CHAPTER 16: SOCIAL MOVEMENT

Introduct onüöö
- Soc al movement’s are an ntegral part of the contemporary pol t cal process n democrat c pol t es.
- Soc al movements have become regular part c pants at all levels of pol t es.
- Hav ng the r own spec f c act on reperto res,soc al movements may not be seen as s mply another
typeof nterest group.
- Acord ng some scholars (MEYER and TARROW), our soc ety has become a soc al movement
soc ety: soc al protest has become a perpetual element of modern l fe, protest behav our s employed
w th greater frequency, by mor ed verse const tuenc es, and s used to represent a w der range of
cla ms than ever before, and profess onal zat on and nst tut onal zat on may transform the soc al
movement nto an nstrument w th n the realm of convent onal pol t cs.

Soc al movement as regular part c pants n pol tcal processes

The concept of soc al movement ncludes at least three component element:
-A group of people w th confl ct ng or entat on
-Collect ve dent ty and set of common bel ef and goals
-A reperto re of collect ve act ons (mostly non- nstut onal zed)

Movement vs. organ zat ons

-As to group of people const tut ng the soc al movement, the quest on of how to def ne ts
boundar es proves to be part cularly d ff cult. The boundar es of soc al movement are nherently
d sputed, unstable and ult mately dependent on mutual recogn t on by the members of group nvolved.
-Soc al movement are based on a dense nformal nterorgan zat onal network hav ng a strong
common dent ty.
-Organ zat ons(e.g. pol t al part es, nterest groups) are more formally cont tuted.
Soc al movement and med a
-S nce soc al movements do no have d rect Access to the dec s on-mak ng arenas n parl ament and
n the state adm n strat on, they seek ga n ng nfluence by draw ng the attent on of the pul c.
- They do so by a comb nat on of protest and nformat on pol t cs.
-In general, soc al movement use two types of strategy to draw attent on to the r cause.
Protest pol tcs: mob l z ng for protest events n the publ c sphere
Informat on pol t cs: collect ng cred ble nformat on and deploy ng t strateg cally at carefully selected
s tes.
-The l ne between establ shed pol t cal actors and soc al movements becomes ncreas ngly blurred.

Theoret cal approaches

1-Class cal model:
The class cal model refers to a set of theor es w th a common denom nator: They all start from the
not ons of structural stra n or breakdown.
-Structural stra n or breakdown of standart rout nes of everyday l fe causes d scontent among
nd v duals
-The result ng d srupt ve psycholog cal effects tr gger collect ve act on
The class cal model speaks of collect ve behav our rather than colect ve act on.
-Close to the theory of collect ve behav our (psycholog cal rather than pol t cal explanat on of soc al
movements)
-Soc al movements have a negat ve connotat on.
McAdam: CLASSICAL MODEL FIGURE
Structural stra n\breakdown d srupt ve soc al
of soc al order psycholog cal state
movement

2-Resource mob l za ton model:

-Soc al movement develop not from an aggregate r se n d scontent (as n te class cal model), but
from an ncreased level of aval able key resources:
Internal organ zat on: Degree of collect ve dent ty and the dens ty of nternal networks
External support: Capac ty to create preotest events
T lly Resource mob l zat on model:
Collect ve dent ty
(catness)
Internal organ zat on soc al movement
(sol dar ty) (act on repertory)

Dens ty of nternal network

(netness) (K taptak bölüm uzun okumanızı öner r m)

3-Pol t cal process model:

The model shares the bas c assumpt ons of the resource mob l zat on approach but t also cons ders
the level of organ zat on w th n the aggr eved populat on as a cruc al element for ts mob l zat on
-Draws from the resource mob l zat on model, but adds two elements:
1-Pol t cal context of soc al movements: Pol t cal opportun t es and constra nts nfluence the format on
of soc al movement
2-Transformat on of consc ousness: People must collect vely def ne the r s tuat on as unjust n order to
form a soc al movement (cogn t ve l berat on)
-Soc al movement are ncreas ngly seen n a pos t ve l ght

The comperat ve analys s of soc al movement

The pol t cal context of soc al movement
1-Pol t cal opportun ty structure:
What determ nes the extent to wh ch soc al movements obta n Access to dec s on mak ng arenas ?
-Formal nst tut onal structures:
Degree of central zat on: Number of entry po nts and state actors
Seperat on of power: degree of formal Access
Open or closed pol t cal opportun ty structures
-Structure of med a system:
G ven the key mportance of the med a, the pol t cal process approachhas pa d surpr s ngly l ttle
attent on to the structure of the med a system.
Trend toward commerc al med a?
The extent to wh ch soc al movement actors obta n access to the dec s on-mak ng arenas depends not
only on the formal nst tut onal structure, but also on more nformal precond t ons, wh ch ı propose to
call cultural models.
 Cultural models:
-Strateg es that publ c author t es pursue w th regard to soc al movements: Exclus ve
(repress ve,confrontat onal,polar z ng) or ntegrat ve (fac l tat ve,cooperat ve,ass m lat ve) .
These preva l ng strateg es have a long trad t on n a g ven country and they are related to ts
nst tut onal structure. Thus pol t cal author t es n consensus democrac es are rather more
l kely to rely on ntegrat ve strateg es the the r coleagues n major tar an democrac es.
-D scurs ve opportun ty structure
They apply the concept to the mob l zat on by the extreme r ght -a soc al movement that uses an ethn c
-cultural model of c t zensh p and nat onal dent ty to mob l ze aga nst mm grat on n western europe.
Ethn c-cultural models of nat onal dent ty assert that people belong to a nat onal because the r ethn c
or cultural (e.g. l ngu st c or rel g ous) or g n.

