Introduction to Resources

Organizations treat company assets, such as buildings, equipment, and their

manpower as important resources. Resources are the total means available to a company
for increasing production or profit, including land, labor, capital, and raw materials.

Without resources, organizations would cease to exist. Imagine a bank without

money, a manufacturing plant without forklifts, or a school without teachers. These
resources are known as physical resources. They are tangible and can be easily identified.
Physical resources usually start from acquisition and are then assembled to be available
for use when needed. Very often, the assembly process entails converting an essentially
raw material into a refined form, such as wood, cement, and steel for building construction.
Once these resources have been assembled, a manager strives to maximize their use; this
includes allocating space for office use and identifying key areas in the building plans.
Finally, the manager asks for replacement or repairs and maintenance of these resources
at critical a time before they become inefficient or obsolete.

The other type of resource is called conceptual resources. Conceptual resources are
non-tangible and are considered valuable for what they represent rather than their
physical make up. Money is considered a conceptual resource as each paper bill represents
a specific monetary value as opposed to the paper where it is printed. The same goes for
human resources. While everyone can be considered employees in a company, their skills,
knowledge, and job experience set them apart from one another, thus identifying the staff,
managers, executives, and laborers.

Managers use conceptual resources to manage physical resources or vice versa.

One such example is the use of computers in organizations. A computer unit, by itself, may
cost thousands of pesos. However, once used, the content saved in those computer units
become even more valuable resources, making the computer unit irreplaceable. The
integrity of the saved files may be compromised, so security checks are often identified
on the computer units-e.g., firewalls, anti-virus, biometric access, etc. to make sure they
will not be lost. In this case, the saved computer files (conceptual resource) identify how
the computer units (physical resource) will be managed. The same applies to personal
assets such as smartphones. Losing a mobile phone is considered a tragedy, especially if
it contains personal data, such pictures, videos, and numerous contacts. The pictures,
videos, and contact list saved in the phone are considered conceptual resources while the
smartphone is the physical resource (managing the conceptual resources). In both
instances, the conceptual resources identified are called information.

Information as a Resource

Information can be simply defined as "facts about something or someone that are
provided or learned." Facts are considered relevant truths which have been validated and
identified. Data are considered facts; therefore, processed data are considered as
information as they are organized in such a way that they have additional value beyond
the value of the facts themselves. Unlike other organizational resources, information is
considered:

→ Expandable
Information can be expanded without compromising its integrity. In fact, by having
additional information, much more can be understood from it. An example is a person's
personal information. While knowing his or her name, contact details and current work
may be useful, having the person's full curriculum vitae becomes more useful for those in,
for example, the HR Department.

→ Compressible
Although expanded information can give a more detailed explanation, it may not
always be needed. An example of this is in news sites. Instead of a barrage of details,
news sites would often give one-liner headlines that provide enough information about
the news. Another example is research abstracts. An abstract is normally a half- or a one-
page summary of the entire research.
 → Transportable
Information, especially digital information, is easily transportable. With the use of
the internet and various technologies, information can be sent though any of the following:

1. send via email

2. share via Facebook

3. copy onto a flash drive

4. upload on YouTube

→ Diffusive
Gossip or rumors tend to spread easily. Unfortunately, the same applies to any kind
of information-be it true or not.

→ Sharable
Since information can be easily spread, it is considered sharable as well.
Information can be kept calling it a secret. However, once a person decides to tell it to
someone, then he or she will no longer have control over it. In some cases, certain parts
of the secret can be kept. One such example is the secret recipe of KFC. It is known that
there are 11 secret herbs and spices, but as to what these herbs and spices are, people
can only guess.

