats are solid at room temperature while
Polysaccharides oils are liquid at room temperature
 They are long chains of sugars
 They are not sweet Fats and Oils
 Examples are Starch and Glycogen  Fats and oils are the concentrated source
of energy in our diet. 1 gm of fat gives 9
Functions of carbohydrates kcal of energy.
 For energy production  Fats are made up of small units called
 For building up certain body tissues fatty acids. The nature of fats is
dependent on the type of fatty acids
Carbohydrates in form of starch contain present. Fatty acids may be saturated or
high fiber content which is very important unsaturated.
in the body.  Saturated fatty acids are found in solid
fats whereas oils contain more of
Fiber has the following functions: unsaturated fatty acids.
 Page 47 of 76

 Vegetable oils are rich in unsaturated Two main types of vitamins

fatty acids. Do you know there is a 1. Water soluble vitamins e.g. Vitamin C
difference between fats and oils? 2. Fat soluble vitamins e.g. Vitamin A, D, E
 If a substance is liquid at room and K
temperature it is called oil and if it is
solid at the room temperature, it is Vitamins can be destroyed by
known as fat.  High heat temperature
 Light
Functions of fats and oils  Chemical agent
 Provide concentrated source of energy
 Reduce the use of proteins for energy WATER
 Carry fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) It is a compound made up of hydrogen and
into the body and help in the absorption oxygen molecules only.
of these vitamins Functions of water as a nutrient
 For production of high energy  Improves digestion process by making
 Insulates the body food soft
 Production of vitamin d  Helps in absorption of digested food
 For the building of cell tissues  Is a solvent of chemical substances e.g.
 Help to maintain body temperature. The Urea and carbon dioxide before expelled
layer of fat under the skin helps to out from lungs
conserve body heat  Helps to maintain blood volume
 Act as a cushion to certain vital organs  Helps to lubricate the joints. Helps to
 Help in growth of tissues maintain body temperature. When it is
hot water is lost through sweating.
Sources of fats and oils During sweating the body becomes
 Cooking oils, ghee, butter cooled.
 Oilseeds, nuts
 Meat, poultry, fish, eggs MINERAL SALTS
 Groundnuts oil They are inorganic elements which are
 Cotton seed oil required in very small quantities by
 Sunflower oil organisms for normal body growth.
 Whole milk, cheese Mineral salts like vitamins are needed in
small amounts.
Sources of fats They are obtained from the foods we eat.
 Margarine
 Butter The main types of mineral salts needed for
 Lard the body include
 Iodine
VITAMINS  Calcium
Are needed in small amounts but they are  Iron
very important for the body.  Fluorides
 Sodium
 Page 48 of 76

 Potassium  Young girls (12-18 yrs.) need move iron

 Phosphorous
IODINE
 It is found in eggs, sea foods, vegetables
and iodised salt.
 It is essential for the formation of
thyroxin called hormone.
CALCIUM
 It is found in milk, cheese, nuts and
green vegetables.
 The major function of calcium is the
formationand development of bones
and teeth. Calcium
 is also required in blood clotting and
muscular contraction.
Iron
 It is required in very small quantity by
the body. It is an important material
present in haemoglobin which is a part
of red blood cells and is responsible for
the red colour of blood.
 Whole grain cereals and pulses are the
major sources of iron in our diet.
 Other sources of iron are green leafy
vegetables, egg yolk, liver and meat. In
our country, majority of the population,
especially women and children, suffer
from iron deficiency disease called
anaemia.
rich foods in their diets because of loss
of iron during the menstrual cycle.
 Extra iron is also needed during
pregnancy for healthy development and
growth of the focus. This is not because
people do not consume foods which are
rich in iron but because the absorption
and utilization of iron is poor.
SODIUM
 It is found in common salts.
 It is used for keeping nerves in a good
working condition.
POTASSIUM
 It is found in meat, fish, cereals and
green vegetables.
 It promotes the proper functioning of
nerve cells.
MAGNESIUM
 It is found in almost all foods.
 It helps in the proper functioning of
muscles and nerves.
PHOSPHOROUS
 It is found in milk, cheese, eggs and
spinach.
 It is important for the formation of
strong bones and teeth.

Name Classification Functions Sources Deficiency

Vitamin A Fat soluble  Essential for normal Fish, cod liver  Night
growth oil, liver and blindness
 Development and carrot  Protective
maintenance of tissues of the
epithelial tissue eye become
 Essential for night dry and thick
vision
 Required for normal
bone development
 Page 49 of 76

 Functions as an
antioxidant
 Builds immune
system
Carotenoids Fat soluble  Functions as a
provitamin
 Functions as a phyto-
chemical
Vitamin D Fat soluble  Functions as a pro- Sunlight, egg  Rickets
(Calciferol) hormone yolk, fish oil,  Osteomalacia
 Supports normal liver, dairy or painful
bone development products bones that
 Phosphorus and fracture
calcium metabolism  Dental
cavities
Vitamin E Fat soluble  Functions as an Green  Muscle
antioxidant vegetables, weakness and
 Protects red blood legumes, paralysis
cells from hemolysis wheat, meat,
 Maintains epithelial yeast
tissue
Vitamin K Fat soluble  Normal blood clotting Green leafy  Failure of
 Bone metabolism vegetables, blood clotting
liver, egg yolk leading to
prolonged
bleeding even
from small
wounds
Vitamin B1 Water soluble  Energy metabolism Liver, peas,  Beriberi
(Thiamin)  Normal growth beans, meat characterised
 Maintains nervous by muscle
system weakness,
paralysis and
oedema.
Riboflavin Water soluble  Normal growth
 Energy metabolism
 Functions as a co-
enzyme
Niacin Water soluble  Part of the enzyme
system
 Fat synthesis
 Promotes glycolysis
 Page 50 of 76