2-Conf gurat on of actors:

The next set of var ables refers to the conf gurat ons of actors. From the po nt of v ew of a
mob l z ng soc al movement, th s conf gurat on has three majör components.
-Protagon sts: the conf gurat on of all es(pol cy-makers, publ c author t es, pol t cal part es, nterest
groups, the med a, and related movement)
-Antagon sts: the conf gurat on of adversar es (publ c author t e,repress ve agents, and
counter-movement)
-Bystanders: the not d rectly nvolved, but nevertheless attent ve, aud ence.
What s the set of actors at a g ven po nt n t me? What are the r capab l t es,percept ons and outcome
preferences?
-Pol t cal opportun ty structures partly determ ne the conf gurat on of actors, though the
conf gurat on of actors changes more frequently, e.g. as a result of:
-Chang ng soc o-econom c cond t ons
-New govern ng coal t ons
-Natural catastrophes

3-Interact on context:
The th rd level of analys s concerns the nteract on context. Th s s the level of the mechan sms
l nk ng structures and conf gurat ons to agency and act on, and t s at th s level that the strateg es of
the soc al movement and the r opponents come nto v ew.
G ven the general structuralsett ng (1) and (2): What are the mechn sms wh ch nfluence the
strateg c cho ces of soc al movement?
-The ab l ty to develop effect ve strategy
-Fac l tat on vs.. repress on
-Chances of success vs.. reform\threat
Sayfa 277 box 16.2 kes nl kle bakılmalıdır. :)
Emergence, mob l zat on, and success of soc al movement
Stud es of soc al movement ntend to expla n three aspects:
-Emergence
-Mob l zat on
-Success
The emergence of a soc al movement can be expla ned by the comb nat on of the structural sett ng
and cont ngent events (prec p tat ng factors, suddenly mposed gr evances, exogenous shocks).

The volüme and form of soc al mob l zat on s cond t ıned by:
-The relat ve openness of the pol t cal context: open structures fac l tate soc al mob l zat on
-The congruence between med a frames and movement frames.
Soc al movement do not only ntend to mob l ze successfully. Ult mately, tyey want to have an
mpact on pol t cal dec s on-mak ng or on soc ety at large.
There s one-to-one correspondence between the level of mob l zat on and the pol t cal mpact of a
soc al movement. Aga n, the success of a soc al movement s nfluences by the pol t cal opportun ty
structures.

Conclus on
S nce soc al movement have become mpotant pol t cal actors, t s necessary to ntegrate them n the
comparat ve analys s of the pol t cal process ( .e. to nst tut onal ze them)
Th s can be ach eved by the pol t cal process approach.
Thedency to enlarge the perspect ve beyond soc al movement to the study of content ous pol t cs (also
covers revolut ons and small scale protest). 😊

CHAPTER 17: POLTICAL CULTURE

The concept of pol t cal culture

-Pol t cal culture s a collect ve property anchored n the pol t cal values, att tudes and hab ts of
nd v duals.
-As a collect ve property, pol t cal culture descr bes mass patterns n these nd v dual values,
att tudes and hab ts.
-A key assumpt ons n pol t cal culture research s that types of pol t cal reg mes and types of
pol t cal cultures correspond w th each other:
- Author tar an reg mes correspond w th an author tar an pol t cal culture.
- Democrat c reg mes correspond w th a democrat c pol t cal culture.

Key quest ons

The gu d ng normat ve quest on n pol t cal culture research s wh le value or entat ons hab ts
c t zens must adopt so that democrat c nst tut ons flour sh.
Empr cally, pol t cal culture research stud es cross-nat onal representat ve surveys to f nd out wh ch
soc al, econom c and pol t cal factors shape c v c values and hab ts and maket hem w despread.
The focus s on the mater al and behav oral foundat ons of democracy among the const tuents of
democracy.

Ideals of the democrat c culture

Early research on pol t cal culture dec pted the deal democrat c culture as one dom nated by an
alleg ant type of c t zen.
In l ght of mass ve cultural changes, newer research descr bes the deal democrat c culture as one
dom nated by an express ve type of c t zen.
In an alleg ant democrat c culture, c t zens part c pate n el te-mandat ng pol t cal act v t es but
absta n from el te-challeng ng pol t cal act v es.
Th s pattern s supposed to be healthy for democracy because t rel eves dec s on-mak ng from
constant publ c pressures, so they can concentrate on solv ng problems.
In an express ve democrat c culture, c t zen part c pate more n el te-challeng ng pol t cal act v t es.
Th s pattern s supposed to be healthy for democracy because constant popular pressure force
dec s on-makers to be more accountable.
Cultural Change
Mass ve cultural change throughout mature post- ndustr al democrac es has decreased the
alleg ant character and ncreased the express ve character of democrat c cultures.
Th s transformat on s man fest n a host of mutually nterw ned trends, all of wh ch are l nked to
the r se of self-express on values.
These values have an emanc pat ve mpulse; they emphas ze freedom of express on and equal ty
n th s freedom.