Information is not all different from other resources. Similar to how physical
resources are managed, information is considered valuable and also has a life cycle. It
begins with transforming raw materials into a finished product-processing data to come
up with valuable information. Weather forecasting is one such example. Scientists use
statistical data from previous days to predict possible weather conditions the next day.
Another example is the academic grades of students in a university. By determining the
students' weighted average from first year to senior, the school can identify valedictorians
and salutatorians based on their academic standing. Information can also be available in
different grades and types, and prices can be measured in monetary equivalent. There are
two options in acquiring software applications online: a free or trial version or a full version.
Free versions have limitations in functionality. To maximize the full range of functions of a
certain application, one should pay a certain amount depending on the type of upgrade
needed. A certain software can have personal editions and enterprise editions, among
others which cost more as the functions become broader in scope. Depending on how it is
used, information can be substituted and its consumption can be either expanded or
capitalized. An individual can search for a person's contact number through a telephone
book. The same information may also be found by directly calling the phone company and
asking the operator for the needed details. But nowadays, you can also search for the
contact details of people through the internet, specifically through social media such as
Facebook and Twitter. Thus, contact details are no longer restricted to just phone numbers.
A person's contact details can now also include email addresses, mobile phone numbers,
and even Twitter handles.

And just like physical resources, the cost of information can be controlled through
various accounting techniques. An example is the price difference of DVD movies in
different countries like the Philippines and the U.S. DVD prices are controlled based on the
region codes set by each country. Basically, a DVD can only play on a DVD player with the
same region code setting (Hedden, 2017). This is to prevent people from say, the U.S.,
buying DVDs online from an e-commerce site in China. DVDs in countries like China are
much cheaper than those in the U.S. due to "production costs." However, bear in mind that
the "production costs" mentioned here are not the costs in making the movie, but rather
the costs in mass-producing the DVD.

Just like physical resources, managing information is just as important as

managing any other resource in the organization, such as people, equipment. Information,
related technologies, and personnel are also important resources.

Valuable Information

Let us say your professor assigns you to research on the different of a computer
system. You plan to look for information online through search engines such as Google.
How can you tell if the information you get is useful, or in this case, valuable for your
research?
Information is said to be valuable if it has the following characteristics (Stair &
Reynolds, 2016):

→ Accurate

Accurate information is error-free. In some cases, inaccurate information is

generated because inaccurate data was processed. Analysts call this as "garbage-in-
garbage out." By typing "parts of a computer" in the search bar, Google gives you a list of
several websites which contain the information you are looking for. However, how do you
determine which are accurate and which are inaccurate? Usually, it is better to trust sites
that are formal in nature than informal ones such as blogs or forums.

Formal information for your research work could come from technical websites as
well as academic websites. Pieces of informal information can still be considered accurate
as long as they provide enough reference and the data can later be verified from the said
reference. Bits of informal information include those from blogs, wikis, social sites, and
public forums. Nowadays, the use of wikis has become a norm when it comes to
information research. The most popular wiki today is Wikipedia.org. The question, however,
is: How accurate is the content in Wikipedia.org?

→ Complete
Complete information contains all the important facts. This is especially important
the field of medicine. Missing information could spell disaster, or worse, lead to death. If
the information regarding allergies has been left out, doctors might inadvertently give
wrong medication that could cause severe allergic reactions to the patient.

→ Economical
Information should be relatively economical to produce. Decision-makers must
always balance the value of information with the cost of producing it. With the spread of
the internet, information dissemination has become easier, faster, and a lot cheaper.
However, is the price worth it for the integrity of the information?

➜ Reliable
Reliable information can be depended on. In many cases, the reliability of
information depends on the validity of the data collection method. In other cases, reliability
depends on the source of information, which brings us back to valuable information being
economical. Torrent sites offer pirated software, music, and movies for free. However, the
resolution of the movie downloaded, for example, might not be clear and might even
contain malware and virus that could infect computer system.

→ Flexible
Flexible information can be used for different purposes. Depending on the situation,
personal information can be used for a variety of ways. A school ID can be used to enter
the school premises. The same ID can be used to transact business with the registrar's
office during enrolment. It can be used to open a bank account or to apply for a student
driver's permit.

→ Relevant
Relevant information is important to the decision-maker. For example, your
assignment calls for searching "parts of a computer" online. You do not visit sites that
tackle "parts of the human body" because they are irrelevant to your research topic.

→ Simple
Information should also be simple, not overly complex. Sophisticated and detailed
information may not be needed. Complex information may sometimes lead to confusion
which could result in inaccuracy of details.
 → Timely
Timely information is delivered when it is needed. This is true in the case of weather
predictions, stock market forecasts, and traffic management.

→ Verifiable
This means that information can be checked for correctness and authenticity. Most
authors include references, bibliography, or citations in their works to enable readers to
verify the content.

