CHEMISTRY NOTES

Diffusion: Gases > Liquids > Solids

The further away from the nucleus, the more energy an electron shell has.

Diamond ( Jewellery and cutting tools )  Tetrahedron (Each carbon atom

bonds with 4 others)
Graphite ( Pencil lead, Industrial lubricants, Engines, and locks )  Hexagonal
(Each carbon atom bonds with 3 others)
Silicon(IV)Oxide ( Sandpaper + Line furnace insides )  Sand + Quartz 
Each O with 2Si and Each Si with 4 O  Tetrahedron

Formula of hydrated salts

- Weight a sample of hydrated salts
- Heat until water of crystalisation
- Reweigh Anhydrous salt

Why never 100% yield

- Reactants left behind in equipment
- Products lost during transfer
- Reaction is reversible

Electrons: Anode  Cathode ( Back to power supply )

Molten Lead(II) Bromide

Anode :
- Bubbling
- Brown Bromine gas ( Note: All gases produce bubbles – Reconfirm )
Cathode :
- Grey lead metal

Brine  Aqueous NaCl

Chlorine  Bleach
Hydrogen  Margarine
Sodium Hydroxide  Soaps + Detergents
Conc. Sulfuric Acid  Fertilisers , Soaps and Detergents

Anode  Pure Metal

Electrolyte  Pure Metal solution
Cathode  Impure metal to be coated on

Hydrogen Fuel Cell

Advantages :
- Do not produce any pollution
- Release more energy ( Energy density )
- Less noise pollution
Disadvantages :
- Expensive
- Flammable and explodes so difficult to store
- Affected by low temps

High pressure – Dangerous + Very expensive equipment required + liquifies

solids
Potassium Manganate (VII)
- Oxidising agent used to test for Reducing agent
- Purple to colourless

Potassium Iodide
- Reducing agent used to test for Oxidising agent
- Colourless to Red-brown

Acid ( Proton Donor ) is sour, Base ( Proton Acceptor ) is bitter

Universal Indicator : Red  Orange  Yellow  Green  Blue  Purple

Insoluble Salts  Precipitation
- Add soluble salts and mix
- Filter to remove the precipitate
- Wash the precipitate with distilled water
- Dry the precipitate in an oven

Soluble Salts  Titration + Met.2

Titration
- Add Alkali + Indicator using a pipette
- Add Acid to Burette
- Add until changes colour
- Repeat without indicator
- Filtration
- Heat the filtrate until the water of crystalisation
- Decant and dry
Met.2
- Heat acid until warm
- Add metal/base/carbonate until no more disappearing
- Filter to remove excess
- Transfer to evaporating basin
- Heat until the water of crystalisation
- Decant and dry to obtain crystals

Observations of Group 1 Metals with Water

Lithium
- Bubbles of hydrogen gas
- Floats ( No not really )

Sodium
- Bubbles of hydrogen gas
- Shiny ball
- Floats on water
- White trail of NaOH

Potassium
- Bubbles
- Shiny ball
- Lilac coloured flame

Below this , explosion take place until too reactive to predict

Chlorine  Pale yellow-green gas

Bromine  Red-brown liquid
Iodine  Grey-Black solid , Aqueous  Brown , Vapour  Purple

Transition elements  Jewellery + Dyes + Paints

Metal + Cold water  Metal Hydroxide + Hydrogen

Metal + Steam  Metal Oxide + Hydrogen
Metal + Acid  Salt + Hydrogen
Aluminium

Copper

Brass  Ornaments + Door knobs

Stainless steel  Cutlery

Cold Water reactions  Until Calcium

Acid reaction  Until Iron
Oxygen reaction  Until Silver
Nitrogen  Healthy leaves
Potassium  Growth + Healthy fruits and flowers
Phosphorous  Healthy roots

Argon  Tungsten light bulbs

Krypton  Lasers for eye surgery
Oxygen  Steel making + Welding + Breathing apparatus
Nitrogen  Food packaging + Ammonia + Silicon Chips

Methane Sources  Waste gases from animal digestion + Decomp of

vegetation + Rice paddy fields
NO effects  Photochemical smog + Acid rain

Sulfur Reduction
Low sulfur fuels
Flue gas desulfurisation – With CaO

Catalytic Converters
Fractionating column

As you go up , Volatility increases . Rest decrease as they go up .

Run : Refinery Gas ( Heating and cooking )

Gayshit : Gasoline ( Fuel for cars )
No : Naphtha ( Chemicals )
Kissing : Kerosene ( Jet fuel )
Dirty : Diesel ( Heavy vehicle fuel )
Funny : Fuel oil ( Ships + Home heating )
Looking : Lubricating oil ( Polishes and waxes )
Bitches : Bitumen ( Surfacing roads )

Gasoline is also known as petrol

Kerosene is also known as paraffin
Diesel is also known as gas oil

Cracking : Large Alkanes  Alkane + Alkene

600 - 700 Degrees
Hot powdered catalyst of Alumina or Silica

Hydrogenation : Alkene  Alkane

150 Degrees
Nickel Catalyst

Hydration : Alkene  Alcohol

300 Degrees
60 – 70 atm
Conc. Phosphoric Acid Catalyst

Fermentation of glucose : Ethene  Ethanol

37 Degrees
Yeast
Aq. Glucose
Anaerobic conditions

Oxidising Agents : Ethanol  Ethanoic Acid

Acidified Aq. Potassium Manganate (VII)
Purple  Colourless
Nylon  Polyamide ( Dicarboxylic Acids + Diamines )  Clothes + Ropes

Terylene(PET)  Polyester  Clothing

Amino Acids + Proteins