CHAPTER 18: POLITICAL PARTICIPATION

Pol t cal part c pat on establ shes l nks from the mass publ c to the pol t cal el tes. The term to a w de
range of act v t es, nclud ng vot ng n elet ons, donat ng t me or money to pol t cal campa gns,
runn ng for off ce, wr t ng pet t ons, boycott ng, organ z ng n un ons, demostrat ng, carry ng out
llegal s t- ns or occupat ons, blockades an deven pys cal assault on the forces of order.
Pol t cal part c pat on occurs n a var ety of forms:
-vot ng -pet t ons -s t- ns
-donat ng -boycott ng
-runn ng for off ce -organ z ng un ons
Focus s on voluntary part c pat on (though there are examples of forced pol t cal partc pat on).
Cons der that pol t cal part c pat on s costly:
-why s there pol t cal part c pat on?
-why do some people pat c pate wh le others do not?

Modes of pol t cal part c pat on

Typolog es of pol t cal part c pat on have been developed along three d mens on:
1-Where t takes place: Pol t cal part c pat on may take place n d fferent arena sor pol t cal context.
-Publ c places -Commun cat on w th pol cy makers -Involvement n electoral process
2-The ntes ty of part c pat on (t me and resources) var es greatly. Intens ty of nvolvement. At each
s te of pat c pat on, actors dec de about the depth and extent of the r nvolvement.
3-The r sk ness of pol t cal part c pat on. Part c patory act v t es can be d st gu shed n terms of the r
r sk ness to the freedom, l fe and l mb of the part c patory.
-The r sk ness of pat c pat on obv ously depends on the legal and pol t cal reg me n wh ch t occurs.
Sayfa 304 18.1 ve 18.2 tabloları öneml .

Part c pat on s normally not an solated act v ty, but a collect ve act on n the form of :
-Soc al movement: Streams of act v t es that target demands at pol cy-makers through commun ty,
street and med a events as the r pr mary s tes of art culat on are soc al movement.
-Interest group: Act v t es where part c pants ma nly rely on commun cat ng preference, demands
and threats to pol cy-makers s tuated n leg slat ve and execut ve arenas tends to create durable nterest
group.
-Pol t cal part es: Act v t es n wh ch part c pants cooperate n order to nom nate leg slat ve
cand dates, help them attract voters, and organ ze voter turnout n favour of such cand dates amount to
the format on of pol t cal part es.
Part c patory acts typ cally are not d sjo nted events, but happen around soc al movement, nterest
groups or pol t cal part es.
Determ nants of pol t cal part c pat on
Why do people engage n pol t cal part c pat on? What types of actor become nvolved n certa n
types of pol t cal act v ty, but not others? And how do c t zens and pol t c ans choose the r portfol o of
pol t cal nvolvements between soc al movements, nterest group and pol t cal part es?
Pol t cal vs. other types of part c pat on
Pol t cal part c pat on s only one several ways for members of a soc al to further the r l fe
chances. Alternat vely, they may rely on market sor fam l es and communal assoc at ons. Th s g ves a
f rst answer to the quest on of why people part c pate n pol t cs. It s a cho ce of last resort.

There are many to resolve soc al confl cts:

Markets (contractual Exchange)
Fam l es and communal assoc at ons (rec proc ty)
Pol t cs: A cho ce of last resort?
The pradox of collect ve act on:
-Pol t cal part c pat on s a form of contr but ng to collect ve goods. People part c pate n pol t cs to
br ng about author tat ve dec s ons allocat ng goods and bads to large groups. These have the charecter
of collect ve good.
-The free-r der problem (Olson 1965)
Olson subm ts that, nevertheless, pol t cal part c pat on occurs because select ve ncent ves
over-come the free-r der problem. Part c pants n a mob l zat onal effort to produce collect ve goods
rece ve add t onal pr vate benef ts that only accrue to part c pants. If such select ve ncent ves are
suff c ently valuable to outwe gh the costs of part capat on, then pol t cal mob l zat on w ll ocur.
Approaches to overcome the free-r der problem:
-Select ve ncent ves (theoret cally cons stent?)
-D fferent actor’s preferences (altru st c mot vat on)
-Part c pat on as benef t
-Presence of step goods
-Soc al networks (mon tor ng part cpat ons)

Expla n ng pol t cal part c pat on at the macro-level

Reg me types s an mportant determ nant of the nature of pol t cal part c pat on.
-In democrac es
-In author tar an
-ın harshly repress ve despot c reg mes
But also w th n democrac es there s a huge d vers ty n polt cal part c pat on:
-Affulent soc et es >less affluent soc et es
-Moderately author tar an countr es Show an nterest ngly h gh degree of part c pat on (at least n
low r sk act v t es)
-Older democrac es?
D fferences w th n democrac es have to do w th the pol t cal opportun ty structures:
-How easy s t to ncorporate new demands nto the system?
-Mult - or two-party system
Voter turnout
-poorer and more author tar an countr es tend to have much lower turnouts
There are several mportant nst tut onal mechan sms that nfluence aggregate electoral turnout.
-Inst tut onal factors:
-Laws of colpulsory vot ng
-Electoral rules (h gher turnout n PR)
-Reg strat on requ rements
-The t m ng of elect ons s l nked to turnout outs de parl amentary democrac es.
-Concurrent elect ons?
Labour un on membersh p:
In democrac es, labour un ons tend to have more members than other organ zed nterest group. Yet,
membersh p var es dramat cally n t me and space. Four po nts can be made about the cross-nat onal
var ance of labour un on membersh p.
-H gher membersh p n ndustr al zed than n developng countr es.
-Membersh p dependent on reg me type.
-H gh membersh p n commun st and corporat st author tar an reg mes.
-Dur ng de- ndustr al zat on mebersh p ncreased n countr es w th Ghent system.