Pantothenic Water soluble  Co-enzyme in

acid metabolism of
macronutrients
Vitamin B6 Water soluble  Functions as a co-
enzyme
 Tryptophan to niacin
conversion
 Normal growth
Folate Water soluble  Biosynthesis of
nucleic acids
 Normal maturation of
red blood cells
 Co-enzyme
Vitamin B Water soluble  Biosynthesis of
12 nucleic acids
 Metabolism of
nervous cells
 Folate metabolism
Biotin Water soluble  Enzyme component
 Macronutrient
metabolism
Vitamin C Water soluble  Promotes immune Citrus fruits, Scurvy
(Ascorbic response vegetables, characterised by
acid)  Wound healing tomatoes, bleeding gums
 Capillary integrity potatoes
 Increases iron
absorption

Mineral Sources Function Deficiency

symptoms
Calcium Milk, cheese,  Formation of Weak bones and
green strong bones and teeth
vegetables teeth
 Needed for muscle
contraction
 It helps in blood
clotting
Phosphorous Milk, milk Formation of strong Weak bones and
products, eggs, bones and teeth teeth
spinach
Iron Liver, egg yolk, Formation of Anaemia
 Page 51 of 76

green haemoglobin in red

vegetables blood cells and
myoglobin in muscles.
Pregnant women and
young people need
them more.
Sodium Common salt Keeps nerves in good Muscle cramps,
working conditions weakness,
dullness
Potassium Meat, fish, Proper functioning of Muscular
cereals, nerves, muscles and weakness
vegetables enzymes
Magnesium All foods  Strong bones and Muscle tremors
teeth
 Proper functioning
and convulsions of
muscles and nerves
Iodine Eggs, sea foods, Formation of thyroxine Goiter (swelling
vegetables, of thyroid gland
iodised salt in the neck)

Vitamin A deficiency  The disease causes neuritis, weakness

 Along with this there are many millions
of people with night blindness by
deficiency of vitamin A. A little
deficiency already causes skin
abnormalities.
 Vitamin A is also essential for our
defense against infection diseases, such
as contagious airways disorders.
Prevention
Eat egg yellow, liver, carrots, green
vegetables and fruit. Mark that also dairy
products are good for the ones that can take
it (lactase deficiency).
Vitamin B1
 Preferably called now thiamine. A
deficit of thiamine causes beriberi
and tiredness. Alcoholics also
sometimes have too little intake of this
vitamin resulting in having the same
mentioned symptoms.
Vitamin C
Ascorbic acid that prevents scurvy in
scurvy, teeth become loose and bleedings
occur such as in kidneys and in skin. The
remedy is: fresh vegetables and fruit.
Vitamin D
 A vitamin sits in fatty food, like cod
liver oil. Humans can produce it
themselves in skin under influence of
sunlight.
 Together with calcium this vitamin
provides for a healthy bone structure.
Lack of vitamin D causes rickets.
 Page 52 of 76

Factors that affect choice of food by people Whole grain products include: brown rice,
1. Tradition maize, sorghum and millet.
It is because they have been used from
the youth e.g. Nsima as the main meal Water is essential for the smooth
2. Affordability functioning of body organs and tissues.
People choose to eat food that they can
afford to find to purchase. E.g. Meat, Balanced diet
fish milk and cooking oil are expensive It is a type of diet that contains all the six
3. Convenience food substances in right amounts. These
People choose to eat food that can food substances include:
locally be found. Some foods are 1. Carbohydrates
seasonal such as fruits 2. Proteins
4. Religious beliefs 3. Lipids
Some people may not eat some foods 4. Vitamins
such as pork, caterpillars and flying 5. Mineral salts
insects because they regard them as 6. Water
unclean
5. Habit Examples of the diet which is balanced
Some people are used to eat certain 1. Break fast
foods just as a habit.  Porridge (whole grain maize flour +
E.g. some believe that breakfast is tea or groundnut powder+ iodized salt +
porridge fruit + a glass of water)
 Tea ( milk + sugar + potatoes/bread
Planning balanced diet with margarine + fruit )
When planning a balanced remember the  Nsima (whole maize flour + green
following guidelines: vegetables + groundnut powder +
1. Choose food from each category like fruit + water)
lean protein, low starch, healthy fat or 2. Lunch
oil and a whole grain product.  Sweet potatoes + G/nuts + fruit +
water
Lean protein include: Skinless chicken,  Nsima (whole maize flour + green
lean meat, eggs and fish. vegetables + groundnut powder +
fruit + water)
Low starch includes vegetables:  Rice + milk + margarine + fruit +
cabbage, carrot and spinach. vegetables + water
3. Supper
Healthy fats include: avocado, olive oil,  Sweet potatoes + G/nuts + fruit +
peanut oil, and most nuts. water
 Nsima (whole maize flour + green
Starchy vegetables include: maize, vegetables + groundnut powder +
green peas, green peas, potatoes, sweet fruit + water)
potatoes and cassava.
 Page 53 of 76

 Rice + milk + margarine + fruit +  It is common in children who are

vegetables + water stopped from breastfeeding before the
first 6 months after birth or when
When the diet is not balanced, a person mother fails to produce enough milk for
suffers from a deficiency disease. the child.

Common deficiency diseases in Malawi Sign and symptoms

 Weight loss
KWASHIOKOR  Oedema
 Meaning ‘red boy’, because the disease  Diarrhea
loses the pigment of for example the  Stunted growth
skin and the hair.  Hair is pale soft and straight.
 This is a serious consequence of protein
deficiency in food. This leads to oedema Prevention
for example: a swollen stomach, as a Balanced diet
result of stomach fluid leaking into the
abdomen when it is not kept in the MARASMUS
lymph’s by insufficient osmotic suction
of proteins;
 Furthermore it leads to apathy and
irritability.

Cause
 Starvation
 Shortage of carbohydrates

Signs and symptoms

Cause:  Thin body
 It is caused by lack of proteins in the  Monkey like face looking
diet.
 Page 54 of 76

 Wasted muscles NIGHT BLINDNESS

 Stunted or retarded growth
 Loss of appetite Causes
 A child usually develops diarhoea Insufficient amounts of vitamin A in the
 Dry and cracked skin diet.
 Thin arms and legs
 Reduced disease resistance Signs and symptoms
 Retarded growth
Prevention and treatment  Failure to see in dim light
Provision enough balanced diet  Drying of the skin in the cornea of the
eyes and the moist membranes of the
GOITER respiratory tract and urogenital system.