→ Accessible
Information should be easily accessible by authorized users to be obtained in the
right format at the right time to meet their needs. In Korea, the U.S., the U.K., and China,
a mobile phone can be used to pay for day-to-day transactions. A mobile pay app can be
downloaded on the smartphone in which the user's credit card or debit card is enrolled.
Samsung Pay, Apple Pay, and Google Pay all use near-field communications (NFC)
technology so instead of swiping the physical card for payment, the mobile phone is simply
tapped on the card reader or terminal and payment is immediately recorded (Savvides,
2017).

➜ Secure
Information should be secure from access by unauthorized users. Mobile pay
systems such as Samsung Pay and Apple Pay use biometric authentication, typically a
fingerprint scan, before a transaction is made. This ensures that only the owner of the
phone can use the app for payments.
Value of Information

Information is considered valuable mainly for business. purposes as businesses

depend on it to produce quality products and services. This helps become globally
competitive and be up to date with the latest trends and technology. With businesses
gearing towards IT automation, the strategy now is to come up with business activities
that shorten time frames while increasing productivity. All of this is possible if companies
have access to valuable information. Valuable information helps managers make good
decisions which is why valuable or useful information is called knowledge.

Some pieces of information have entertainment value, and some have business
value, but regardless of the source of value, people are willing to pay for information. Many
strategies for purveyors of information are based on the fact that consumers differ greatly
on how they value particular information goods Some information is given away for free.
Examples are weather forecasts, stock index, and personal information. However, valuable
as it may be, a phone number cannot be sold. But some information is costly such as cable
TV subscriptions-the more channels, the more expensive the monthly cable bill. So how
much will valuable information cost you?

Information, as a resource, has four characteristics, namely it (1) has zero marginal
cost; (2) is non-rivalrous; (3) is non-exclusive, and (4) does not exhibit high degrees of
transparency (Leickly, 2004).

→ Zero-marginal cost
The cost of producing the first copy of an information good may be substantial, but
the cost of producing (or reproducing) additional copies is negligible. Avengers: Age of
Ultron released in 2015 is one of the most expensive Hollywood movies ever made with an
estimated budget of US$250,000,000. However, buying a DVD copy of the said movie today
would cost about $20 in Amazon.com.
 →Non-rivalrous
Simultaneous consumption of information by consumers is possible. Movies
nowadays are sold not only as DVD copies. There are also digital formats which anyone
can watch online or download on their mobile devices, either as a rental or paid
subscription.

→Non-exclusive
Exclusion is not a natural property of information goods, though it is possible to
construct exclusion artificially. However, the nature of information is that if it is known, it
is difficult to exclude others from its use. Through emails and SMS, one can identify only
intended recipients of the message through a specific email address or a phone number.
However, emails and SMS have the capability of forwarding the exact information other
recipients, without the original sender knowing it. This much Facebook, automatically
means sending to

→transparency
To evaluate information, information be known, one has to learning how evaluate
programmer undergoing training learn a programming language needs invest money, and
The complicated the training, the expensive the cost longer time needed learn it.

Since people pricing. economics,a good considered to an experience good

consumers must experience to value Virtually any product an experience good, and
marketers developed strategies free samples, promotional pricing, testimonials to help
consumers about new goods.

Information, on the hand, may differently, since it asset that provides value today's
provides buying shirt, customers are given the opportunity try on prior to deciding if want
buy it not. catering companies offer free tests their complete menu so customers get
experience the food offer to reserving for event. With information, organizations cannot
the experience to customers as this could mean lost interest afterwards.

Imagine you in movie theater and you choosing from two movies movies are be
treated same shirt and the food, that would you watch both good to watch. The decision
would make no sense anymore. as you were able to watch both movies anyway. To avoid
this situation, organizations use various strategies to get wary customers to overcome
their reluctance to purchase information before they know what they are getting. The
tension between giving away your information-to let people know what you have to offer
and charging them for it to recover your costs, is a fundamental problem in the information
economy. These strategies include browsing previews, branding, and reputation.