Pol tcal organ zt ons and mob l zat ons:

Investments n pol t cal organ zat ons can be for organ zat onal nsfrastructure or for the expans on
of object ves nternal confl ct).
The nature o pol t cal stake shapes the organ zat on of pol t cal part c pat on:
-S ngle ssue causes wh ch a m for a one-off d screte dec s on ->soc al movement
-Narrow range of nterest that pers st over t me ->Interest groups
-Complex agendas w th nterdependent ssues ->Pol t cal part es

Expla n ng pol t cal part c pat on at the m cro-level

As the last step, we would l ke to know what sorts of nd v dual select what sorts of pat c patory
act v ty. The cho ce of part c patory paract ces may be governed by both nd v dual tra ts (resources,
capab l tes,att tudes,d spos t ons) and contextual cues that actors glean from the strateg c pol t cal
s tuat on and bas c reg me cond t ons, as d scussed n the prev ous sect on. However, n what follows
we w ll only cons der nd v dula tra ts.
The most mportant nd v dual-level factors can be further d st ngu shed nto four d fferent sets:
1-Resources 2-recu rement 3-or entat ons towards pol t cs and 4-Contextual cues
1-RESOURCES
-T me
-Educat on
-Income
2-ORIENTATIONS:
-Poli cal ideology
3-RECRUITMENT
-Associa onal involvement
-Class and group milieu
-Family, age and gender
4- Contexutal cues
Besides individual traits, contextual factors are important. For example, the role of educa ons is
highly dependent on the overall turnout-level.

CONCLUSION
There are many auspicious research fields in the field of poli cal par cipa on:
-The rela onship between individual traits and contextual factors
-Why do poli cal enterpreneurs opt for different modes of poli cal par cipa on?
-Causes and consequences of the increasing differen a on between modes of poli cal ac on. Why is
there so much and so diverse poli cal ac on?
 CHAPTER 19: POLITICAL COMMUNICATION

INTRODUCTION
Pol t cal commun cat on s an nteract ve process concern ng the transm ss on of nformat on among
pol t c ans, med a, publ c. It operates vert cally and hor zontally.
New Technolog es have merged d verse platforms:
-Interpersonal commun cat on
-W th n-group networks
-Mass commun cat on
The evolut on of pol t cal commun cat on can be d v ded nto three eras: class cal era, modern era,
th rd era.

The log c of comparat ve pol t cal commun cat ons

-There are two d st nct approaches to the comparat ve study of pol t cal commun cat on.
-The older trad t on focused on develop ng and compar ng categor cal typolog es of med a system
analogues to d st ngu sh ng and class fy ng types of reg mes. Th s approach was most common dur ng
the modern era, and t proved useful for del neat ng contrasts n the global landscape of rad o and
telev s on broadcast ng.
-Th s chapter proposed that a more sat sfactory research strategy uses d saggregated nd ces to
compare mult ple d mens ons of contemporary pol t cal commun cat on, such as measures of press
freedom, aud ence access and med a ownersh p and plural sm.
Pol t cal commun cat on s analyzed comparat vely when t contrasts d fferent un ts of med a systems:
networks of channels, programmes and effects, as well as nst tut onal context.

The concept o med a system s however problemat c:

1-Wh ch elements should be ncluded? State, publ c and pr vate ownersh p of newspapers, rad o and
telev s on? Or also on-l ne world?
2-Other elements are neglected: status of journal st c personal zat on.
3-In the current World systems do not correspond to nat onal boundar es any longer are ncreas ngly.

Conceptual typolog es of med a systems

Typolog es serve the purpose of summar z ng a w de range of med a systems.
Three ma n sets of typolog es have been used n the f eld of comparat ve pol t cal commun cat on:
-The cold war models
-Commerc al vs. publ c serv ce broadcast ng
-Modern class f cat ons
Cold war models
S ebert, Peterson and Schramm (1956). Four theor es of the press. The class f cat on uses four
categor es:
-L bertar an med a systems: press as a free market-places (e.g., US).
-Soc ally respons ble med a system: values of the publ c broadcast ng system (e.g., Western Europe)
-Author tar an med a systems: system s under the control of the state (e.g., Egypt)
-Sov et commun st model: med a system s used ma nly for deolog cal propaganda favor ng the
reg me (e.g., Ch na)

Commerc al vs. publ c serv ce broadcast ng

Three ma n sets of typolog es have been used n the f eld of comparat ve pol t cal commun cat on.
 -Market or ented commerc al broadcast ng ndustry (s m lar to the l bertar an model);
-Publ c serv ce model of broadcast ng (s m lar to soc al respons b l ty model);
-M xed or dual systems.
Modern class f cat on
Hall n and Manc n (2004) focus on four d mens on of med a systems: (1) degree of state
ntervent on n the med a systems, (2) extent of pol t cal parallel sm, (3) h stor cal
development of med a markets, (4) extent of journal st c profess onal sm.
Based on these d mens ons they three ma n types o med a systems:
-The l beral model;
-The corporat st model;
-The plural st model.