Effects
 Inability to see properly in dim light
 Skin and throat are affected

POOR BLOOD CLOTTING

Causes
Insufficient Vitamin K in the diet

Symptoms
Prolonged bleeding in case of injuries

Effects
Excessive loss of blood in case of injuries
Cause
 Lack of Iodine Control
Provide food rich in Vitamin K such as
Signs and symptoms vegetables, liver and egg yolk.
 Swelling of the thyroid glands
 Weight gain ANAEMIA
 Cold intolerance Cause
 Constipation Lack of iron in the diet
 General body weakness
Signs and symptoms
Prevention and treatment  Body weakness
 Use iodized salt in diet  Heart palpitation
 Surgical removal of the gland  Oedema
 Thyroid hormone replacement in cases  Paleness of mucosa membrane
it becomes severe
 Page 55 of 76

Prevention and treatment Signs and symptoms

 Use of iron tablets  Soft bones
 Eat iron rich foods e.g. eggs liver and green  Deformed legs or bow leggedness or
vegetables knock knees
 Enlarged tender joints
PELLAGRA  Bony chest
Cause  Poorly formed or soft teeth that easily
Lack of vitamin B2 in diet form cavities

Signs and symptoms Effects of rickets

 The skin becomes dry and rough and  Poor bone and teeth development
develops red patches  Weak bones in adults
 Sores in mouth and tongue and swell.  Bow – legged or deformed in adults
 Cracking and scaling of skin
 Diarrhea Prevention and treatment
 Nervousness  Include food containing vitamin D in
 Dizziness the diet
 Frequent exposure to sunlight
Prevention and treatment  Eating more fruits to be part of diet
 Diet rich in vitamin B2, e.g. use of
Vitamin B complex tablets or powder NIGHT BLINDNESS
 Include meat and whole bread in diet Cause
Lack of vitamin a
RICKETS
Signs and symptoms
Cause Loss of shine in the whites of the eyes
 Lack of vitamin D and enough calcium
in diet. Prevention and control
 Diet with yellow and red fruits
 Green vegetables

SCURVY
Cause
Lack of vitamin C

Signs and symptoms

 Gum bleeding
 Teeth become loose
 Wounds take long to heal
 Swollen and painful joints
 Lowered immunity
 Page 56 of 76

 Blood capillaries in the skin become  Taking vitamins and mineral tablets as
weak and easily burst. instructed by the doctor.
 Loss of energy
Prevention of deficiency diseases
Effects  Eating balanced diet
 Lowered immunity  Providing civic education on the food
 Weakened blood vessels preparation methods and balanced diet
 Poor iron absorption to all family members.
 Poor healing of wounds on injuries  Eat fortified foods whenever they are
available. E.g. maize meals can be
Prevention and treatment fortified with mineral ions.
 Diet including citrus fruits and green
vegetables OBESITY
This is a body disorder that results into
General causes of deficiency diseases weight gain as a result of over eating. It
 Lack of nutrients in the diet happens when the body accumulates too
 Body inability to absorb nutrients mare fats. The body size increases than the
 Illiteracy normal age, height and framework of a
 Poverty person.
 Poor preparation of food e.g.
Overcooking

Effects of deficiency diseases

 Stunted growth
 Blindness
 Increased chances of being infected
 Deformity
 Less community participation
 Loss of resources due to treatment of the
diseases
 Retarded community development and
nation
 Rickets causes deformation of bones in
children.
 Loss of parts of the body, e.g. teeth due
to lack of calcium.
 Retarded growth due to lack of proteins
 Mental retardation as a result of
kwashiorkor.
Ways of treating deficiency diseases
 Providing food with required nutrients
Causes of obesity
 Eating more food than the body requires
 Sedentary life (have less walk and work.
 Lack of physical exercises
 Heredity
 Feeding on diet of simple sugars which
are readily absorbed into the body if the
feeding is higher than the person uses.
Signs and symptoms
 Overweight
 Difficulty in breathing
 Increased body
 Page 57 of 76

Prevention and treatment Ways of treating deficiency diseases

 Regular exercises  Giving food with the required nutrients
 Reduced food energy uptake  Using vitamin and mineral tablets
 Avoid overeating  Eating fortified food.
 Feed on diet with a lot of vegetables and
less starch.

Vitamin Source Function Deficiency

A Green vegetables  Proper vision  Night blindness
fruits, milk, eggs  For immunity  Drying of eyes
 Reduced immunity
B1 Green vegetables  Helps in cell respiration  Beriberi,
fruits, milk,  Nervous system  Oedema,
mushrooms maintenance  paralysis,
 Normal heart function  memory loss
B2 Green vegetables  Helps in respiration
Milk, Cereals, bread,
meat
C Green vegetables  For immunity  Scurvy,
Fruits  For absorption of iron  Rough skin,
 For strong walls of  Painful joints,
blood vessels  Hysteria
D Green vegetables  For absorption of  Rickets
milk, Liver, Sunlight calcium and  Head enlargement
phosphorus  Weak bones
 For strong bones
 Page 58 of 76

DIGESTION IN MAMALS

1. Describe the parts and functions of the human digestive system

2. Outline the process of digestion
3. State the end products of digestion

 Digestion is the breaking down of food Chemical digestion

into small particles that can be absorbed.
Change complex organic nutrient
molecules into simple organic and
inorganic molecules that can be then be
absorbed into the blood or lymph to be
transported to cells.
 Digestion in mammals takes place along
a path called digestive tract or the
alimentary canal.
 The taking of food into the alimentary
canal is called ingestion.
 The taking of undigested food from the
alimentary canal is called egestion.
This is the breaking down of large
molecules of food into new and smaller
molecules through action of enzymes.
Advantages of chemical digestion
It makes food to be in such a form of small
molecules that can be absorbed into
bloodstream for body use.
Human digestive system

Types of digestion
There are two types of digestion namely:
a. Physical (Mechanical) digestion
b. Chemical digestion

Physical digestion
This is the breaking down of large pieces of
food into smaller pieces by exerting external
physical forces onto the food. Example of
physical digestion is chewing.