→Browsing previews
An example of this strategy is movie trailers. Movie trailers that normally run from
1 to 3 minutes give viewers a glimpse of what the film is all about. Trailers normally include
highlights from the film which can leave the audience excited to watch the entire film later
on. Another example is music downloaded from iTunes. A 5- to 15-second preview of the
song can be listened to prior to buying it. This gives the user an idea of the song he or
she wants to download if it is worth the amount to be paid.

→ Branding
Big names such as Microsoft and Apple have no issues. when it comes to launching
new products as people have already established their trust on these brands. According
to American telecommunications (telco) company, Sprint, when Apple introduced iPhone 7
in September 2016, pre-order sales shot up by 375% compared to the launch of iPhone 6.

➜ Reputation
When a movie is announced, people would often be skeptical if it would be good
enough. However, the reputation of directors and the cast of actors and actresses normally
remove this skepticism. For example, Michael Bay is known for successfully directing the
Transformers movie franchise. This reputation has made his movies blockbuster hits as
people have made a connection that if it is a Michael Bay film, it must be good. This is the
reason why his films would often an introduction as "Michael Bay film" instead of just the
movie introducing itself.

In the digital world, an experience good may not necessarily translate into a good
which is physical or directly used by consumers. With mobile games becoming more
popular, users feel the need to excel in them, in which the need for more equipment, higher
experience levels, and better gaming results become more of a necessity. For this reason,
game apps offer virtual goods such character gears, equipment, and even level-up boosts
in exchange for virtual money. However, there are cases in which some would pay real
money, usually in U.S. dollars, in exchange for a virtual item.

In general, people value an organization's ability to make their lives easier and
better by using information about their products and operations. This includes providing
pre-determined information to lessen the decision-making of individuals. Think of it as
providing additional information regarding the information itself. Google.com is an
example. Whenever you try to search for something in Google Search, it gives you a list of
websites that pertain to the keywords you have typed in. This means that Google has
provided you with a list of information regarding the information you are looking for.
Another example is buying online via Amazon.com. When you browse through different
items, Amazon would also suggest at the bottom of the screen other items related to
what you are looking for, or inform you about what other items people who bought the
item you are looking at also bought.

Information Overload
Information is now available so quickly, ubiquitously, and inexpensively. Last March
2016, Cisco conducted a study that by the end of 2016, global internet traffic will have
reached 1.1 zettabytes per year. Just how big is 1 zettabyte? A typical external drive is 1
terabyte in size. One zettabyte is equal to 1,000,000,000 terabytes or one billion external
drives. This is because information is produced at rapidly-increasing rates due to the
following reasons:

→ Easy duplication and transmission of information

A picture posted on Facebook which is also posted on Instagram and Twitter means
that the same picture has been posted three times on three different sites.

→ Increase in communication methods

What used to be mobile phones for SMS and computers for emails are smartphones
that can do both. Also, a simple text message is no longer restricted to SMS via telco
providers. Through mobile apps such as Viber and Messenger, people can now send private
messages (PM) or direct messages (DM).

→Growth archives of historical information

Print or hard copies are now being replaced by digital ones. These digital copies are
stored on cloud servers that offer maximum storage capacity for end users. One such
example is libraries which contain not only physical books but also computers and other
mobile devices to access e-books, e-journals, electronic readings, and other online
resources.

So where does all this information come from? Who and where are these producers
and consumers of information? According to the 2018 Global Digital Suite of reports from
We Are Social and Hootsuite:

 More than half the world now uses the internet (up to 7 percent year-on-year).
 Qatar and United Arab Emirates top the internet penetration ranking with 99% of
their total population using the internet.
 For three years in a row, Filipinos have been spending the greatest amount of time
on social media with an average of four hours a day.
  More than two-thirds of the world's population now has a mobile phone, with most
people now using smartphones.
 More than half of the world's web traffic now comes from mobile phones. More than
60% of all mobile connections around the world are now 'broadband.'
 More than one in five of the world's population shopped online in the past 30 days.