D saggregated nd ces of pol t cal commun cat on

Alternat ve approach n comparat ve pol t cal commun cat on to the class f cat on of med a systems.
Based on quant tat ve nd ces on a number of nd cators.
Based on s x major components. (muhtemelen çıkacak soru 😊)

Communica on Regulatory Media Journalism Media Media

Infrastructure framework ownership profession contents effects
(supports diverse media (promotes freedom (regulatory policies prevent (strengthens the (reflects a broad (upon
and widens public access) of expression and undue concentra on of skills and capacity diversity of view ci zen knowledge,
protects the independence media ownership and of journalists and and social cultural
media) control) broadcas ng) diversity) a tudes and
beviour)
-The components can be analyzed one by one;
-The components can also be seen sequent ally n a process from most general context to most
spec f c.

Commun cat ons nfrastructure

How d verse, ndependence and plural st c are the med a? How nterconnected are the var ous
elements of the med a system?
The f rst component of the process concerns whether the commun cat ons nfrastructure n any
soc ety has the capac ty to support d verse, ndependence and plural st c med a. Ideally, technolog cal
nfrastructure should max m ze opportun t es for med a d str but on and publ c access, both to
trad t onal med a, nclud ng local, reg onal and nat onal rad o, telev s on, and newspaper and to newer
nformat on and commun cat on technolog es, nclud ng mob le telephones, computers and the
nternet.
-Access to nternet;
-Access to land-l ne and cellular telephones;
-Access to rad o, telev s on and newspaper;
-Access to newspaper
Regulatory env ronment
-There are the pol c es, laws and adm n strat ve dec s ons regulat ng pol t cal commun cat on w th n
each country.
-Ma n nd cators: r ghts ncluded n const tut ons, adopt ng of Freedom of nformat on laws. Also:
Worldw de Press Index (100 po nt scale)
-Countr es around the world vary to a great extent n the regulatory env ronment wh ch allows the
press to act freely.
 Structure of med a ownersh p
Th s components goes beyond the legal env ronment and looks at who owns what part of the med a
system and whether t s n publ c or pr vate hands. D vers ty across countr es s affected by:
-Technolog es of transm ss on,
-Sectors of ownersh p: publ c, pr vate, commun ty;
-Med a outlets;
-Levels of d ssem nat on (supranat onal, nat onal, sub-nat onal);
-Informat on sources;
-Contents;
-Target aud ences.

Capac ty and sk lls of journal sts

An effect ve med a system, ndependent from the pol t cal system, s affected also by the capac ty
and sk lls of journal sts, mean ng:
-Ex stence of Profess onal tra n ng
-Protect on of workforce through counc ls, un ons;
-Mon tor ng of profess onal ethn c standards;
-Ex stence of other organ zat on promot ng freedom of press and assoc at on;
-Pol t cal culture of the journal st c profess on.

Contents of news med a

Med a systems have cruc al roles n democrat c l fe of countr es. Eh ch of these roles are pr v leged,
however, var es from country:
-Watch-dog funct on: scrut ny aga nst corrupt on and maladm n strat on;
-Agenda-setter funct on: ssues, respons veness,
-Advocacy funct on: balanced coverage of op n ons;
-Gate-keep ng funct on: balanced coverage of op n ons
-Hor zontal funct on: commun cat on among c t zens;
-Nat onal forum funct on: bu ld commun ty, learn about own soc ety, foster spec f c values.

Effect of med a coverage

What s the mpact of d fferent med a systems on pol t cal knowledge and cogn t on, cultural att tudes
and values, and pol t cal behav or?
Agenda-sett ng theor es:
Headl ne nform publ c about pol cy agenda.
Fram ng theor es:
Repott ng shapes the context and background of the author t es and nst tut ons.
Pr m ng theor es:
How do we evaluate act ons n pol t cal systems and nst tut ons?

Conclus on
More work needs to be done:
-Clear concept and typolog es;
-Data collect on on var ous components of the med a systems and the var ety across nat ons;
-Go beyond class cal d st nct ons and ncorporate new outlets and channels of commun cat on.
Challenge: keep up peace of technolog cal change.
😊

CHAPTER 20: POLITICY-MAKING

Introduct on

Pol c es: Government statements of what t ntends to do, nclud ng law, regulat on, rul ng, dec s on, or
order(B rkland 2001).
Publ c pol cy : A more spec f c term, wh ch refers to a ser es of act ons carr ed out to solve soc etal
problems(Newton and van Deth 2005).
-Publ c pol c es are the ma n output of the pol t cal system.
By analys s the pol cy-mak ng process, we ga n a fuller understand ng of the causes and consequences
of pol cy dec s ons.