Advantages of physical digestion

 Ease swallowing; makes the food to be
in form which can be easily swallowed.
 Produce small surface area; smaller
pieces of food, it increases the surface
area of food on which enzymes act
during chemical digestion.
Digestion in different parts of the
alimentary canal
1. Mouth
 Digestion in the mouth is assisted
by the action of teeth and saliva.
 Teeth break down food physically
into smaller particles.
 Page 59 of 76
 In the mouth there are salivary
glands that produce saliva which is
secreted into the mouth through
salivary duct.
 The saliva is a mixture of water,
mucus and enzyme ptyalin
(salivary gland).
 When the food is taken into the
mouth is mixed with saliva.
 This saliva:
i. Softens the food so that it is
easily digested physically by
the teeth and tongue.
ii. Contains an enzyme ptyalin
which chemically digests
cooked starch into maltose.
iii. Makes food slippery due to the
mucus so that it is easily
swallowed.
Types of teeth
There are two main types of teeth such as:
a. Temporally teeth
b. Permanent teeth
Temporally teeth
They are also called milky teeth
They are the first to appear in a child as
he/she develops
They get replaced by permanent teeth
Permanent teeth
These develop replacing temporally teeth
Care for teeth
 Eat abrasive foods
 Brush teeth regularly with tooth paste
 Do not eat food with stones or metals
Oesophagus
 Behind the trachea is the oesophagus
(gullet) which takes food down to the
stomach.
 As you swallow, a piece of cartilage
called epiglottis covers the entrance
from the mouth into the trachea called
glottis, this stops the food from going
into the trachea.
 As a result food goes into the
oesophagus.
 The oesophagus is lubricated with
mucus produced by it.
 Remember that, there is no digestion of
food in the oesophagus.
Stomach
 Food is prevented from going back into
the mouth by cardiac sphincter muscle.
 It is also prevented from going directly
into duodenum by pyloric sphincter
muscle.
 It is an elastic sac with many glands.
 Its lining has many folds called rugae
which flatten to let it enlarge.
 Its walls secrete a digestive juice called
gastric juice which contains mucus,
hydrochloric acid (𝐻𝐶𝑙) and enzymes
including renin, chymotrypsin and
pepsin.
 Mucus covers the inner walls of the
stomach thereby protecting them from
being burnt by the𝐻𝐶𝑙.
 Hydrochloric acid
 Page 60 of 76
 Brings about the acidic PH essential
for the enzymes working in the
stomach.
 Kills germs that might be eaten
together with food
 Softens hard food particles such as
bones for easy digestion.
 Renin in babies coagulates milk into
a semi – solid form.
 Chymotrypsin breaks down a milk
protein in babies called Caseinogen
into Casein.
 Pepsin chemically digests proteins
into polypeptides.
Digestion in intestines
Duodenum
 Two secretions are made into the
duodenum.
a. Bile
b. Pancreatic juice
Liver
 It secrets bile juice which is stored in
gall bladder. The juice contains the bile
salts which emulsifies fats and
neutralizes acidic chime from stomach.
 Bile is produced by the liver but stored
in the gall bladder.
 Bile consists of iron and salt called
sodium bicarbonate.
 Bile physically breaks down drops of
fats into droplets of fats. This process is
called Emulsification, as such bile
emulsifies fats.
Pancreatic juice
 Pancreatic juice is secreted by the
pancreas.
 It consists of a salt called Sodium
Hydrogen Carbonate and enzymes
including lipase, trypsin and pancreatic
(ptyalin) amylase.
 The salt, sodium hydrogen carbonate
brings about the alkaline PH essential
for the pancreatic enzymes to work
properly.
 The enzyme lipase chemically breaks
down emulsified fats into fatty acids
and glycerol.
 Trypsin chemically digests
polypeptides into peptides.
 Pancreatic amylase chemically breaks
uncooked starch (polysaccharides) into
maltose.
Food in jejunum
 No enzymes are released
 Food is passed on to small intestines
Ileum
 Its walls secrete a digestive juice called
intestinal juice (Succus Intericus) which
is composed of enzymes such as
maltase, peptidase, sucrase, lactase and
cellulase.
 Maltase breaks down maltose into
glucose.
 Page 61 of 76
 Peptidase breaks down peptides into
amino acids.
 Sucrase breaks sucrose into glucose and
fructose.
 Lactase breaks lactose milk sugar into
galactose.
 Cellulase breaks down cellulose in
vegetables into glucose.
Food absorption
 Soon after chemical digestion is
completed, the small intestines tend to
have a higher concentration of food
substances than the surrounding blood
capillaries.
 End products of chemical digestion
therefore move by Diffusion and Active
transport from the small intestine into
bloodstream in surrounding blood
capillaries.
 This movement is called Food
Absorption. The end products are then
carried away in the capillaries to the
liver through Hepatic Portal vein.
 The liver changes any of the digestion
products. The digested food then
reaches the general circulation.
Functions of the small intestine
There are two functions of small intestine:
 Digestion of food
 Absorption of food substances
Adaptations of the small intestines for
absorption
 They have villi which increases the
surface area for absorption
 They are long. This also increases
surface area for absorption
 They have a dense network of blood
vessels for easy transportation of
nutrients.
 They have a thin wall (epithelium) for
easy diffusion of food substances.
Absorption of food in small intestines
 The small intestines have structures that
look like projections called villi.
 Each villus has a function to absorb
nutrients from food.
 The villus has a very thin wall called
epithelium that helps in quick and easy
diffusion of food substances.
The villi
They are small projections in the walls of
the small intestines.
Adaptations of villi to their function
 Thin walls; have extremely thin walls,
only one cell thick to make diffusion of
food substance faster.
 Presence of mitochondria; their cells
have mitochondria that provide energy
for food absorption that is, active
transport.
 Dense network of blood capillaries that
bring more blood into which more food
substances diffuse.
 Permeability; have a more permeable
lacteal into which fatty acids and
glycerol diffuse.
 Page 62 of 76