Compared to the year 2017, 2018 has seen exponential growth in terms of digital
information. This could be attributed to the fast growing internet as well as to the latest
technological advancements, especially in mobile devices. The infographic above shows
the number of internet users, active social media users, unique mobile users, and active
mobile social users. The also highlights how social media has created a big impact on
internet usage with Facebook dominating the global social landscape, reaching more than
2 billion users at the start of 2018.
This report reveals that while the Philippines has one of the slowest fixed internet
connections in the world - 4.2 Mbps compared to the global average of 6.3 Mbps, the
country has one of the fastest mobile connection speed, averaging at 13.9 Mbps. This is
probably the reason why more Filipinos like to spend their time online through different
social media sites such as Facebook and YouTube. This report further reveals that the
Philippines topped the ranking for time spent on social media among other countries, with
Filipinos spending almost four hours a day on social media compared to people in other
countries (Kemp, 2018).
With the overwhelming "amounts" of data brought about by the exponential
growth of internet users-both producers and consumers of information-information
overload, as in dealing with too much information for one to absorb, happens.

Mobile Social Media and Mobile Commerce

The abundance of mobile devices has greatly changed the way people manage their
day-to-day activities. In business, for example, having a shop where customers can easily
go to used to be enough. However, with the introduction of the internet, market shifted
from a brick-and-mortar set-up to an online operation more commonly known as e-
commerce. And now with mobile internet, people can access internet services without the
need for computers. They have their smartphones, tablets, and other mobile devices
connected to the network to send and receive information wherever they are and
whenever they want to. This connectivity has paved the way to two new scenarios in
communication:

→Mobile social media

Mobile social media is the accessing of social media sites, such as Facebook and
Snapchat, using a mobile device. The device may have an app installed to open Instagram,
for example, or it can use a browser installed in the mobile device to open Twitter. A study
conducted by ComScore in 2016 reveals the impact of social media on internet users. The
same study also shows that nearly 80% of individuals browse through their social media
accounts using their mobile phones.

Noticeably, people are using their desktops less and less in accessing websites.
Mobile has grown so fast that it's now the leading digital platform, with a total activity on
smartphones and tablets accounting for 62% of digital media time spent, and apps alone
now representing the majority of digital media at 54% (Lella & Lipsman, 2016).

→M-commerce

M-commerce or commerce was a term during the 1997 Global Commerce Forum by
Duffey, described as the delivery electronic commerce capabilities directly into consumer's
anywhere, wireless technology. The use of devices has the way for data to transmitted
received much without compromising security scalability. The trend in mobile devices
socializing and commercial transactions increasing. Companies are using platforms to
market products and

Industries that are embracing m-commerce include:

 1. Financial services - Banks introduced online banking a few years However,
nowadays, majority of transactions such money transfers, bills payment, and even
portfolios and transactions can now be done using the bank's app.

2. Mobile ticketing - payments can be donereceipts transactions can also be sent on

devices. Airline companies encourage customers to book their online, after which,
booking reservation is sent via email through their app. booking ticket can be shown
at the and accepted even as electronic

3. Service/retail - consumers are now able to and pay orders using mobile devices, e-
commerce trend shifted desktop computers mobile devices. And it does not include
retail items. It includes content purchasing such music, movies, images, among
others. Another trend seen is in-application purchases made mobile phone users.
This prevalent gaming applications which users virtual goods for power boost
upgrade to the next game

4. Information services - These include the delivery of news, stock quotes, sports
figures, emergency reports, and weather and traffic updates to a single mobile
device. Waze is an example of an application that delivers customized traffic
information which is based on a user's actual travel patterns. It uses geo-location
technology to pinpoint the whereabouts of the user while on the move. Another
example of an application that uses location-based services is Google Maps.

Information Control

With so much information around, how do you make sure they are safe from illegal
activities? A large requirement for information control comes from commerce, industry,
and copyright owners in general. Information control comes in the form of keeping secrets
inside a business or selling IPR (Intellectual Property Rights) to those prepared to purchase
it.
 Information control is about allowing those who have appropriate authority access to
and use of information on the basis of the authority that they hold. But why is there a
need for control in the first place? Earlier in this chapter, the concept of information being
non-rivalrous and non-exclusive has been discussed. An example is movies being sold in
different formats DVDs, MP4, etc. If that is the case, how can you make sure that the said
movie will not be distributed illegally?