Conceptual models of pol cy-mak ng

There are several complementary models of pol cy-mak ng that clar fy the relat onsh p between
pol t cs and publ c pol c es:
1-Inst tut onal model:
-Publ c pol c es are determ ned by nst tut ons, espec ally the relat onsh p between the execut ve
and the leg slat ve power;
-Publ c pol c es are formulated and mplemented only by the execut ve and the leg slat ve;
-Pol cy-mak ng seen as smooth techn cal process.
2-Rat onal model:
-How can opt mal pol cy dec s ons be reached?
-Assumpt on of rat onal actors;
-Bayes an learn ng;
-Start ng po nt for publ c cho ce\game theory.
3-Incremental model:
-Response to the rat onal model: Concept of bounded rat onal ty;
-L m ted changes to ex st ng pol c es, ncremental pol cy-process;
-No deal, but real st c descr pt on of pol cy-mak ng.
4-Group model:
-Publ c pol c es are the result of an equ l br um reached n nterest group struggle;
-Pol cy-makers are constantly resond ng to group pressure
-Pol cy-changes tr ggered by changes n relat ve strength between nterest-group.
5-El te model:
-Pol cy-mak ng s determ ned by preferences of govern ng el tes;
-El tes shape publ c op n ons.

Analyz ng pol cy-mak ng as a process: The pol cy cycle

What are the ma n character st c of pol cy-mak ng?
Bas cally, three features can be dent f ed. F rst, pol cy-mak ng occurs n presence of mult ple
constra nts, e.g. shortage of t me and resources, publ c op n on, and of course the const tut ons.
Secondly, pol cy- mak ng nvolves the ex stence of var ous pol cy processes. Governments are not
un tary actors but cons st of d fferent departments that overlap and compete w th each other. Th rdly,
these pol cy processes form an nf n te cycle of dec s ons and pol c es. Current pol cy dec s ons are not
ndependent of dec s ons taken before, and pol c es under d scuss on today may have knock on effects
lead ng to further pol c es tomorrow (Newton and van Deth 2010: 266).

Cons der ng the ma n features of pol cy-mak ng:

-Mult ple constra nts
-Vanous pol cy processes
-Inf n te cycle of dec s ons an pol c es

The pol cy cycle (or pol cy process)

The pol cy-process s modeled as a ser es of pol t cal act v t es:

a) Agenda sett ng
b) Pol cy formulat on
c) Pol cy adopt on
d) Implementat on
e) Evaluat on

a-Agenda sett ng:

The dent f cat on of a publ c problem:
- System cally agenda: All soc etal problems that demand publ c attent on
- Act on agenda: Problems that up for ser ous cons derat on of dec s on-mak ng
Agenda sett ng s done by d fferent actors:
- Publ c off c als
- The bureaucracy
- Mass med a
- Interest-groups
- Pol t cal part es and sc ent f c commun t es
Agenda-sett ng s an mportant source of power ->f rst mover advantage
b-Pol cy formulat on:
- The def n t on, d scuss on, acceptance or reject on of feas ble course of act on for cop ng
w th pol cy problems .
- Deals w th the elaborat on of alternat ves of act on.
c-Pol cy adopt on:
- The formal adopt on to take on a pol cy

- Pol cy adopt on s determ ned by a number of factors, of wh ch two are part cularly
mportant:

-The expected costs\benef ts of the pol cy

-Reduct on of the set of feas ble pol c es by the necess ty to bu ld major t es (veto
players)
d-Implementat on:
- The convers on of new laws\programs nto pract ce
 - The black box between pol cy adopt on and pol cy outcomes
- Qual ty of mplematat on depends on
-Pol cy type
-Ava lable resources for mplementat on
-Federal or un tary state
-Role of top bureaucrats (bureaucrat c dr ft)

e-Evaluat on:
- Carr ed out to measure pol cy eff c ency and effect veness.
- Prov des a feedback loop -> powerful tool of pol cy-mak ng process.

AGENDA SETTING The pol cy cycle

EVALUATION POLICY FORMULATION

IMPLEMENTATION POLICY ADOPTING

The mportance of nst tut ons, fram ng, and pol cy styles
The role of nst tut ons:
The ma n nst tut ons are
- Electoral system
- Execut ves and leg slat ves
The relat onsh p between execut ve\leg slat ve s of cruc al mportance n pol cy-mak ng. L jphard
(1999) d ffers between two types of democrat c systems:
- Major tar an systems (fus on of power between execut ve and leg slat ve power)
- Consensus democrac es (shar ng power, balanc ng execut ve and leg slat ve power)
The role of cogn t ve and normat ve frames:
- Cogn t ve frames: Schemes through wh ch actors v ew and nterpret the World.
- Normat ve frames: Values and att tudes that shape actors v ews
Normat ve and cogn t ve frames enable and constra n pol cy-mak ng.
Certa n actors have a pr v leged role n pol cy-mak ng as they generate and d ffuse cogn t ve frames
(med ators or pol cy-mak ng).
Nat onal pol cy styles:
-L ke the pol cy cycle, the concept of pol cy styles also serves as a useful heur st c tool for dent fy ng
common pol cy-mak ng patterns among countr es.
-The ma n dea s that nat ons matter for pol cy-analys s.
-However, emp r cally, there s a remarkable ntra-nat onal var at on of pol cy styles.