 Fatty acids and Glycerols are absorbed Functions of large intestine (colon)
by lacteal. They are carried for storage  Absorption of water
under adipose tissue of the skin.  Absorption of mineral salts
 Glucose, amino acids vitamins and
mineral salts are absorbed by blood Problems in digestion
vessels and carried to the liver.
1. CONSTIPATION
The final products of digestion
Carbohydrates – glucose Causes of constipation
Fats and oils – fatty acids/glycerol  Lack of roughages in the diet
Proteins – amino acids  Stress and anxiety
 Shortage of water in the diet
Undigested food in the large intestines  Illness
 The undigested food enters the large
intestines where water is absorbed and Treatment and prevention
feaces are formed.  Take a lot of water as diet
 Feaces are temporally stored in rectum  Use appropriate drugs
and then egested out.  Do a lot of exercises

Functions of the liver 2. ULCERS

 It produces bile
 It stores vitamin A, D and iron
 It converts excess glucose to glycogen
for storage
 It deaminates excess proteins
 It helps to neutralize poisonous
substances (detoxification).
Causes of ulcers
Too much hydrochloric acid produced
in the stomach.
Treatment and prevention of ulcers
 Eat food with a lot of roughages
 Avoid worries
 Get medical aid from the hospital
 Page 63 of 76

HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

1. Describe the components of the human circulatory system and their functions
3. Explain general functions of heart, and blood vessels
4. Draw and label parts of the human circulatory system
5. Explain the general blood circulation in the body
6. Describe functions of components of blood
7. Describe types of bleeding and their control

Circulation system It consists the following:

The human circulatory system is divided 1. Heart
into two 2. Blood vessels
a. Blood circulatory system 3. Blood
b. Lymph circulatory system
The human heart
In the circulatory system fluids are
transported from one point to the other for
different purposes such as:
a. Supplying raw materials for the body
processes. E.g. oxygen, glucose
b. Removal of wastes from the body
c. Defense against diseases causing germs.

General functions of circulatory system

(blood)
 To transport oxygen from the lungs to
body tissues.
 To transport food from the small
intestines to the body tissues.
 It is a muscular organ which pumps
 To transport hormones from endocrine
blood around the body.
glands to target organs.
 The heart is made up of special muscles
 To remove waste products from the
called cardiac muscle.
body e.g. Carbon dioxide and urea.
 This muscle contracts and relaxes
 To protect the body against infections
without stopping, from about four
 To maintain the concentration of
weeks after fertilization until death.
substances inside the body
(homeostasis).
Chambers of the heat
 To regulate body temperature
The heart has four chambers:
(homeostasis).
2. Right auricle
3. Left auricle
The blood circulatory system
4. Right ventricle
 Page 64 of 76

5. Left ventricle 1. Semi-lunar valves. These are found in;

The heart is found inside the pericardial
cavity. This cavity is filled with a fluid
called pericardial fluid which prevents
friction between the heart and the chest
cavity.
 The aorta
 The pulmonary artery
2. Bicuspid valve: it is found between left
atrium (auricle) and left ventricle.
3. Tricuspid valve: it is found between
right atrium (auricle) and right ventricle.

Oxygenated blood is blood that has a lot of Function of valves

oxygen. It is very bright red in colour. The To prevent back flow of blood
left hand side of the heart carries
oxygenated blood.

Deoxygenated blood is blood that contains

only little or no oxygen. It is bluish (dark
red) in colour. The right hand side of the
heart carries de-oxygenated blood.

Differences between auricles and

ventricles
Auricles Ventricles
Receive blood Pump the blood
Have thin walls Have thick walls
The blood vessels
 These are vessels or structures in which
Differences between right and left blood flows through them.
ventricle  There are three types of blood vessels:
 Right ventricle pumps blood to the 1. Arteries
lungs (short distance) while left 2. Veins
ventricle pumps blood to the rest of the 3. Capillaries
body (long distance).
 Left ventricle has thicker walls than the
right ventricle because it pumps blood
for a long distance.

Functions of septum
 To separate the right hand side of the
heart from the left hand side.
 To prevent oxygenated blood from
mixing with deoxygenated blood.