Software Piracy

Let's say you wanted to watch the latest movie showing in the cinemas. However, you
decided to save the money instead, so you bought a pirated DVD copy of the film in one
of the market you noticed the film was taken by a video camera inside the cinema and
you can hear the audience laughing, and see shadows places you passed by on your way
home. Upon watching it, walking back and forth, which obviously were not part of the film.

In the end, decided download torrent file of the hoping for better quality, only discover
that it was the pirated video you saw in the pirated

According to Software Alliance (www.bsa.org) (2018), software piracy is unauthorized

copying distribution copyrighted software... can done through copying, downloading,
sharing, selling installing multiple copies software personal or computers." Most software
licenses, such activation keys, that are normally identified just computer. Having pirated
software means trying to the same key several computers. Some people upload software
onto website others download it, as is the case of torrent upload/download movie.

Examples software piracy identified by the Software Alliance (2018) include:

 Distributing software mobile apps from internet manner violates license terms
 Buying single copy of software program installing it multiple devices without
authorization
 Making and/or sharing copies installation CDs
 Sharing the credentials (without authorization) access web-based software
application ("Software Service")
 Some might say, "I paid for software already, shouldn't be mine to use distribute
wherever whenever I want As with discussion earlier chapter regarding information having
zero-marginal cost, buying DVD copy of movie costing dollars, does mean buying movie
itself. Thus, paying for movie does not mean you buying actual movie, paying for license
watch it personal use. So because person bought original DVD of movie does not mean he
or she create copies distribute it or share it online.

This typical scenario boils down to the fact that information is difficult to control. While
measures are in place, such as DVD region codes and such, Adam Thierer in 2011, identified
four issues which further complicate the problem on information control: (1) convergence,
(2) scale, (3) volume, and (4) unprecedented individual empowerment/user-generation of
content.

1. Convergence
Technological advancements and social media have paved the way for media content
such as music and movies to be distributed from their "traditional" distribution platforms.
What consumers used to buy in the form of CDs or DVDs, media content can now be
searched, accessed, and consumed using multiple devices and even through different
distribution networks. One such example is Spotify. Consumers before would buy physical
albums in the form of CDs, then later transitioned to digital copies typically bought via
iTunes Store for Apple. However, with social media having a big effect on song reviews
and recommendations, a mobile app such as Spotify is able to create playlists which can
be listened to, and if wanted, downloaded for a fee. As a result, it is now possible to
disseminate, find, or consume the same content/ information via multiple devices or
distribution networks. This convergence of devices and networks, according to Thierer
(2011), has created issues instead of maintaining an effective information control policy.

Another such example is an application called VideoFX which is available in Google Play.
According to the app description, you can "create amazing lip sync music videos with
special effects and your choice of music. Simply select a music track and start lip syncing!
Make videos that you'll be proud to share with your friends!" In one mobile device, you can
take a video, select a saved music file, and sent it to a social media platform such as
facebook or twitter. The issue here is, what if the music used copyrighted?

2. Scale
For those who like watch Japanese animé and Korean dramas, English subtitles are
must. Before, fans would days weeks before subtitles become available for viewing. This
is because are actually translated, edited, and embedded fans of the show, most and
young adults watching series.

With technology and fast internet connectivity, viewers longer need days watch foreign
shows with English subtitles. Oftentimes, the subtitles are ready within few hours after
show has been aired in local country. This because the internet has given everyone access
anything they upload, download anywhere the world. Technology such helped make
translation these shows much Concerns regarding copyright have increased because this.
But while some countries such China North Korea impose certain restrictions on what
citizens can and cannot access online, Thierer mentions that "the scale of modern digital
speech content dissemination [still] complicates government efforts control information
flows."

3. Volume
Nowadays, news and media outlets abound in print and online. News agencies such
Manila Bulletin or The Philippine have not only print of news (i.e., newspapers) but digital
copies can accessed through their websites and www.philstar.com, respectively.
Broadcasting companies such as ABS-CBN and GMA7 also have television broadcasts, radio
broadcasts, TV radios, and news websites, most of which have the same content. This
development can be attributed to the increasing volume of media content and
communications activities happening across the world, greatly complicating government
regulatory efforts to control information.
 4. Unprecedented individual empowerment
The popularity of social media such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram has made it
possible for individuals to post anything they want. This also includes creation of blogs
which have become mainstream media for individuals to showcase their talents, skills, and
hobbies. This creates issues when it comes to content restriction as most people are doing
this using their private accounts. Unless reported, the said content will be difficult to
control.