There are several typolog es of pol cy styles. Accord ng to Kn ll (1998) nat onal pol cy styles are
def ned by two d mens ons:
1- State ntervent on
 - H erarch cal vs. self-regulat on
- Substant ve vs. procedural regulat on
- Deta led requ rement vs. open regulat ons
2- Adm n strat ve nterest ntermed at on:
- Formal vs. nformal\ leg slat ve vs. pragmat c
- Open vs. closed relat onsh p between adm n strat ve and soc al actors.
Internat onal factors also have an nfluence on domest c pol cy-mak ng.
- Theor es of pol cy d ffus on
-Analys s of the spread of pol c es across pol t cal systems from a general perspect ve
-D ffus on ma nly affects the stage of agenda-sett ng, less pol cy-formulat on
- Theor es of pol cy transfer:
-Analys s of s ngular processes of b lateral pol cy Exchange.
🡪 Governments do not learn randomly about pol cy pract ces, but through, common
aff l at ons, negot at ons and nst tut onal membersh p.
- Pol cy converange:
Any ncrease n the s m lar between one or more character st cs of a certa n pol cy across a
g ven set of pol t cal jur sd ct ons. (Kn ll 2005)

Theor es of pol cy d ffus on and transfer descr be a process that m ght result n pol cy convergence.
S nce nat onal pol cy processes are d fferent, convergence s not necessar ly the case.
Mechan sms beh nd nternal zat on:
1- Impos t on:
External pol t cal actor forces a government to adopt a certa n pol cy
2- Internat onal harmon zat on:
Member states engage voluntar ly n nternat onal cooperat on (negot ated transfer)
3- Regulatory compet t ons:
Homogen zat on as a result of compet t ve pressure (race to the bottom or race to the top)
4- Transnat onal commun cat on:
Mechan sms purely based on commun cat on ( draw ng from ava lable exper ence)

Emp r cal llustrat on:

- Pol cy d ffus on:
-Cl mate pol cy nstrument (e.g. em ss on trad ng systems) ma nly through nternat onal
harmon zat on.
- Pol cy transfer:
-CEECs refugees pol c es through mpos t on by EU
- Pol cy-convergence:
-Env ronmental pol c es, ma nly dr ven by transnat onal commun cat on.

CONCLUSION
Pol cy-mak ng s complex. Therefore, the f rst approaches to understand ng how pol c es come
about were the called conceptual models. They focus on d fferent al aspects of the pol cy-mak ng
process and pr mar ly deal w th ssues about the actors power resources and rat onal ty. Wh le these
models certa nly draw attent on to cruc al aspects of pol cy-mak ng, they fall short of prov d ng
complete explanat ons. 😊

CHAPTER 21: WELFARE STATE

INTRODUCTION

The welfare state represents the s ngle most mportant transformat on of advanced cap tal st
democrac es after the Second World War.
The modern welfare state s the product of the nterplay between pol t cal equal ty (democracy) and
econom c nequal ty (cap tal sm).
CP tr es to expla n the emergence, growth, and consequences of welfare states, but also addresses
fundamental ssues of soc al just ce and the good soc ety.

What s the welfare state?

What do we mean when we talk about the welfare state?
Harold l. W lensky descr bed the essence of the welfare state as government-protected m n mum
standards of ncome, nutr t on, health, hous ng and educat on, assured to every c t zen as a pol t cal
r ght, not char ty.
Most pol t cal sc ent st tend to th nk along the state-centr c l nes that W lensky advocated and agree
that soc al pol cy must be seen as l nes of state act on to reduce ncome nsecur ty and to prov de
m n mum standards of ncome and serv ces and thus to reduce n equal t es.
-State-centered def n t on of welfare states focused solely on how much a state was spend ng.
-Today, there s a more encompass ng perspect ve on the welfare state:
- What s the Money spent on?
- What are the effects on d str but on?
- What other soc al nst tut ons are mportant?
-State,fam ly and markets are all welfare prov ders. Hence we speak of a welfare reg me.
-The welfare reg me s a complex system of manag ng soc al r sks.
BOX 21.1 MARSHALL’S THREE ELEMENTS OF CITIZENSHIP. IT IS IMPORTANT.

THE EMERGENCE OF THE WELFARE STATE?

Three theoret cal perspect ve can be dent f ed

(1) Funct onal st approach
(2) Class mob l zat on approach
(3) State nst tut on and bureaucracy

1-Func onal st approach:

The welfare state s an answer to problems created by cap tal st ndustr al zat on: funct onal st
theor es see the welfare as an answer to new c t zen needs that emergence w th the d sappearance of
trad t onal means of subs stence and trad t onal bonds of mutual ass stance and w th the new r sks of
modern, urban zed and ndustr al zed soc ety: ndustr al acc dents, cycl cal unemployment the nab l ty
to ga n one’s own l v ng due to s ckness or old age the health r sks n the new urban agglomerat ons.
- The welfare state s an answer to problems created by cap tal sm.
-New r sks of ndustr al zat on (e.g. unemployment)
-Van sh ng of trad t onal means of subs stence\mutual ass stance
2-Class mob l zat on approach:
- The welfare state s the outcome of pol t cal struggles between soc al classes and the r pol t cal
organ zat on:
-The ma n pol t cal dr v ng force was the labor movement
-The a m was the decommod f cat on of labor.
3-Inst tut onal approach:
-The welfare state s a central element n modern nat on-state bu ld ng
-It was a compensat on to workers fort he lack of part c patory r ghts.
-Early welfare programmes were not always targeted at workers but often at other classes of
r sk (e.g. mothers,sold ers)
-No d rect emp r cal connect on between econom c well-be ng, democrat zat on and
development of welfare system.