Valves that are found inside the heart

 Page 65 of 76

Structural differences among arteries,

veins and capillaries
Arteries  Have thick and
elastic walls
 Have no valves at
intervals
 Have narrow
lumen.
Veins  Have thinner walls
 Have valves at
intervals
Arteries  Have wide lumen.
 These transport blood from the heart to Capillaries  Have very thin
all parts of the body. walls
 They have thick walls with small rumen  Have no valves
 There are no valves in them  Have very narrow
 Blood flow is in high pressure. lumen.
 They carry oxygenated blood except for
the pulmonary artery. Functional differences among arteries,
veins and capillaries
Veins Arteries  Carry oxygenated blood
 These transport blood from the body to except Pulmonary artery.
the heart.  Carry blood from the
 They have a thin wall with a wide heart.
rumen.  Blood is under high
 They have valves to prevent back flow pressure and flows in
of blood. spurts.
 Blood has a lot of carbon dioxide except Veins  Carry de – oxygenated
for pulmonary vein. blood except Pulmonary
 Blood flows with low pressure vein.
 Bring blood to the stream.
Capillaries  Blood is in low pressure
 They are very small blood vessels and smooth flow.
 They have a one cell thick wall. Capillaries  It is where oxygenated
 They have no valves and carbon dioxide is
 They leak heavily exchanged.
 They link arteries to veins.
Blood vessels and organs
 The muscles of the heart require oxygen
and glucose for respiration. The blood
vessels that supply these requirements
 Page 66 of 76
are known as coronary arteries. Blood
leaves heart muscles via coronary veins.
 Apart from purification of blood, Lungs
are supplied with nutrients and
hormones by pulmonary artery. Wastes
leave the lungs via pulmonary vein.
 The kidneys filter blood. It receives
blood via renal artery and blood leaves
the kidneys via renal vein.
 The blood vessels that transport blood
to and from the liver are known as
hepatic blood vessels.
The blood
 Blood is a fluid that consists of blood
cells and blood plasma.
 Blood plasma is the liquid part of the
blood.
 A healthy adult person has a minimum
of 5.5 litres of blood.
 Blood cells which are solid are grouped
into three parts:
a. Red blood cells
b. White blood cells
c. Platelets
1. The red blood cells
 They have a red pigment called
hemoglobin
 They have no nucleus
 They are made in bone marrow.
 Iron and vitamin B help to form red
blood cells.
 They have biconcave and disc
shapes are adaptations for carrying
more oxygen because they provide
large surface area folding oxygen.
Formation of red blood cells
They are formed in the bone marrow of:-
 Humerous bone.
 Femur bone.
 Sternum bone.
 Ribs. Red blood cells are destroyed in
the liver, Spleen and bone marrow.
The role of hemoglobin in oxygen
transportation
Hemoglobin is a complex protein molecule
in the red blood cell.
 It carries an oxygen molecule to
respiring cells in the body. The red
blood cells will then be carried back
to the lungs for more oxygen.
Vitamin B12 and iron help in
formation of hemoglobin.
Functions
 They transport oxygen to all parts
of the body cells.
2. The white blood cells
 They help in body defense against
infection.
 Their cells have nucleus.
 Page 67 of 76
The two types of white blood cells
 Phagocytes
 Lymphocytes.
Phgocytes
 They defend the body by engulfing the
germs
 They have an irregular shape.
 They are made in bone marrow, spleen
and lymph nodes.
Lymphocytes
 They defend the body against infection
by producing anti bodies
 They have a round shaped nucleus that
is very large.
 Examples of lymphocytes; T-cells and
B-cells
 They are produced in lymph nodes.
Phagocytes
 They are formed in the bone marrow.
 The two kinds of phagocytes include
monocytes and neutrocyctes.
Neutrophils
 These are abundant white blood cells
which arrive first at the site of the
infection.
 They engulf and digest germs such as
bacteria on the site of infection.
Monocytes
 These also engulf and digest germs as
well as dead cells and other dead
neurrophils, thus cleaning the site of
infection.
 Monocytes found in connective tissues
are called macrophages
 Phagocytes squeeze through capillary
walls to the site of infection.
 This process is called diapedisis.
 Phagocytes have polymorphic shape,
that’s why they are able to squeeze
between the endothelial cells to the site
of infection.
Lymphocytes
These are produced in:-
 Lymph nodes
 Spleen.
Lymphoid organs
These are lymph nodes and spleen. Two
kinds of lymphocytes are:-
a. The t-lymphocytes (t-cells)
b. The b-lymphocytes (b-cells)
 They also activate b-cells and
phagocytes.
 B-cells develop into plasma cells which
synthesize and release antibodies.
 They also develop into memory cells.
Functions of lymph fluid in plhural and
pericaradial cavities
 Supplies oxygen to the organs in
encloses e.g. Kings.
 Supplies food to the organs it encloses.
 Acts as a lubricant (i.e. preventing
friction between surfaces).
Functions of tissue filled in tissue cells
 Supplies oxygen to tissue cells.
 Supplies nutrients (glucose) to tissue
cells.
 Carries waste matters (e.g. Carbon
dioxide etc.) away from tissue cells to
blood for excretion.
Functions of lymphatic system
 Transport tissue fluid back into blood
vessels.
 Transport fats from villi.
 Page 68 of 76
 Body defends - lymphocytes destroy
pathogens in lymph vessels.
3. Platelets
 They are tiny fragments of blood
cells.
 They are produced in bone marrows.
 They help in clotting the blood on the
wound.
4. Blood plasma
 Blood plasma is a clear yellow liquid
part of the blood.
 It contains 97% water and 3%
dissolved substances such as
glucose, ammo acids, hormones etc.
The shape of red blood cells
 They are biconcave in shape which
provides a high surface area-volume
ration for efficient absorption of oxygen.
 They have no nucleus which permits
more haemoglobin to be packed into a
cell so that it carries more oxygen
molecules.
Functions of blood plasma
 Transport blood cells and dissolved
substances.
 Supplies tissue fluid to tissues.
 Carries waste products away from
tissue cells.
 Distributes heat to all parts of the body.
How plasma cells carry out body defence
Plasma cells release antibodies which
provide defence against infection in the
following ways:-
 Some neutralize toxins produced by
pathogens (these antibodies are called
antitoxins.
 Some kill the germs by dissolving them
(these antibodies are called lysins.
 Some clean the germs so that they
cannot penetrate host cells or cannot
reproduce properly (these antibodies are
called agglutinins). Nb: the safest way
to stimulate while blood cells to form
antibodies are by vaccination against the
disease.
Blood circulation in the heart
 The contraction of heart muscles is
called systole while the relaxation of the
heart muscles is called diastole.
 During a systole blood is pumped from
the right ventricle to the lungs through
pulmonary artery and at the same time
the left ventricle pumps blood to all
parts of the body through the aorta.
 During a diastole, blood is allowed to
get into the heart (atrium or auricles)
and then by the Venacava in the right
atrium and pulmonary vein in the left
atrium.
 The deoxygenated blood from the rest of
the body enters the heart through
superior and inferior vena cava.
 The blood accumulates in the right
auricle and exerts a downward force.
 As a result tricuspid valve opens to let
blood into the right ventricle.
 Then right ventricle contracts to pump
the blood to the lungs through
pulmonary artery. The pressure that is
created when right ventricle contracts
pushes the tricuspid valve upwards.
This prevents back flow of blood;
instead it allows blood to go to the lungs
through pulmonary artery
 Similarly, the semi-lunar valve in the
pulmonary prevents the back flow of
blood.
 Page 69 of 76