So how do we control information dissemination? Organizations, such as The Software

Alliance, software industries such as Microsoft and IBM, as well as government entities in
countries across the globe, are working hand in hand to solve the issue of software piracy.
One solution they have come up with is identifying exclusive rights to information, as with
any given physical asset. This has led to the identification of intellectual or property rights.

Intellectual Property (IP)

Intellectual property (IP) refers to a number of distinct types of intangible assets for
which a set of exclusive rights are recognized. IP includes musical, literary, and artistic
works such as Taylor Swift's new album, J. K. Rowling's new book, and the latest iPhone.
However, IP is not just limited to these items. It can also include words, phrases, symbols,
and even designs.

IP is any creation or product of the human mind and may be expressed in the form of
original ideas, expressions, and processes. Intellectual property rights (IPR) are the rights
given to persons over their creations. They usually give the creator an exclusive right over
the use of his or her creation for a certain period of time. According to the Intelectual
Property Code of the Philippines (Republic Act No. 8293 s. 1998), IPR consists of the
following:
 1. Copyright and related rights

2. Trademarks and service marks

3. Geographic indications

4. Industrial design
5. Patents

6. Layout designs (topographies) of Integrated Circuits (ICs)

7. Protection of undisclosed information

The Intellectual Property Office of the Philippines (IP Philippines) is the government
agency in charge of the implementation of the law protecting intellectual property rights
in the Philippines as provided for under R.A. 8293, or the Intellectual Property Code of the
Philippines, and the revised Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines known as R.A.
10372.

Copyright and Related Rights

Copyright is a set of exclusive rights granted by a state to the creator of an original
work or their assignee for a limited period of time in exchange for public disclosure of the
work, and includes the right to copy, distribute, and adapt the work. Copyright owners can
license or permanently transfer or assign their exclusive rights to others. Digital rights, on
the other hand, is the permission granted to individuals to legitimately perform actions
involving the use of computer, any electronic device, or a communications network. It is
particularly related to the protection and realization of existing rights in the context of
new digital technologies, especially the internet.

Copyright provides protection for original expression which includes literary, artistic,
scholarly, and scientific creations such as books, articles, newspapers, lectures, letters,
musical compositions, and paintings. It also extends to derivative works such as
illustrations, maps, photographic works, advertisements, computer programs, etc.
 In the Philippines, all copyrighted materials are recorded and stored at the National
Library or the Supreme Court Library (R.A. 10372, 2013).

Digital Rights Management

Digital rights management (DRM) is used to describe the processes by which the author
or publisher of a work exerts his or her rights to control what the purchaser of the work is
entitled to do. This represents the control by which one can prevent a person or an
organization from copying, printing, editing, or otherwise making the privileged information
available to other people.

With the introduction of technology and the internet, the print age is slowly becoming
obsolete with publishers shifting to the digital age. Before, a person needed to copy or re-
print a physical book for additional copies. With digital technologies, copies are made at
zero cost with minimal detection. And it is not just books. Movies, music, software
applications, etc. can now be copied and shared faster, with less cost. With this set-up,
the prevalence of peer-to-peer (P2P) and torrent sites have made information control
much harder.
While information gets to be disseminated faster to consumers, control as to how it is
shared becomes an issue. Downloading pirated music online does not help the music
artists as they are deprived of the royalties they are entitled to. At the same time, getting
the music for free does not mean being safe from malicious software and hacking attacks.

Thus, companies and organizations have come up with possible solutions to this digital
dilemma. The following are techniques designed to control access and reproduction of
online information:
 1. Encryption
Encryption is the process of converting data or information in such a way that only
authorized parties can understand. Its primary purpose is to protect the confidentiality of
digital data stored on computer systems or transmitted via the internet or other computer
networks. Encryption occurs every time someone uses an ATM or buys something online
with a smartphone, makes a mobile phone call, or presses a key fob to unlock a car. This
is done so that information being sent is kept safe and secure.