The expans on of the welfare state

A.) The mpact of soc al democracy:

-The mere presence of democrat c structure could not expla n the growth of the welfare
state suff c ently. Therefore, the explanatory mportance of party pol t cs was analyzed.
-Emp r cal analys s nd cated that decommod f cat on was strongest where left part es were
strong (soc al democrat c rule), espec ally when supported by strong un on movements.
-A developed welfare state was nterpreted as ev dence for a sh ft n the balance of power n
favor of the work ng class and soc al democracy.

B.)The role neo-corporat sm and the nternat onal economy:

-The pol t cal mpact of the left part es and the development of welfare states were only strong
n countr es w th neo-corporat st structures (Katzenste n 1985).
-Neo-corporat st structures could predom nantly be found n small open econom es. Th s
fac l tated consensus-bu ld ng and econom c adjustments wh ch mproved nternat onal
compet t veness.
Cr t c sm to the soc al democrat c argument:

C.)R sk red str but on:

-The task of teh welfare state s not only the red str but on of wealth but a broader reallocat on of
r sk (the work ng class s not the only r sk category)

D.)Chr st an democracy :
-Some countr es developed a strong welfare state w thout a strong soc al democrat c labor
movement. Welfare programmes were also promoted by pol t cal Cathol c sm (Chr st an democrats).
Cr t c sm to the soc al democrat c argument (cont nued)
E.)Secular trends:
-The growth of the welfare state s also nfluences by secular processes beyond the control of s ngle
pol t cal actors (demograph c age ng, de- ndustr al zat on etc.)

Var at on among developed states

D mens on of var at ons among welfare states:
-Taxed vs. contr but on f nanced
-Protect on of c t zen vs. protect on of workers
-Acqu res r ght vs. need based
-M n mum standard vs. standard of l v ng
The most nfluent al typology of welfare states was developed by Esp ng-Andersen (1990)
(1) Anglo-Saxon l beral model:
-Low and flat rate benef ts
-Tax-f nanced
-Low publ c spend ng and soc al protect on
-Based on c t zen status
(2) Scand nav an soc al democrat c model:
-More generous benef ts
-Tax-f nanced
-H gh levels of publ c spend ng
-Based on c t zen status
(3) Cont nental conservat ve reg mes:
-Benef ts n relat on to l v ng standard
-Contr but on f nanced
-Based on employment status
Esp ng-Andersen based h s categor zat on on the ndex of decommod f cat on.
Some add t onal categor es have been added to th s typology, namely the Southern-European and the
Austral an welfare reg me types.

The effects of the welfare state

Does a welfare state:
-Mod fy soc al nequal ty?
-Allev ate poverty?
-Reduce soc al r sk?
-Have vary ng consequences for soc al strat f cat on? (class,gender,ethn c ty)

🡪The welfare state s tself a system of soc al strat f cat on. It can counter reproduce or re nforce
soc al nequal t es (class,gender,ethn c ty)
Red str but on ≠ More equal ty

What prov des more equal ty?

- Target ng (L beral welfare states)
- Un versal sm (soc al democrat c welfare states)
🡪The paradox of d str but on: The more benef ts are targeted exclus vely at the poor and the more
publ c pol c es are dev sed to create equal ty v a equal transfers to all, the less l kely nequal ty s
reduced.
Emp r cal research shows that un versal sm s more successful n reduc ng nequal ty than target ng.
Inequal ty s measured n terms of ncome and therefore predom nantly addresses the class aspect. But
the mpact of the welfare state s d fferent for men and women.(gender aspect)
Welfare states also contr buted to macro-econom c eff c ency(e.g. ncreas ng supply of female labour).

The challenges and dynam cs of contemporary welfare state

Does global zat on result n a downward movement for welfare states?
(1) Eff c ency hypothes s
The h gh levels of soc al welfare are unsusta nable.
(2) Compensat on hypothes s:
Welfare states are a compensat on fort he r sks of econom c openness.

In sp te of global zat on, OECD countr es have been able to ma nta n h gh levels of welfare.
But why can welfare states pers st n the era of global zat on?

- Welfare state reforms are pol t cally dangerous and nduce pol t cal backlash
- Welfare programmes became nst tut onal zed and a poss ble new veto player.
- New challenges create new demand for welfare programmes:
-Welfare states are an express on of modern zat on
-Welfare states st ll play a central role n soc al ntegrat on and nat on bu ld ng.

The chang ng welfare state:

P erson(2001) dent f ed three d mens on of welfare state change:
(1) Recommod f cat on:
Increased pressure to part c pate n labor markets(l beral reg mes)
(2) Cost conta nment:
Attempt to keep balanced budgets (Soc al democrat c reg mes)
(3) Recal brat on:
Adapt on of welfare state to new demands (conservat ve reg mes)