 In the lungs (alveoli) oxygen diffuses

into the blood. Carbon dioxide diffuses
from the blood into the lungs (alveoli).
 The oxygenated blood returns into heart
through pulmonary vein into the left
auricle.
 The blood accumulates in the left auricle
and exerts a downward force which
opens the bicuspid valve.
 The opening of valve allows the blood
to flow into the right ventricle.
 Finally the right ventricle contracts to
pump the blood to the rest of the body
through aorta.
 The contraction of left ventricle pushes
the pushes the bicuspid valve up so that
it gets closed.
 The bicuspid valve and semi-lunar valve
in the aorta prevent the back flow of the
blood

1. Blood circulation in the blood vessels

 The diastolic and systolic pressure on
the heart creates a pulse rate in the
blood flow mostly in the arteries.
 Blood is at high pressure in the
arteries than in veins.
 The strong elastic bands in the
arteries help to withstand the
pressure of blood from bursting.
 Blood in the veins have low pressure.
Veins have valves that prevent blood
from flowing backwards.
Why the human circulatory system is
called double circulatory system
1. The blood has to go through the heart
twice on one complete journey.
2. The blood flows through two circuits:
3. Pulmonary circuit-from the heart to the
lungs and back.
4. Systemic circuit – from the heart to the
rest of the body and back.
The human circulatory system is also called
mass flow system because the blood flows
in the same direction through a system of
vessels.
It is also called closed blood system because
blood flows inside vessels.
 Page 70 of 76
Problems associated with circulatory
system
MAL NUTRITIONAL DISEASES
Cause of mal nutritional diseases
a. Lack of iron in a diet
Iron is used for the formation of red
blood cells. Due to lack of iron, there is
less haemoglobin in the blood.
b. Lack of protein in the diet
Protein is used for the formation of red
blood cells. Due to lack of iron, there is
less haemoglobin in the blood.
c. Lack of vitamin C in the diet
Lack of Vitamin C leads to gum
bleeding. Vitamin C cements the blood
vessels and prevent bleeding.
d. Infectious diseases
There are diseases like:
 Bilharzia: it damages the walls of
urinary bladder vessels and large
intestines which then lead to
bleeding.
 Malaria: malarial parasite called
Plasmodium destroys red blood
cells.
 Amoeba dysentery: it is the
bleeding of the large intestines due
to infections. Blood is lost with
stools.
 Hook worms: they suck blood and
cause bleeding in the small
intestines.
ANAEMIA
Anaemia is a condition whereby red
blood does not contain enough red
blood cells.
Signs and symptoms of anaemia
 Feeling tired even after a small activity
 Pale face with dry and dark coloured
mucous membranes
 Experiencing mild headaches and
feeling like fainting.
Causes of anaemia
 Lack of specific iron and protein
 Heavy or excessive bleeding due to
injuries or accidents.
 Diseases which reduce blood
production such as
 Malaria
 Leukemia – blood cancer
 Liver and kidney diseases
 Worm infestation
 Poor nutrition – insufficient proteins
and iron rich foods
 Hereditary defects such as sickle cell
anaemia and Haemophillia. In
Haemophillia, blood takes too long to
clot which leads to too much loss of
blood.
Prevention of anaemia
 Eating iron and protein rich food to
enhance the formation of red blood
cells.
 Early treatment of infectious diseases
such as malaria.
 Eating Vitamin C rich foods to prevent
gum bleeding by cementing the walls of
vessels in the gums.
 Controlling worms by maintaining
hygiene.
 Controlling worms by taking
dewormers regularly.
Treatment of anaemia
 Medication
 Blood transfusion
 Page 71 of 76
Types of bleeding
 Arterial bleeding: it is the most serious
type of bleeding as a lot of blood comes
out of the body within a very short time.
 Venous bleeding: it results in s steady
but slow flow of dark red blood. Put
direct pressure on a wound to stop
bleeding.
 Capillary bleeding: it is caused by deep
cuts. Bright red blood comes out in large
volume and spurts that correspond with
each heartbeat. It is serious bleeding that
may cause death. Put direct pressure on
a wound to stop bleeding.
First aid for bleeding
 Let a bleeding person lie down and
position the head lower than the whole
body.
 Elevate the bleeding part of the body so
as to reduce the rate of bleeding.
 Remove large chunks of dirt or debris
from the wound.
 Apply firm and direct pressure onto the
wound.
 Use a clean bandage or any piece of
cloth to cover the wound.
 Keep on applying firm and direct
pressure onto the wound till bleeding
stops.
First aid for minor cuts
 Wash the cut with water and plain soap
or apply antibiotic and cover with
bandage.
 If cut does stop on its own with direct
pressure, is it not a minor cut. Seek a
doctor.
 In case of a puncture wound,, stop
bleeding and meet the doctor.
 In case of blow to the head, seek medical
aid immediately.
 Page 72 of 76

WORM INFESTATION

1. Identify worms {roundworms, hookworms, tapeworms, threadworms and bilharzia worms

(Schitosoma haematobium, Schistosoma mansoni), filarial worms -elephantiasis}
2. Explain the signs and symptoms of worm infestations
3. Describe the life cycles of worms and modes of transmission
4. Explain ways of preventing and controlling worm infestations
5. Identifying sources of worm infestations in the local environment and their control
measures

Worms are parasites that live inside a body

of an organism. A living thing that has these Body of tapeworm
parasites is called a host. Parasites feed on  It is long and flat up to 3.5 meters long.
nutrients from a host making it suffer and  The body is segmented.
die. Worms that infect humans include:  The head (scolex) has hooks and
 Tape worms suckers.
 Round worms
 Hook worms Lifecycle of tape worms
 Thread worms

TAPE WORMS
These may infect all types of mammals
including humans and fish.