DRM systems for multimedia often encrypt material in such a way that only a particular
device can play or retrieve it, enforcing constraints on how it is used. DVDs use an
encryption scheme to prevent users from viewing discs on unauthorized players. This is
the concept of region coding discussed earlier. Region coding prevents discs sold in one
part of the world from being used on players sold in another.

2. Serial keys
Also known as a product key or a software key, it is a series of alphanumeric characters
acting as a key to denote that the product or software is original. In some cases, product
keys are used for product activation. One such activate the operating system Online
activation helps maintain software authenticity making sure one else used the product
key.

3. Scrambling
Data scrambling done hide from addition of components to the original signal changing
some important component the original signal order make extraction the original signal
difficult. is often with aid encryption.

While region coding identifies which players can only play certain DVDs, computers DVD
become another option would-be pirates. Thus, the content scramble system was
introduced to restrict access content only licensed applications. Meaning, even DVD was
recognized by DVD player computer, certain applications programs play the video might
not allow.

4, Tag embedding

Similar to how pictures can include watermarks to denote information on the owner of
the picture, tag embedding does the same to information content.. Watermarks not
complete DRM mechanisms their own right, are used part of system copyright
enforcement, such helping provide prosecution evidence for legal purposes, rather than
direct technological restriction.
In terms of data embedded into actual content, the use of metadata is included to
identify the owner’s name, author, and date of purchase, among the pertinent information.

Patent
A patent is a set of exclusive rights granted by a state to an inventor for a limited
period of time in exchange for the public disclosure of an invention. The exclusive right
granted to a patentee in most countries is the right to prevent others from making, using,
selling, or distributing the patented invention without permission. One example of a
patented design is that of Apple's iPod.
Trademark
A trademark is a distinctive sign used by an individual, business organization, or
other legal entity to identify the products or services to consumers. The mark comes from
a unique source, and it distinguishes its product (trademark) or services (service mark)
from the others. Rights in a mark shall be acquired through registration made validly in
accordance with the provisions of the IP code. For marks with geographical indications, a
notice stating that a given product originates in a given geographical area must be
identified. This is relatively new in the Philippine IP regime as marks are identified based
on the territory, region, or locality attributed. In the Philippines, one of the most popular
trademarks based on locality is the Pampanga's Best delicacies logo.

Protection of Undisclosed Information

Industries and companies need to have information control especially in dealing
with sensitive industry secrets. To protect these industry secrets, also called trade secrets,
companies usually require employees to sign contracts with non-disclosure agreements
(NDAs).

Trade secret is the term used for any method, formula, device, process, or any
information that gives the business a unique competitive advantage over its competition.
It includes company research and development information, software algorithms,
inventions, designs, formulas, ingredients, and devices, among others.

Examples of popular trade secrets are the formulation of Coca-Cola and Listerine, and the
recipe of Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC).
Information Privacy
The natural state of data is to be copied, logged, transmitted, stored, and stored
again. This is why it takes constant fighting and vigilance to prevent that breach. So what
is information privacy and how private is private?

With Facebook and Twitter often being used as a means of venting out in public,
others may say, "It's my choice in telling everyone on Twitter what I want to say!" Some
might even reveal too much information which can be regarded or termed as
inappropriate. However, again, it is their choice to tell everyone what is supposed to be
private information. If that is the case, then, what is data privacy?

To understand the concept of data privacy, look at Yahoo's privacy policy (now under
a single privacy policy with Oath) when registering for an email address on Figure 4.8.

To highlight a portion of the Yahoo privacy policy, Oath (2018) and its affiliates,
including Yahoo, "collect information from your devices....This information includes device
specific identifiers and information such as IP address, cookie information, mobile device
and advertising identifiers, browser version, operating system type and version, mobile
network information, device settings, and software data." (Information Collection and Use-
General)

Knowing a person's IP address can help identify that person's physical location
anywhere in the world. A cookie is a small file that is stored in the computer's directory,
often a temporary folder. The cookie contains addresses of websites visited, login
credentials, and even credit card account numbers. This is done so that the next time the
person visits the website, the computer system will no longer reload the same content or
data, saving time and processing power for the computer. Obviously, however, this is
dangerous, especially when using public computers, such as those in internet shops, as
the next user will be able to access the previous user's account without the latter's
knowing it.