 Eggs are formed inside the body of

adult tapeworm.
 Adult tapeworms break at the end of the
body and get released through faeces.
 The eliminated eggs are picked by
grazing cattle; then they enter the
digestive system where they hatch into
embryos. Embryos have hooks which
enable them bore and enter into the
blood streams in the intestinal walls.
 They are then taken to muscles where
they develop into bladderworms.
 Page 73 of 76

 The bladderworm: ROUNDWORMS (Ascaris lumbicoides)

 Lives in the muscles of animals
 The worms are ingested by humans
if they eat not well cooked pork.
 They develop into adult tapeworm
while in the intestines of human.

Feeding
 It fastens itself to the intestines of its
host
 It sucks digested food from the host
using its body

Effects  It is a common roundworm which

 It blocks the intestines infects both humans and pigs.
 It produces waste chemicals that make  Each female lays about 200000 eggs
the host ill. which may survive for five years in wet
earth.
Signs and symptoms
 Anaemia Lifecycle of roundworms
 Abdominal pains  Eggs are swallowed through
 Feaces has segments containing eggs contaminated uncooked food such as
 Diarrhea salad.
 Epilepsy  In the body, the eggs hatch into embryos
 Obstruction of intestines which migrate to lungs.
 They migrate to trachea and back to
Mode of transmission intestines where they develop onto
 Eating uncooked or poorly cooked meat adults where they lay eggs.
or fish that has been infected  Eggs are passed out through faeces.
 Eating food or drinking water
contaminated with tapeworm Body
 Grows up to 20 cm in length
Prevention and control  It is white or pink in colour
 Cook meat and fish thoroughly  It is not segmented.
 Meat should be inspected at abattoirs
 Proper use of latrine Feeding
 Seek medical aid  It feeds on digested foods
 Give livestock anti-worm drugs Signs and symptoms
regularly.  Loss of appetite
 Dullness
 Body weakness
 Lung damage by larva worms
 Malnutrition
 Page 74 of 76

 Vomiting  If they come in contact with bare skin,

 Nausea they burrow the skin and move in blood
stream up to the lungs where they are
Mode of transmission coughed and swallowed.
Eating contaminated fresh foods  Once they arrive in the intestines they
Prevention and control lay eggs and the cycle starts again
 Wash vegetables and fruits before eating
them. Prevention and control
 Cooking vegetables  Use disinfection of latrine floors
 Wash hands before eating  Wearing shoes
 Use latrine properly  Proper disposal of human wastes
 Take appropriate medication.
HOOK WORMS

Body structure
 Bodies of hookworms are not THREAD WORMS
segmented Thread worms are also known as pin
 The body of each hookworm is 10 cm worms. Usually they affect young children
long. because of hygiene.

Feeding Body structure

 They have tiny spines or hooks that  It is small about 1 cm long
attach them onto the intestinal walls  They live in the large intestines
where they live and feed.
 They use mouth to suck food substances
and blood.
 They look red because of the sucked Life cycle of threadworms
blood

Signs and symptoms

 Abdominal pains
 Anaemia
 Diarrhea
 Difficulty in breathing
 Coughing with blood in sputum
 Body weakness

Lifecycle of hookworms
 Adult hookworms lie in the intestines
where they mate and lay eggs.
 Eggs when passed out with faeces hatch
into larva in water or damp soil.
 Page 75 of 76
 Female threadworms live and lay eggs
in large intestines. The eggs hatch into
lavae that develop into adult worms.
 Eggs are passed out through faeces.
 Eggs are swallowed through
contaminated water or food.
 Eggs hatch into fingers of children as
they scratch the anus due to itching.
Then, the eggs are swallowed when they
eat food with unwashed hands.
Feeding
 Feeds on digested food
Signs and symptoms
 Itching of the anus
 Eggs around the anus
 Painful sores around the anus.
Transmission
 When the female lays eggs around the
anus, this causes itching. Through
scratching eggs stick to fingers. If the
fingers are put in the mouth eggs may
be swallowed. While in the stomach,
eggs hatch into larva.
 Eating contaminated food
 Drinking contaminated water.
Prevention and control
 Clean the toilets seats.
 Prevent young one from a habit of
putting fingers in their mouth
 Take the appropriate worm drugs.
 Wearing tight fitting shorts
 Washing under wears with soap in
boiled water.
BILHARZIA WORM
 It is a flat worm that is so dangerous
 Schistosoma is a parasitic fluke which
lives in human blood.
 Bilharzia infection is also known as
schistosomiasis disease.
 The adult worms are very thin, up to 2
cm long.
 Males are larger than female worms.
Figure below shows a Schistosoma.
Types of Bilharziasis
a. Urinary bilharzia
 It affects the urinary bladder of an
infected person.
 It lives in the blood vessels of
urinary bladder.
 It is caused by Schistosoma
haematobium parasite which lives
in water snails. They lay eggs with
terminal spines.
b. Intestinal bilharzia
 It is caused by Schistosoma
mansoni, a parasite which lives in
waer snails and lay eggs with
lateral spines.
 It lives in the blood vessels of
intestines.
Body
 It is a flat worm like tape worm.
 Its young bilharzias worm look like fish
and are called cercaria.
 Page 76 of 76

Feeding  If a person gets into the water, they

It feeds on blood. enter the skin and move up in the blood
stream.
Signs and symptoms
 Cough or rash during entering of
cercaria
 Anaemia because they feed on blood
 Abdominal pains due to eggs that have
spines Male
 Blood in urine
 Cancer due to urinary bladder damage
 Blood in feaces.
 Bilharzia worm

Lifecycle of bilharzia
 When the adult worm lays eggs, they
are passed out either with urine or
faeces.
Prevention and control
 Then they are carried by water in rivers.
 Kill the snails using chemicals
When eggs hatch into embryos, they
 Drain the stagnant water
enter snails for them to develop.
 Remove reeds and tall grasses to
 When they are fully developed, they
prevent snails breeding
come out of snails and swim in water.
 Get medical aid from the hospital
 Use latrines properly